Elephants from the Ishasha area in Uganda’s Queen Elizabeth National Park are now again crossing into neighbouring Virunga National Park (DR Congo)
Some 580 elephants have taken everyone by surprise by moving between Queen Elizabeth National Park (Uganda) and the savanna area in neighbouring Virunga National Park (DR Congo).
At the start of this year, Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo was home to just over 100 African bush elephants (savanna elephants – Loxodonta africana). Over the past thirty years, their numbers had been decimated from some 8,000 in 1980 to around 500 in 2015 and 120 by the start of 2020. Internal conflict in the region has fuelled poaching by rebel militia groups and made the work of the dedicated park staff and conservationists both vastly challenging and exceptionally dangerous. And so this latest development of significant conservation importance.
Virunga National Park, as Africa’s oldest national park, covers some 7,700km2 (nearly 800,000 hectares) and is a recognised UNESCO World Heritage Site due to its exceptional variety of habitats and biodiversity. The long, narrow park lies on the eastern boundary of the Democratic Republic of Congo and is perhaps most well-known for the extensive gorilla conservation efforts in the forested portions of the park.
Elephants in the Ishasha River, which is the border between Uganda and DR Congo
As with most parks throughout Africa, COVID-19 has placed Virunga under severe strain without any revenue from visiting tourists and both poaching incidents and attacks on park staff and civilians have increased. April 2020 saw one of the deadliest attacks in recent history when rebel militia killed four civilians and 13 staff members. Emergency funding from UNESCO and other organisations helped park officials erect walls and hire armed protection. The park also reached out to surrounding communities to help with providing security and economic support.
While still dealing with the aftermath of the tragic incident, park officials were stunned when 580 elephants entered the park in July. While in the past it was common for small herds to move between Queen Elizabeth National Park and Virunga, years of conflict had deterred most of their natural movements, and the return of such large numbers is unprecedented.
In the absence of elephants and other large herbivores, alien plant life was running rampant in the savanna regions of the park. However, according to Virunga officials, the bolstered elephant population has begun to reshape the landscape far sooner than anyone could have expected, restoring the habitat to grassland savanna.
Perhaps even more astoundingly, in just seven months, the return of the elephants and their subsequent impact on the habitat has prompted the return of other iconic mammals including buffalo, Ugandan kob, warthog and topi. The first lions were also seen in the region for the first time in nearly two decades.
The arrival of the elephants in Virunga is testament to the dedication of park authorities and conservationists under exceedingly trying conditions. It also means that they now have their work cut out for them in ensuring the safety of the new arrivals, as well as assuming responsibility for supporting neighbouring communities.
The director of Virunga National Park, Emmanuel De Merode, said, “The return of large elephant herds to Virunga is the outcome of decades of extraordinary efforts on the part of Congo’s park rangers. Considerable work remains to ensure that the park makes a significant contribution to the wellbeing of the local community.”
Elephants in Virunga National Park
Those wanting to support the park can do so through donations to the Virunga Fund, a joint effort between Virunga National Park, Global Wildlife Conservation, Emerson Collective, the European Commission and Leonardo DiCaprio. Funds will go towards law enforcement and security efforts in the park to protect both the wildlife and the people, as well as to the families of the rangers who have lost their lives in the line of duty.
Exploitative leadership is famously common in human societies, particularly in conflict situations where most members of society pay the price of warfare or conflict while self-serving leaders profit in some way. Now researchers have shown that female banded mongooses will lead their groups into deliberate conflict with rival groups to increase their chances of mating with unrelated individuals, often to the detriment of the males of the group.
Banded mongooses (Mungos mungo) are extremely social and live in groups of around 20 adult members which forage and sleep together as well as cooperating to defend and raise offspring. It is unusual for a banded mongoose to leave their natal groups (around 85% spent the duration of their lives in the same group in this particular study). If this does occur, same-sex groups may either be forcibly expelled or leave voluntarily. These groups, where the ratio of males to females is typically relatively high, are strictly territorial and are intolerant to invasions of rival neighbouring groups. Encounters between different groups are common and always aggressive, culminating in physical fights and occasional mortalities.
A research team from the University of Cambridge and the University of Exeter analyzed data from 10 to 12 groups of banded mongooses in Queen Elizabeth National Park in Uganda that had been consistently monitored from 2000 until 2019. This included nearly 600 records of intergroup conflict between different groups, marked by conspicuous calling, chasing, and fighting which can extend for up to an hour, with most resulting in a clear “winner”. For 539 of these observed mongoose battles, the researchers knew the oestrus states of the females within the groups.
As cooperative breeders, the oestrus cycles of female banded mongooses within a group are synchronized, and multiple females will give birth on the same day, in the same underground burrow. When they become sexually receptive, the males of the group become extremely protective and follow the females “nose-to-tail” throughout the day. What the researchers observed was that the females used this state of absolute distraction in the males to incite conflict with a rival group and, during the chaos and confusion, used the opportunity to mate with males from the rival group.
For the males of the group, this particular tendency came at a high cost, with disproportionately high conflict-related mortality rates recorded for male banded mongooses when they are forced into conflict situations against their own best interests. For the females, it presents the opportunity to gain genetic benefits in mating with unrelated individuals. Rather than following a “heroic” leadership model, the female mongooses demonstrate “exploitative” leadership that confers a benefit that they might otherwise be unable to attain while avoiding participating in the fights themselves and exposing the rest of the group to unnecessary risk.
The study also compared these results with conflict and conflict-related mortalities within meerkats, which, while also social, are typically dominated by an alpha female who is generally unrelated to her mate. Here researchers observed that without an incentive, the female showed no inclinations towards inciting encounters with rival groups. Instead, the female would typically exert her dominance to avoid encounters.
While these banded mongoose “wars” may be far removed from human reality, researchers believe that this study may go some way towards explaining the extremely destructive nature of our conflicts as a species. The model elucidated by the authors shows that this inequality (with some individuals in a group benefitting to the detriment of others) may favour the evolution of increased aggression during conflicts with rival groups. Though they do acknowledge that many factors may have shaped our violent encounters, they suggest that investigating how and when our “leaders” became removed from the costs of the violence they incite would be extremely valuable to understanding our own history.
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It’s time. To stop treating elephants as political COLLATERAL for ideological campaigns. If you believe the extreme FRINGE of the vocal animal rights lobbies, then elephants were ‘there’ first and so humans must leave Africa’s rural areas. And the whining FRINGE of the trophy hunting industry will tell you that elephants are ecosystem destroyers that should be taken out in large numbers. Then there are the politicians, who hope that by trumpeting dramatic elephant-related announcements from the podium they will earn the popular vote. Of course, there is a thread of truth in all these sweeping statements – we all know that a good lie includes elements of the truth. My point is this: elephants are sentient creatures that should, by default, have our respect. They are also essential roleplayers in Africa’s ever-changing ecosystems, big drawcards for the mighty tourism Dollar and spiritual totems for many of Africa’s people. Elephants are both nuanced and hard-core in their impact on Africa’s people and on our reducing wild areas, and only science and Africa’s people can make the best decisions about them. So, the next time some evangelising lunatic tries to sell you an alternative lens through which to view elephants, walk away. Just walk away.
First up below, learn about Hwange and why it is such an iconic safari destination. This vast, ancient ecosystem has survived many generations of meddling humans and still offers an epic safari experience. GO THERE.
Our second story may only involve 39 parrots, but it does represent years of hard work in overcoming senseless political barriers related to returning wild-caught birds to their home ranges. SUCCESS at last – well done to all involved!
Our last story below covers a BEAUTIFULLY filmed documentary about one of the biggest issues facing our wildlife and our people. The production team is one of the most passionate, most talented in this space. Please read this interview and watch the doccie trailer.
HEADS-UP
Finally, my team and I are extremely excited about what will be coming your way early in 2021. I am just putting it out there that in a few months we will challenge you (yes, YOU) to join us on a long-term mission to make a real difference on the ground here in Africa. Stand by.
Story 2 https://africageographic.com/stories/hwange-2/
SAFARI PARADISE: Zimbabwe’s oldest and largest national park, Hwange is a safari paradise that hosts large populations of elephants, lions and wild dogs
The ever-increasing human population has made human-wildlife conflict one of the greatest threats facing wildlife and conservation areas in Africa. It also gravely affects the livelihoods and safety of people every day.
Through the years, conservation has focused on the preservation of untouched wilderness. Not long ago, the greatest prize for conservationists was to gain protected status for an area and then establish rigorously controlled boundaries around these important places – with the focus always on the protection of the species that live within these areas.
However, over the years, conservation has changed profoundly, and those involved in the field have come to realise that protecting an area in isolation is not enough – one has to focus on a much bigger picture. Modern conservation must take the surrounding communities into consideration and factor in human/wildlife interactions.
Produced by South African filmmakers Black Bean Productions, The Edge of Existence tells the story of human-wildlife conflict on the western boundary of the Singita Grumeti concession in Tanzania, the trailer for which can be viewed here.
Africa Geographic spoke to James Suter, a Co-Founder of Black Bean Productions and one of the directors of The Edge of Existence.
1. What are your reasons for producing The Edge of Existence and what change and action do you hope to come from it?
We set out to document and uncover the untold story of human-wildlife conflict in Africa. This issue is becoming a serious threat to wildlife and conservation areas due to the increasing population and pressures on wilderness areas.
It also affects the livelihood of many people daily. It is an issue without a simple answer. The documentary aims to tell the story of key characters on the ground, who face daily challenges in terms of living alongside Africa’s wildlife. We show the true meaning of conflict with wildlife from the perspective of those most affected by it and hear their point of view on this topic.
We hope to educate individuals around the world on what is happening – in many areas this problem is now reaching crisis level, and we hope the documentary will help to uncover solutions, connect communities, conservation authorities, and government.
What happens after the documentary is hugely important to us as a team – we want to see positive steps are taken that promote the co-existence of humans and wildlife not just in Africa, but around the world.
A member of the Grumeti Fund Anti-Poaching Unit collects and stores old wire snares. These are extremely dangerous and can be difficult to find in the wild as they are so easy to conceal. Snares do not discriminate and can cause irreversible damage to animals that were not the original target of the poachers.
2. How did you come to choose to focus on the Serengeti ecosystem?
We are focusing only on one area – but this is truly a microcosm of what is happening in Africa as a whole, as well as many other parts of the world. We had worked closely with the Grumeti Fund for several years before starting work on the documentary, and we were able to see first-hand how human-wildlife conflict is impacting wildlife and people in this area.
Throughout the documentary, we follow the Grumeti Fund, navigating through the challenges of human-wildlife conflict as they work to find solutions that enable people and wildlife to co-exist peacefully.
3. Do you believe enough education and awareness is being created in the communities in terms of the importance of why wildlife needs to be protected, and the vital role people play in their protection?
Conservation used to be about keeping the communities out and protecting the wildlife within. However, conservationists now understand that communities are essential if you want a conservation model to work.
Without the buy-in from people, conservation does not work – community members need to benefit from conservation too. We must consider the communities living in such close proximity to wildlife and understand the daily challenges they face while working to protect the wildlife that is impacted by communities encroaching on wilderness areas.
Conservation is not sustainable unless we find workable solutions to human-wildlife conflict that can support the communities affected. In this ecosystem, there is a focus on educating the youth about protecting the natural world and understanding the value of these resources. There needs to be more of this happening around the world, so that the next generation grows up with these values. Having said this, I can sympathise with someone who finds it difficult to see the value of an animal, if that animal has caused so much hardship and that individual has never directly received any benefits from the presence of that animal.
4. While filming, you experienced the consequences of human-wildlife conflict first-hand, both in terms of the loss of human and animal life. Witnessing that suffering and loss, how have your views on the topic changed, and how do you hope your audiences’ views will change?
This is something that inspired us to share this story. There is an entirely different perspective to the human-wildlife conflict that people are not always aware of. We have spent several years documenting human-wildlife conflict in the Serengeti, and a huge part of this was documenting the impact this conflict has on human lives.
We’ve seen families lose loved ones, parents witnessing their children being injured or killed by wild animals, and farmers who in a single night have lost their entire crop due to elephants. In an area as remote as the Serengeti, a farmer losing his crops can have devastating impacts that last for years.
The Grumeti Fund Law Enforcement’s Anti-Poaching Unit arrests a young man from a local community who has been caught poaching within the Grumeti Concession.
The other side of this, of course, is that as a result of retaliation and the conflict caused by communities living in such close proximity to wildlife, we are witnessing endangered animals being pushed to the brink of extinction. Experiencing this conflict first-hand affirmed our belief that the only way to ensure conservation efforts are successful and sustainable is to ensure these efforts look at the whole picture and include communities.
Our hope in sharing this film is that people will realise that human-wildlife conflict is not a black and white issue. This issue is far more complex and really requires us to look at conservation from a holistic point of view as well as the need to act now.
5. Elephants seem to have the biggest impact on the community’s livelihood in the Grumeti region- do you think there is a solution to the devastation that they cause, and why should people want to protect them when they are not benefitting from their presence?
While every situation requires a different set of mitigation tactics, in the western Serengeti the construction of a fence is the most recent solution to be implemented, effectively separating human areas and wild spaces without impacting on the natural movement patterns of wildlife. In Kenya, fencing has been proven to be the most effective solution to keep elephants out of community areas. The communities we spoke to in Tanzania feel this solution needs to be considered. By reducing conflict between elephants and people, community members may be more inclined to see value in protecting natural resources as long as they benefit as a community.
Fencing is expensive, and the kilometres are vast. We have partnered with the Grumeti Fund in Tanzania, and together we have launched an initiative to raise funds to put up a fence to protect communities living on the edge of a human/wildlife conflict hotspot on the western corridor of the Serengeti.
A group on men from the local village have gathered in anticipation of a retaliation attack against a predator which has entered their village.
6. Given the drastic effects it could have on the annual migration, what is your view on erecting an electric fence as a more permanent and effective solution in mitigating human-wildlife conflict?
Electric fences have been proven to be an effective measure to mitigate conflict in Africa, especially with regards to elephants. Elephants are the main culprits when it comes to HWC on the continent. Creating a permanent buffer between wildlife areas and communities does make sense, particularly where there are high incident rates of conflict and large populations of people living close to areas where wildlife populations thrive.
When considering fencing in the Serengeti ecosystem, one needs to consider several factors. What we have learnt is that in an ecosystem with migrating animals, you can’t just erect a fence anywhere. Fencing needs to be strategically placed and work as a buffer in high conflict areas, without restricting the movement of migratory species.
Fences also need to be semi-porous and allow for free movement of some animals but keep larger animals like elephants out of community areas. Typically, these fences are low structures, with electrified tendrils that point towards the reserve or wildlife area.
Again, one needs to be cognizant of the movement of animals and limit the negative impact on migrating animals. We have observed that while it does happen, herds will avoid areas of large populations of people as much as possible and historically move past these populated areas. If fences are strategically placed, this should allow for free movement of these herds and limit the negative impact on migrating herds, while protecting people in high-risk communities. There will however always be an impact when erecting a fence in a natural system, one just needs to find a balance.
7. What are your fears if we do not find a balance between people and wildlife?
We fear that the conflict between humans and wildlife will reach a breaking point. Human-wildlife conflict interrupts the conservation of animals in the natural habitats, it threatens the survival of wildlife in these areas, and it also has an enormous impact on local communities.
Black Bean Productions has partnered with the Grumeti Fund in Tanzania and together they have launched an initiative to raise funds to put up a fence to protect communities living on the edge of a human/wildlife conflict hotspot on the western corridor of the Serengeti.
The public can contribute towards a metre, or more, of this necessary fence – which is already under construction. For those interested in donating, a donate button can be found on the Black Bean Productions website, with an option to choose how many meters of fencing to pay for to support this project.
The Edge of Existence was lined up for several South African and international film festivals, but all of these have been placed on hold as the world lives through the lockdown. Black Bean Productions is currently negotiating with broadcasters to buy and flight the documentary, both in South Africa and internationally.
On the very fringes of the Kalahari Desert lies Hwange – Zimbabwe’s oldest and largest national park – crisscrossed by fossil riverbeds that bear testament to a time when water was abundant, and mudflats, swamps and forests thrived. These ancient rivers dried up many thousands of years ago, leaving the landscape, as well as its plant and animal life, at the mercy of the seasonal rains. The resultant collision of geography and climate has fostered a wilderness that transforms from desiccated dust bowl to verdant oasis every year. Every year, through the seasons, the doyenne of Zimbabwe’s parks has treated her visitors to truly magical moments of pure, untamed Africa.
The national park
Hwange National Park is situated in the north-western corner of Zimbabwe on the main road between Bulawayo and Victoria Falls, bordering Botswana. The 14,651km2 (1.46 million hectares) unfenced park is part of the greater Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area that centres around the confluence of the Zambezi and Chobe Rivers and includes protected areas of Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Angola.
Once a royal hunting area for Mzilikazi, the Mthwakazi king, Hwange’s shallow soils and scarce water resources made it unsuitable for agriculture. In 1928, Wankie Game Reserve (a colonial mispronunciation later rectified) was gazetted for the conservation of wildlife. By then, historical records suggest that the park was mostly devoid of wildlife due to the rampant hunting habits of early colonialists. However, the scarcity of water resources would also have played a significant role. The first warden of Hwange National Park, Ted Davison, set out to remedy this through the creation of many artificial water points, using boreholes to access the area’s underground water supply. With ready access to permanent water and concerted conservation efforts, the animal populations flourished.
The park can be roughly divided into seven main areas, with three national park camps at Main camp, Sinamatella and Robins Camp. Many of these areas include private concessions where specific lodges have exclusive use:
Main Camp area: one of the busiest areas in the park which serves as the park’s maintenance headquarters, Main Camp area also has several fossil riverbeds and pans (both pumped and natural), as well as the Mtoa ruins.
Sinamatella area: situated in the less arid, northern part of the park and interspersed by small seasonal rivers, Sinamatella was declared an Intensive Rhino Protection Zone in the 1990s to safeguard the region’s remaining black rhino population. Sinamatella Camp serves as one of the Park’s administrative bases.
Robins Camp area: situated right on the northern boundary of the park, dominated by plains and rugged basalt and granite outcrops, as well as the Deka River and many pans. The Robins Camp area is also close to the Deteema petrified forest where visitors can explore the rock-solid and ancient chunks of silicified wood.
Linkwasha concession area: a private concession in the south-eastern corner of the park, exclusively utilized by guests of private camps and inaccessible to self-drive visitors.
Dzivanini wilderness area: this remote and wild region of the park situated is situated in the southern section of the park.
Shakwanki wilderness area: one of the quieter regions of Hwange, Swakwanki is named for one of the main pans, in reference to the ear-like shape of the pan.
Tsamhole wilderness area: situated on the western boundary of the park, Tsamhole is home to Reedbuck vlei, a natural spring that serves as the source of the Deka River.
The southern and western parts of the park consist primarily of thick layers of Kalahari sand and ancient sand dunes largely dominated by xerophile vegetation (tolerant of dry conditions). The Kalahari sandveld, dry acacia forests and mopane woodlands give way to large open plains dotted by vleis and salt pans and, further east, stands of Zambian teak.
Surrounding the national park are several private concessions, many of which allow trophy hunting.
Thirsty elephants
Hwange National Park is famous for its enormous elephant numbers, boasting the second largest population in Africa after Chobe in Botswana. There are no permanent natural water sources in Hwange, and it is highly likely that historically during the dry winter months, the elephants would have migrated out of the area, returning only with the rain and revitalization of the plant life. However, the installation of 60 artificial pans changed everything by providing permanent water all year round, and so the elephant population grew. And grew and grew. Even following large culling operations in the 1980s and disastrous drought in the mid-2000s, the elephant population increased from around 13,000 in 1986 to what is believed to be over 30,000 today (a 2019 game count yielded a population of over 40,000).
For conservationists, this means shouldering the responsibility of providing sufficient water to support these numbers through diesel, wind, and solar-powered water pumps, which, naturally, come at a cost. However, for visitors, the sizeable population means that a trip to Hwange is guaranteed to be shaped by memorable encounters with one of Africa’s most captivating creatures, often in “super herds” of hundreds of elephants.
Other wildlife
While elephants may be front and centre of the Hwange experience, this is not to say that other wildlife sightings inevitably take a backseat. Despite rumours to the contrary, recent game counts confirm that Hwange National Park is still home to healthy populations of buffalo, zebra, antelope species, spotted hyenas, painted wolves (African wild dogs) and lions, with the park being considered a Lion Conservation Unit by the IUCN. Encounters with cheetah, leopard, aardwolf, aardvark, and roan and sable antelopes are also a relatively regular occurrence. Unfortunately, despite concerted anti-poaching efforts, the black and white rhino numbers have been decimated, with only a handful of black rhinos alive today and no surviving white rhinos.
While the best wildlife viewing is to be had during the dry winter months, the rain of summer transforms Hwange National Park into a birder’s paradise as the year’s migrants return. Thanks to the variety of available habitats, there are over 400 recorded bird species. The pans attract hundreds of waders of every size and long-limbed secretary birds pick their way through the grasslands, showing off their ostentatious feathery crests. The park is home to large numbers of Bradfield hornbills. Keen birders should keep their eyes peeled for great painted snipes, the adorable pygmy geese, dwarf bitterns, Dickinson’s kestrels, black-chested prinias, Arnot’s chats, and, for the extremely fortunate, the yellow form of the crimson-breasted shrike.
The experience
With its relatively well-maintained road network, a self-drive exploration of Hwange is entirely possible – with picnic sites, hides and viewing platforms provide the ideal vantage points to observe the thrum of life around them. For the intrepid explorers, a multitude of campsites, many of which are close to water points, offer visitors budget accommodation options and a truly immersive wild experience. It is worth remembering that this inevitably involves exposure to the elements and, while dry season wildlife viewing is the best, the nights can be bitterly cold, and frost is not uncommon.
Naturally, a stay in one of the more luxurious lodges in an exclusive concession will add an entirely different level of luxury. Not much can top kicking back to watch a line of thirsty elephants arriving for a sneaky drink from the lodge swimming pool or sitting next to a fire under the stars, listening to the distant rumblings of roaring lions. Those tired of the seated approach to safari will also be able to embrace the opportunity to explore Hwange’s great wilderness on foot.
By Lwiro Primate Rehabilitation Center/World Parrot Trust
39 African grey parrots were released on November 18th 2020 by Vice Governor of Sud Kivu Province Marc Malago and Director and Site Manager of Kahuzi-Biéga National Park De-Dieu Byaombe in Sud Kivu Province in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The first of its kind in the region, this project marks an important step towards permanently ending the wildlife trade for this imperilled species, threatened by decades of unsustainable trade.
The grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) were confiscated by government officials in Sud Kivu and Maniema Provinces and taken to Lwiro Primate Rehabilitation Centre. A rescue centre run by three partners: Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature ICCN + Centre de Recherches en Science Naturelles + CSRN and a team of international NGOs. When seized, many of the parrots were in poor condition, with wing feathers cut to prevent them from flying. Although Lwiro is foremost a primate rescue centre, with the support of international groups, they were able to build new facilities and provide high-quality veterinary care for the birds. Over many months the parrots were able to rebuild their strength to prepare them for their return to the wild.
“This is an important landmark in the fight to end the illegal trade in endangered wildlife in the DRC,” said Itsaso Vélez del Burgo, Technical Director of Lwiro sanctuary. “The efforts of the DRC government are commendable, and we are very pleased they are taking this strong stand on behalf of wildlife.” Velez added, “collaboration has been critical to the success of this project, and we are deeply grateful to our partners, our core partner Ivan Carter Wildlife Conservation Alliance and the World Parrot Trust who have supported this initiative financially and technically from the outset.”
The international trade in African Grey parrots has caused wild populations to plummet threatening the species with extinction. The DRC has historically been one of the primary sources of grey parrots for the international market where they are sold as pets or used on breeding farms. They are highly vulnerable to over-exploitation as they breed slowly in the wild, and populations are unable to replenish.
“This effort sends a strong message of hope that the challenges facing these birds can be overcome. It’s the sort of good news that we all need to hear right now” said Dr Rowan Martin, Director of the World Parrot Trust’s Africa programme. “We’re thrilled with the commitment being shown by the authorities to ending the trade. This shows what is possible.”
In 2017, governments around the world voted overwhelmingly to end the international trade of the species because of concerns about declining populations driven by international trade. They were transferred to Appendix I, the highest level of protection available under CITES, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. The ban prohibits trade in wild birds although trade in captive-bred parrots is still permitted under certain conditions. Before the ban, over 1.2 million wild African grey parrots have been trapped and exported from Africa. Research conducted in Maniema province showed a surge in trapping in the early 2010s, but recent reports suggest trapping has declined dramatically following sensitisation campaigns and enforcement efforts.
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Big elephant bulls are magnificent beasts – my favourite encounter while on foot. They are also running out of space, as two of our stories below will attest to.
After having been harassed and moved from reserve to reserve, Riff Raff the large ‘problem-causing’ elephant bull has been shot and killed. He RAN OUT OF SPACE, and his various human caretakers ran out of patience. This is a tragic story that is set to repeat itself in South Africa where many fenced reserves are home to maturing elephant bulls that will try to do what they are hard-coded to do – find new pastures and spread their genes.
Our third story below is a huge reality check. We are witnessing IN OUR TIME the systemic collapse of eco-system components due to climate change, and the impact on the many species that live in those ecosystems will be severe. Elephants are the subject matter of this important research, but what about the myriad of other species that also depend on forest fruit?
OK, that’s the two bad news stories out of the way. To counter the negative space we all live in right now, why not download some African BUSH SOUNDSCAPES and allow peace and calmness to wash over you? Here is a sample soundscape and here is the shop to buy your own. A portion of the proceeds goes to Conservation South Luangwa and Elephants Alive.
Our natural history story this week is about chacma baboons – those TOUGH-AS-TEAK fellow primates that are the subject of many an amusing tale in Africa where they flourish in all spaces – wild and human-infested.
Finally, we present the second gallery by our reigning Photographer of the Year. Jens Cullmann’s images make me FEEL ALIVE, and I hope that you too enjoy his work. And remember that our 2021 Photographer of the Year starts on 1 January – stand by for more announcements. The prizes will be exceptional …
When Jens Cullmann was notified that he had earned the title 2020 Photographer of the Year, he contacted us to find out why his image was selected above the hundreds of other superb images that made it to the final rounds of judging, many of which gave him ‘picture envy’.
Some images not only tell a story and invoke emotion, but they also speak of the photographer’s journey to secure that particular image – the back story. In Jen’s case, he spent months in Mana Pools during the sweltering peak of the dry season, when the bushveld was particularly ravaged after an extended drought period. His day would often involve many hours of walking in the oppressive heat and waiting patiently in whatever shade was available, while nature revealed her stories. This is a time when the bushveld is not for the squeamish, as many animals are suffering and dying due to lack of water and food. Jen’s photo gallery Circle of Life gives testament to the reality of life in drought-stricken Mana Pools at the time.
In awarding Jens this title, we recognize not only the many uncomfortable hours of patience and diligence behind his winning image but also his authentic, artisanal approach to photography.
In this second gallery (here is the first), we share a few of Jen’s favourite images. In the meantime, please visit his website and follow him on Instagram, where he regularly shares his images and thoughts.
Lopé National Park in Gabon is a UNESCO World Heritage site, and its Afrotropical forests provide a refuge for gorillas, chimpanzees, and forest elephants. However, a recently published study shows an 81% decline in fruiting over a 32-year-period and a corresponding 11% decline in forest elephant body condition over a decade. This fruit famine, say researchers, is mostly likely due to climate change and raises concerns over the long-term survival of the region’s forest elephants and other iconic species.
The future of Africa’s megafauna depends not only on safeguarding their habitats against threats from human encroachment and hunting but maintaining the health of the ecosystems that support them. The effects of climate and atmospheric changes can impact habitats, even in situations where direct human pressures are low. For scientists and conservationists, detecting, quantifying, and understanding these changes is a key conservation priority.
According to the study, the fruit is a keystone resource – its production is highly dependent on climatic cues, and there is abundant evidence that climate change has already caused shifts in the timing of plant reproduction. The critical minimum temperature hypothesis details how some Afrotropical plant species require temperatures to drop below a certain threshold to trigger flowering and, therefore, reproduction for these plants is cued less frequently as temperatures rise.
Automated camera trap photo of two malnourished forest elephants.
Lopé National Park hosts the longest continuous study of tropical tree phenology (the study of cyclical events influenced by seasonal variations in climate and habitat factors) in Africa. Researchers have been monitoring specific tree species important to gorillas, chimpanzees, and elephants since 1986. Once a month, the crowns of trees have been observed using binoculars and the proportions of the canopy covered with flowers, fruit and leaves have been recorded. The authors used this information to conclude that the trees in Lopé are reproducing less often and that the probability of encountering flowers and fruit has declined over time.
Observations of ripe fruits for important elephant fruiting tree species declined at an even faster rate of 87.8%. This decline translated to one in five trees being observed to be fruiting in 1987 to one in 40 in 2018, with a particularly noticeable drop between 2000 and 2003. The historical seasonality in fruit availability has disappeared in recent years with a significant reduction in ripe fruit observed from October to March, which was previously the season of abundance.
The declines in the probability of encountering flowers and unripened fruit suggest that this is not due to decreased pollination or maturation. The researchers concluded that this is most likely due to climate changes, as the minimum daily temperature has increased on average by 0.25C per decade at Lopé, with a simultaneous decrease in average rainfall (75mm each decade).
Drone photo of two researchers standing in a moabi tree crown in Lopé National Park.
To explore the effects of this reduction in fruit, researchers set about examining the body condition of the elephants. To this effect, a massive photographic database of over 2823 photos from between 1997 to 2018 was meticulously analysed. Disturbingly, the period between 1997 and 2018 saw a total decline of 5.0% in the mean body condition for all age classes of elephants. During the 2008-2018 period, the decline was particularly conspicuous, and the data from this period indicated an 11.1% decrease in average body condition.
It is uncertain whether or not the observed changes in body condition have affected the population health or dynamics in the forest elephants of Lopé, but previous studies have shown that environmental stressors have dramatic and long-term consequences for African savanna elephants.
The researchers conclude that the declines in both plant reproduction and elephant body condition are indicative of a system-wide change in the ecosystem. Given the scarcity of long-term datasets available for the tropics, the authors warn that similar changes may be occurring elsewhere, unrecorded. The study concludes: “these data are a reminder that even where direct human pressures are low, plant and animal communities may not be protected from the creeping influences of the Anthropocene”.
Fallen moabi tree fruits at Lopé National Park, Gabon.
“Large animals like forest elephants are already under severe pressure in Central Africa due to hunting, habitat loss and habitat degradation. If important protected areas like Lopé National Park in Gabon can no longer support them because there is not enough food, then we may see further population declines, jeopardising their survival in the long-term,” the co-lead author Dr Robin Whytock told the African Elephant Journal.
Towards the end of the 19th century, burgeoning industry and development saw railway lines spreading across South Africa – a network crisscrossing the country, despite the rumblings of war to come. Along the Port Elizabeth mainline, at the Uitenhage train station, a signal box worker was paid 20c and half a bottle of beer a week for the nine years that he worked for the railway before his death from tuberculosis in 1890. It was said that he never made a mistake during his employment by the railroad, which is particularly remarkable given that, while exceedingly diligent, he also happened to be a chacma baboon.
The story of how Jack the baboon helped his disabled owner is just one of the many historical anecdotes that highlights the complicated (and occasionally fractious) relationships between humans and baboons throughout our history together. It also serves as a prime example of the most attractive and potentially problematic characteristic of baboons – a fierce and profound intelligence.
In adult male baboons, powerful canines can grow to a length of 4cm – similar in size to those of a leopard
Introduction
Chacma baboons are one of the largest monkeys in the world, second only to the mandrill by mass, though baboons are longer and taller on average. Their scientific name – Papio ursinus – is a reference to their bear-like features (and swagger). In adult males, powerful canines can grow to a length of close to 4cm, similar in size to those of a leopard, and are used in battles for dominance and defence of the troop. Crocodiles, leopards, and lions will all prey on baboons, and some painted wolves (African wild dogs) of Mana Pools famously specialize in hunting the baboon troops of the region. Leopards, in particular, have a fierce rivalry with baboons, and certain individual leopards learn to take advantage of the diurnal habits of chacma baboons to stalk them at night while they rest in trees. That said, chacma baboons are imminently capable of turning this rivalry on its head; they have been known to grab and kill leopard cubs (and even a lion cub on rare occasions).
Baboons are known to hunt small antelope such as this young Thomson’s gazelle in Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya
Chacma baboons are omnivorous, and though the bulk of their diet consists of plant material, they do eat meat and have even been known to hunt small antelope. In agricultural areas, this makes them a threat to livestock, particularly for young farm animals. Their diet can be extremely varied and includes fruits, seeds, grass, blossoms, bulbs, insects, worms, rodents, birds (and eggs) and fungi. The chacma baboons found on the coast of South Africa regularly break open mussels and feed on the fleshy molluscs.
This liberal approach to food allows baboons to occupy a wide variety of habitats, including coastal, mountainous, and forested regions, as well as woodland savannahs and semi-deserts throughout Southern Africa, extending north from South Africa to Angola, Zambia, and Mozambique. Troop numbers vary considerably, with numbers of anywhere from 20 to over 100, and consist of a mixture of related and unrelated individuals subjugated by a handful of dominant males. Chacma baboons are sexually dimorphic, with males growing to almost double the size of the females.
Leucistic baboon in Arusha National Park, Tanzania
Quick facts
Social structure:
troops of anywhere from 20 to over 200
Size:
around 1m in length
Mass:
males between 21-45kg, females between 12-25kg
Gestation:
6 months
Number of offspring:
one, with twins a rare occurrence
Average life span:
probably around 35 in the wild, up to 45 years in captivity
Baboons lead complex family and social lives
Family resemblance
Baboons are found throughout Africa, with one species having an extended range into part of the Arabian Peninsula. Naturally, there has been hybridization between baboons of different species, and the distinctions are so blurred that some scientists recommended considering almost all baboon species to be subspecies of the hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas). Gelada baboons belong to the same tribe but are more distantly related and are grouped in a separate genus.
The IUCN Red List currently recognizes six species of baboon, with distinctions being largely distribution-based: the hamadryas baboon (P. hamadryas), the olive baboon (P. Anubis), the yellow baboon (P. cynocephalus), the Kinda baboon (P. kindae), the Guinea baboon (P. papio) and the chacma baboon (P. ursinus). All apart from the Guinea baboon (near threatened) are listed under the “least concern” conservation status.
There are also three recognized subspecies of chacma baboon: the Cape chacma (P. u. ursinus), the grey-footed chacma (P. u. griseipes) and the Ruacana chacma (P. u. raucana). It should be noted that although this article is dedicated to the chacma baboon, there are many ecological and behavioural similarities with other species, particularly yellow and olive baboons.
Colourful social lives
The typically large troop sizes inevitably lead to a complex arrangement of hierarchies and power-struggles, resulting in a social structure that is difficult to summarize. The troops consist of adult males, adult females, and their offspring and the females have their own separate hierarchy that is inherited in a manner similar to spotted hyenas. Females generally stay in their natal troop throughout their lives. In contrast, males often move between troops, and the status of the dominant males can be tenuous and subject to change. When a shift in dominant males occurs, a newly dominant male commonly commits infanticide to bring the female back into oestrous. As a result, females carefully foster close relationships with certain males in a manner that we would interpret as “friendship” (and is referred to as such in descriptions of baboon behaviour). Research indicates that this is most likely a counterstrategy to infanticide and that, in forming this friendship, this male may intervene to protect her youngster from another male.
The interplay of relationships, romances and the occasional ruckus makes observing baboons in the wild an imminently rewarding experience. Baboons breed all year round, and a troop will always include infants of various ages, from tiny creatures with absurdly prominent ears to the more rambunctious youngsters riding piggy-back style on their mother’s back. The infants are so childlike at times that it is almost unnerving to watch their innate curiosity as they begin to venture from their mothers to explore the world around them by mimicking adult behaviour.
Complex social structures come with complex forms of communications, and baboons interact with each other through a series of different vocalizations, as well as a range of body language subtleties and facial expressions. Their famously colourful backsides are just another tool in their spectrum of visual communication – these bald sections of skin underneath the tail are known as ischial callosities and can be used to differentiate between females and young males, as there is a clear central division in those of the females. While they do play a role in sexual signalling in mature individuals, they also aid the baboons when balanced on thin branches at night, allowing them to sleep sitting upright.
Baboons and people
Wild baboons, easily seen during Southern Africa safaris, are instinctively wary of humans but are quick to learn new tricks and pass this on to the next generation. When they learn to associate humans with free food, they can cause enormous damage and pose a potential threat to human safety, as well as their own. This is true of most monkey species but is particularly relevant to baboons due to their large size and strength – determined individuals have been known to lift glass sliding doors off their rails to gain entrance to a kitchen. It can be deeply distressing to return from a successful game drive at a lodge to discover your belongings strewn through the bushveld, a chewed tube of toothpaste and a pungent calling card in the bathroom sink for good measure.
These inconveniences can turn dangerous when humans ignore the rules and encourage this behaviour by failing to secure food or, worse, blatantly ignoring rules by feeding baboons. Those who do so tend to gravitate towards feeding the females and cute infants, rather than the males, which offends the very core of the baboon social hierarchy and can send the dominant male into fits of testosterone-driven rage. This is the case in South Africa’s Cape Peninsula, where the baboons of the area learnt to behave like thugs, opening house and car doors and physically intimidating tourists into dropping food. Due to their male-dominant hierarchy, baboons are quick to distinguish between human men and woman, showing more fear of the former and generally targeting the latter.
For farmers, baboons can cause extensive damage to field crops and orchards, especially during the dry season in Southern Africa when they are desperate for food, and are extremely difficult to deter. There are non-lethal ways of keeping baboons away, including the use of paintball guns, Anatolian shepherd dogs or even motion-triggered loudspeakers, but these require an inventive approach and commitment from the farmer concerned, as baboons are quick to learn and adapt. Behavioural biologists are constantly seeking different solutions to aid farmers but unfortunately for the baboons, they face the same threat as every other animal on this planet. Their habitat is ever-shrinking in the face of human development and those on the fringes are consistently forced into contact with people, usually to their detriment. Furthermore, in some areas, humans have dramatically reduced the numbers of the natural predators of baboons, resulting in explosive population growth.
This painted wolf (African wild dog) pack has learned to hunt baboons in Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe
Uncanny valley
A few years ago, scientists discovered the oldest known baboon skull – a partial cranium believed to be 2-million-years old – in a cave in the Cradle of Humankind of South Africa. It is quite possible that this early baboon displayed the same penchant for thievery as its modern ancestors, perhaps raiding the food of our ancestors sharing the same cave system. While our history together may go back millennia, many people find it much harder to like baboons or appreciate them the way they do other wildlife. Perhaps it’s our 94% shared DNA (and behavioural similarities that are occasionally too close for comfort) or maybe it’s the unfathomable but knowing look of those bright amber eyes. Either way, time spent with baboons is always guaranteed to provide entertainment.
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Let’s kick off by scrolling down to our spectacular video for today – of a huge and very special elephant named Kilimanjaro and his close encounter with a group of researchers from Elephants Alive. Note: there was no vehicle involved – they were on foot.
To set the scene, this research team collectively has more than 50 years of EXPERIENCE with wild elephants, including many encounters with the collared Kilimanjaro. On this occasion, they were guided by Alan McSmith, a man who understands the soul of an elephant. I enjoyed a similarly close elephant encounter while on foot with Alan – albeit not with a giant like this. Our group encounter (I was with our Photographer of the Year winners of a few years ago) was in the fading evening light, and the gentle giant loomed over us just meters away for a good look at this seated circle of humans (humans without legs!) before silently continuing his journey.
So, you can safely assume that this research team know what they are doing. Of course, this should not be attempted by anybody lacking the experience and permissions. Do I really need to say that? Yes, sadly, because we all have carte blanche as instant experts to attempt (or criticize) anything that we see online.
Be sure to read the text underneath the video “We were seated, rooted, grounded and trusting of this bull we had come to know. He fed closer and closer in a deliberate straight line towards us…”
Our first story below is a deep dive into those special lemurs of Madagascar. Disneyland depictions have nothing on these fascinating creatures. Our second story is important because their industry colleagues are telling the rotten South African captive-bred lion killing machine that what they do is not acceptable. I do not doubt that the EVIL ONES involved will redefine terms such as ‘captive’ and so shift the conversation.
Speaking of Madagascar, our third story below is yet another example of nature saying ‘there, see, you have no clue what you have, let alone what you have lost’. GREAT stuff!
And finally, tourism brochures will tell you that the ONLY time to go on safari is during the dry season when wildlife sightings are at their most dramatic (they are) as if that is all there is to a safari. Those of us that live in the bushveld know otherwise. Read our fourth story below to get a feel for your December safari for 2021 and beyond.
The ‘problem-causing’ elephant known as Riff Raff has been shot and killed in consultation with provincial authorities in South Africa.
At around 45 years old, Riff Raff was an elephant bull in his prime, driven by ancient instincts at conflict with the space available to him. Over the past few years, Riff Raff’s fence-trampling tendencies marked him as a symbol of the impact of exclusion fences, the lack of space available to elephants and the inevitable human/wildlife conflict that follows. In the end, despite desperate efforts to find him a new home, Riff Raff’s ‘problem’ status was to cost him his life, and he was ‘humanely destroyed’ this past week.
Riff Raff was declared a damage-causing animal by the Limpopo Department of Economic Development, Environment and Tourism (LEDET) provincial authority for trampling fences to gain access to land that has been his core bull zone for more than half his adult life. The fences were erected by a landowner on Riff Raff’s reserve in 2016, directly excluding him from this long-established area of land to which, as one of the oldest and most dominant bulls on the property, he was genetically hard-wired to return. As a result, Riff Raff began to explore alternative options – learning how to destroy fences along the way and earning a reputation as a ‘problem’ elephant.
HSI/Africa and its partner Global Supplies have worked for more than three years to save the dominant male elephant from destruction after a landowner applied to have him shot. They have described the decision as a ‘devastating blow‘.
To save Riff Raff, HSI/Africa and Global Supplies relocated him to another reserve in Limpopo in 2018, but it was too close to his historical range, and he walked the 64 km journey back home. When a new destruction permit was applied for, and the campaigners’ request to relocate Riff Raff to a new reserve 400 km away was rejected by the Limpopo government, they asked the High Court to intervene and review the decision. Judge President Makgoba then granted Riff Raff extended protection in 2019 at his current reserve, pending a full review in 2020.
Once again, concerted fund-raising efforts by HSI/Africa saw Riff Raff relocated to yet another reserve, this time further from home in the North West province of South Africa where he was meant to spend the rest of his life in peace. Initially, all appeared to have gone smoothly in the relocation, and he was observed feeding and moving through the reserve. Unfortunately, however, just a few hours later, Riff Raff ignored the repeated attempts of both ground and air teams to keep him inside and once again broke out and left the protection of the reserve. After consultation with appropriate authorities, the decision was made to end his life.
In a statement to Africa Geographic about Riff Raff’s death, Audrey Delsink, HIS/Africa’s wildlife director and elephant behaviourist explained that “unfortunately, despite significant attempts to mitigate the animal’s behaviour, his lack of response – possibly related to years of sustained but inconsistent management pressures at the host reserve – made for additional consideration. The factors that led to the decision were the breaching, but also the proximity to neighbouring communities, the latter being of major consequence.”
In a previous statement, Audrey, who has spent over 20 years studying Riff Raff said that “lethal management interventions, particularly in the case of human-elephant conflict, should be the absolute last resort, and never employed where any other humane alternative exists. We share this land with these magnificent giants; it should be utterly unthinkable to kill them simply because to do so is easier than managing the land in a way that considers their normal biological drivers.”
The story of Riff Raff is one which has captured the attention of thousands of people across the world – the charismatic elephant bull simply following his instincts to disperse yet at the mercy of anthropogenic restrictions. As the elephant population in South Africa grows, the likelihood is that there will be many more bull elephants that find themselves in the same situation as Riff Raff. According to an independent study facilitated through the Elephant Specialist Advisory Group to assess the situation by South Africa’s provincial authorities, up to 50 destruction permits were issued during 2016-2017 by LEDET alone to kill so-called problem elephants.
“Destroying these animals through damage-causing animal policies is a band-aid to a haemorrhage,” said Audrey. “It will not solve the problem. This elephant was a dominant and powerful individual, important in his own ecological role as well as to his herd and bull’s hierarchy, and to our understanding of elephant management in South Africa. His loss is significant on many levels and I am deeply saddened by the tragic outcome. Riff Raff is a symbol of a systemic problem, that many other bulls will face as they mature and come into contact with humans, and that requires us to consider new and innovative alternatives that promote coexistence and proactive non-lethal mitigation not hampered by the slow wheels of policy and process.”
The practice of the hunting of captive-bred lion hunting is “not representative of responsible, sustainable, fair chase hunting … against resolutions of the IUCN … damaging the reputation of hunters, and sustainable hunting” – joint statement by the Dallas Safari Club and CIC – The International Council For Game And Wildlife Conservation.
FULL STATEMENT:
The undersigned organizations, each advocating for the conservation of nature through the sustainable use of wildlife:
Recognize that the practice of shooting lions bred in captivity has otherwise been referred to as ‘canned lion hunting’, ‘captive-bred lion hunting’, or using combinations thereof;
Agree that whatever the terminology used; and whether legal or illegal; the practice is not consistent with the definition of responsible, sustainable, fair chase hunting;
Highlight that the practise is contrary to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Resolution WCC-2016-Res-013 on ‘Terminating the hunting of captive-bred lions (Panthera leo) and other predators and captive breeding for commercial, non-conservation purposes’;
Emphasize that the shooting of lions bred in captivity damages the reputation of all hunters;
Call on any Governments that allow the legal shooting of lions bred in captivity, to consider the wider implications to responsible, sustainable, fair chase hunting;
Commit to discouraging members of signatory organizations from engaging in the practice of shooting lions that have been bred in captivity;
The signatories agree that this statement may be amended, as further information becomes available, should the signatories jointly agree on and sign the revised text.
Other organizations in agreement with this statement are encouraged to join as co-signatories. Organizations are invited to contact one of the existing signatories should they be interested in joining.
Some 135 million years ago, gradual but enormous forces broke apart the supercontinent Gondwana, and a landmass consisting of present-day Madagascar, India, Antarctica, and Australia drifted away from Africa. Then, around 47 million years later, Madagascar broke away from India and settled itself off the coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean. For the last 88 million years, life on Madagascar has been on its own, an island of evolutionary oddities that includes the family of lemurs.
The inevitable outcome of this geographic isolation is that 90% of the island’s fauna and flora are endemic, with phenomenal biodiversity that is quite literally worlds apart for anything else on the planet. The island is so large, and its environment so diverse, that some have even argued that it should be considered the world’s eighth continent. The island is home to over 300 recorded species of birds (60% of which are endemic) and 260 species of reptile – including two-thirds of the world’s chameleon species. Yet it is the primate species of Madagascar – the lemurs – that are the island’s real “flagship” species.
The IUCN currently recognizes 107 species of lemurs, but their classification is an ongoing process that incorporates new knowledge and research on a regular basis. The lemurs of Madagascar have evolved with the island, influencing the plant life, and filling every available niche to for an astoundingly diverse superfamily of multitudinous shapes and sizes. They have also spawned an important interest to visit Madagascar on a wildlife safari to see lemurs.
A male red ruffed lemur (Varecia rubra)
Where did they come from?
Unravelling the history of the animal occupants of Madagascar has proved somewhat complicated for scientists because, despite the existence of various dinosaur fossils, there are almost no fossil records from around 66 million years ago to about 26,000 years ago. However, through a series of complex genetic studies, researchers believe that rather than already being present when Madagascar broke away, the ancestors of modern lemurs arrived sometime after it achieved its geographic isolation, probably between 50 and 60 million years ago. Since then, the family has evolved in a wide variety of diverse primates whose closest relatives are bushbabies (galagos), lorises and pottos.
Clockwise, from the top left: a sportive lemur (Lepilemursp.), a bamboo lemur (Hapalemur sp.), a sportive lemur (Lepilemursp.) and a tiny common brown lemur (Eulemur fulvus)
The most popular theory is that early lemurs exist due to “sweepstakes dispersal” – a chance event that allowed an animal species to cross a massive geological barrier, in this case, the Mozambique channel. At some point, the lemur ancestors (which likely would have been relatively small) found themselves adrift at sea on a raft of plant material, perhaps due to a severe tropical storm or flood. Recent evidence indicates that ocean currents at the time moved towards Madagascar and the island itself would have been slightly closer than its current position, making the journey relatively easy to survive for a small primate, especially one that could have entered a state of torpor.
This particular theory is, however, far from universal and it is the aye-aye (see below) that has caused some of the controversies, as jawbones found in Africa (from a species known as Plesiopithecus) bear a very close resemblance to aye-aye morphology.
An eastern woolly lemur (Avahi laniger)
Giants of history
Assuming the early lemurs did arrive by raft, once they disembarked they set about colonizing their new home; breeding, adapting, and evolving into the many different species seen today. The lack of mammal competition allowed them to fill several open ecological niches, though the harsh climate of Madagascar shaped this evolution to include several shared traits such seasonal fat storage and strict breeding seasons (for all but two species).
A Verreaux’s sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi) and her youngster
While their classification is as controversial as their history, the consensus is that there are now five extant families of lemur: the Cheirogaleidae (the dwarf and mouse lemurs), the Daubentoniidae (the aye-aye is the only living representative), Indriidae (which includes the indri, woolly lemurs and sifakas), Lemuridae (which includes the “true” lemurs, the ring-tailed lemur, the ruffed lemurs and bamboo lemurs), and Lepilemuridae (sportive lemurs). The largest of these is the indri, which can weigh up to 9.5kg, and the smallest is the critically endangered Madame Berthe’s mouse lemur, which weighs around 30g.
Astoundingly, however, just 2000 years ago, there were three other families of much larger lemur species: the Arcaeolemuridae (monkey lemurs), Megaladapidae (koala lemurs) and the enormous Palaeopropithecidae (sloth lemurs). The largest of all lemurs was a member of the sloth lemur family, a species known as Archaeoindris fontoynontii or “giant sloth lemur”, which probably reached a mass of 160kg and was roughly the size of a small gorilla. While there is no conclusive proof as to why these larger lemur species died out, their disappearance coincides with the arrival of the first humans on Madagascar.
A female white-headed lemur (Eulemur albifrons), also known as a white-headed brown lemur.
All in favour say aye (aye)
By and large, the lemur species are extremely attractive creatures, with thick fluffy coats and striking colouration. The aye-aye could be considered the exception to this particular rule – it looks a little like a creature created by an overly-imaginative fantasy writer. Unfortunately for this entirely harmless and unassuming creature, its strange looks have inspired several supernatural and superstitious beliefs. The local myths around the aye-aye suggest that it is a harbinger of evil, occasionally sneaking into people’s houses to stab them in the neck with its absurdly long finger. The unfortunate result is that the aye-aye is often judiciously killed on sight, which may well account for the extinction of its cousin, the giant aye-aye.
The outlandish aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis).
In reality, the aye-aye is Madagascar’s woodpecker (no, really). The tiny third finger, which has a ball-and-socket joint, is used to tap on the bark of trees, and the aye-aye listens to the resonance to locate the insect life within. Once it has struck it lucky, the aye-aye nibbles away the bark and uses the extended fourth finger to fish out the insect larvae. A sixth digit has evolved as a pseudo thumb to help the aye-aye keep its balance while feeding. This oddball design, coupled with continually growing incisors, has made the classification of the aye-aye a contentious subject but as technology has developed, it has become clear that aye-ayes are, in fact, the oldest of all living lemur species, the basal family. There are, however, biologists that contend that aye-ayes colonized Madagascar during a separate event to other lemur ancestors.
An elegant ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) and a nocturnal fork-marked lemur (Phanersp.)
Other lemurs
Lemurs rival any other primate family in terms of diversity, and this translates into many different shapes, sizes, behaviours, dentitions, diets, and habitat usages.
Cheirogaleids: the dwarf and mouse lemurs, as their name suggests, are the smallest of all lemurs and, in fact, the mouse lemurs are the smallest primates in the world. These tiny primates are nocturnal and arboreal and move through the trees like bush babies. Their diet consists primarily of fruit and some insects. Available research suggests that these lemurs tend to be solitary, though they have occasionally been found in pairs. Members of this family can spend several months in a state of torpor.
Indriids: there are ten different medium- to large-sized lemur species belonging to the Indriidae family, with the woolly lemurs being the smallest and the indri being the largest of all lemur species. They are all arboreal, though some occasionally descend to move from tree to tree or forage. Sifakas, in particular, are known for their bipedal “dancing” when moving on the ground. Most species live in small groups which are mostly female dominant, and all species are almost entirely herbivorous.
Lemurids: one of the largest families of medium-sized lemurs, this family includes the famous ring-tailed lemurs, “true” lemurs, ruffed lemurs, and bamboo lemurs. All are primarily herbivorous and highly arboreal.
Lepilemurids: the sportive lemurs are strictly nocturnal, and most are solitary and territorial. Their hind legs are considerably longer than their front legs, making them ideally designed for leaping from tree to tree but restricting quadrupedal movement.
Conservation crisis
As fast as new lemur species are being described, so their conservation status becomes more precarious. Some may even go extinct before scientists identify them as a separate species. Where once the lemurs were found throughout Madagascar, they are now believed to be restricted to less than 10% of their original distribution. Due to slash-and-burn agriculture and deforestation, lemur populations are now forced into highly fragmented patches of ever-shrinking forest (Madagascar has lost more than half of its forests in the last 60 years). This, coupled with bushmeat hunting and the illegal pet trade, makes lemurs one of the most at-risk animal families on the planet. In a recent announcement, the IUCN revealed that 31% of all lemur species in Madagascar are now listed as critically endangered, and 98% of them are threatened in some way.
The Verreaux’s sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi) is now listed as critically endangered.
Since the arrival of humans on Madagascar, all mammals over 10kg (including a pygmy hippopotamus species) have gone extinct, as have unknown numbers of bird and reptile species. Ring-tailed lemurs still give off a false alarm call for the long-extinct Malagasy crowned eagle, which once would have been one of their main predators. Despite extensive conservation efforts from dedicated individuals and organizations, Madagascar is one of the poorest countries in the world, and only 3% of the island’s land area is protected. Without severe and immediate intervention by the international community, it is a sobering reality that the haunting calls of lemurs echoing through Madagascar’s forests may be silenced forever.
The last official sighting of the Voeltzkow’s chameleon (Furcifer voeltzkowi) was in 1913 in Madagascar, earning it a spot on the Top 25 Most Wanted taxon in Global Wildlife Conservation’s Search for Lost Species initiative. A two-week expedition to north-western Madagascar resulted in not only the rediscovery of this unique chameleon but the very first description of the colourful females.
The Voeltzkow’s chameleon was first described from a male specimen collected by German biologist Alfred Voeltzkow in 1893. Little was known about this cryptic species, and no female specimens had ever been described. The expedition to find the Voeltzkow’s chameleon ran from the 25th of March to the 3rd of April 2018 (during Madagascar’s rainy season) and, according to the biologists, yielded nothing but frustration until the final few days. Angeluc Razafimanantsoa, a professional Malagasy guide and member of the expedition, was the first to spot one of the mysterious chameleons in the wild gardens of Chez Madame Chabaud hotel.
One explanation behind the difficulty in finding the Voeltzkow’s chameleon lies in its close relationship to the Labord’s chameleon (Furcifer labordi), which lives for just a few months every year. The eggs of the Labord’s chameleon hatch in November and the young chameleons reach sexual maturity extremely rapidly (within two months). Once the mature individuals have had the opportunity to mate and lay their eggs in January and February, they will die just a month or two later. Biologists believe it highly likely that the Voeltzkow’s chameleon follows a similar lifecycle which has made finding them a challenging task. This has been exacerbated by the fact that adult chameleons are active during Madagascar’s rainy season, where parts of the island become almost inaccessible.
Female Voeltzkow’s chameleon
Nevertheless, the team managed to find three males and 15 females – numbers which, according to the researchers, suggest the possibility of a healthy population for a short-lived species. They also discovered just how colourful the females, particularly gravid (pregnant) females, can be. The newly released paper on the discovery describes how the Voeltzkow’s chameleon is a sexually dimorphic species, with the males observed to be significantly less colourful than their female counterparts (though both are primarily green in colour when relaxed). Like all chameleons, the female Voeltzkow’s chameleons change colour according to their moods, particularly when antagonized in some way, displaying vivid and highly variable colour patterns of purple, orange, red, green, black, and white.
The newly published study released in Salamandra, the German Journal of Herpetology, the researchers detail the findings of the 2018 expedition, providing the first new information on the little animal’s genetics, morphology, and behaviour in over a century.
Madagascar is home to around half the world’s chameleon species, over 100 of which are endemic. Of these Malagasy chameleons, 52% are threatened, and 70% are considered threatened or near-threatened. Habitat loss and deforestation are some of the main threats facing most of the island’s endemic wildlife – it is believed that less than 10% of Madagascar’s natural forests remain.
“The Voeltzkow’s chameleon is a powerful flagship species for conservation in the region,” said Carlos Zanotelli, a member of the 2018 expedition. “It is imperative that we protect nature and treat natural habitats as if we would like to live there. Only in this way can we ensure the future of the incredible species, like the Voeltzkow’s chameleon, we share this planet with.”
Male Voeltzkow’s chameleon
Along with the rediscovery of the Somali sengi announced earlier this year, the Voeltzkow’s chameleon is the sixth species on the Global Wildlife Conservation’s 25 most wanted list to be confirmed as having been rediscovered. As the study on the Voeltzkow’s chameleon succinctly explains, “rediscoveries of “lost” species are important as they provide crucial data for conservation measures and bring some hope amidst the biodiversity crisis.”
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“Right now it’s sweltering hot, and I am sitting in the shade of a tree as I watch a drying pool of water for signs of life. Early this morning I managed to get some wifi at reception, and heard from home that Germany is about to go into another LOCKDOWN! My thoughts are with my family and especially my grandmother, who turns 95 soon. Lockdown means no family gathering for her.” – Jens Cullmann via Whatsapp.
Jens, our reigning Photographer of the Year, is in Mana Pools as you read this, doing what he does – an annual immersion into this ICONIC protected area to get the best possible images as Mana transitions from dry to wet season. The above image was taken by Jens.
Our first story below provides useful info about Mana Pools (which I hope is on your SAFARI bucket list) accompanied, of course, by excellent imagery from our talented Photographer of the Year entrants. Speaking of which, our 2021 Photographer of the Year kicks off on 1 January and we have lined up the best ever prize of a safari to Khwai Private Reserve in Botswana! Start searching your image archives and watch this space for further announcements.
As you know, things are pretty DIRE in the safari and conservation industries right now. Our second story below explains the impact of Covid-19 on protected areas and the people who depend on them.
We also revisit a fantastic book CELEBRATING painted wolves in our third story below, where your purchase (as a festive season gift!) will help to keep these iconic predators safe. Our fourth story is a fascinating look at how good intentions can have bad consequences. I wonder how often this happens as humankind tries desperately to right the wrongs?
Thanks for all the emails responding to my question last week about the killing FOR FUN of ocean predators versus land predators. Every one of those who wrote to me stated unequivocally that there is no difference – each is as morally bankrupt as the other.
Story 1 https://africageographic.com/stories/mana-pools/
ICONIC SAFARI: Mana Pools is Africa’s iconic park for bushwalking without a guide – renowned for encounters on foot with wild dogs & relaxed elephant bulls
Much has been said and written about the devastating effects of COVID-19 on global economies, with the inevitable socio-economic impacts on all sectors of life and industry. The situation is not projected to improve any time soon, and for the already underfunded conservation industry in Africa, it spells disaster. A new report by renowned conservationists and scientists examines just how bad COVID-19 could be for Africa’s wildlife and protected areas and what needs to be done to save our wild spaces.
According to the report, Africa has nearly 2000 Key Biodiversity Areas and supports the world’s most diverse and abundant large mammal populations, with wildlife-based tourism generating over $29 billion every year and employing 3.6 million people. 7,800 terrestrial protected areas cover some 17% of the continent, most of which are state-owned but with considerable support from conservation NGOs and the private sector. Expanding conservation efforts on private and community land has seen increased available habitat for wildlife while simultaneously creating buffer zones. Vast transfrontier conservation areas protect wilderness areas across national boundaries.
From bad to worse
Even before COVID-19, Africa’s conservation industry was facing a crisis. The report states that state-owned protected areas with lions are repeatedly faced with budget deficits of $1.2 billion every year, with most other protected areas likely faring no better. This, in turn, renders these regions susceptible to the main threats facing wildlife today: habitat loss, degradation, fragmentation, encroachment, poaching and climate change, which, combined with poor governances, poverty, climbing human populations and the illegal wildlife trade, are driving wildlife declines. And the authors believe that this current pandemic could amplify this crisis to catastrophic effect.
Schematic of the potential cascading impacts of COVID-19 on conservation in Africa. Source: Lindsey, P., Allan, J., Brehony P., et al (2020), Nature Ecology & Evolution
While there have been limited positive environmental benefits to the global shutdown, these are temporary, and the ultimate impact will be strongly negative, with reduced funding, lower conservation capacity and increased threats to wildlife and ecosystems.
The effects
Reduced conservation funding:
As governments are faced with having to make severe budget cuts, there is a strong likelihood that wildlife authority budgets (already underfunded) are going to be substantially reduced. The impact of COVID-19 on the tourism industry is being felt on an unprecedented scale, and 90% of African tour operators have seen an over 75% decline in bookings. For most countries, tourism is the most significant contributor to protected area financing, and the loss of this revenue is going to have major ramifications. Aside from the day-to-day conservation activities, the lost revenue threatens jobs and livelihoods for some of the most impoverished communities on the continent.
Reduced donor funding is also inevitable, as economies struggle to recover, and corporations, private donors and foundations are unable to provide or may shift their focus to humanitarian causes. During the financial crisis of 2008/9, conservation endowments declined by 40%.
Impaired conservation operation
Reduced funding will restrict the capacity of conservation and management authorities to manage protected areas as necessary, as well as forcing the loss of staff members and preventing the purchase of necessary equipment and supplies. In areas where movement has been strictly restricted, rotating staff and supplying field rangers has proved difficult, resulting in exhausted staff and poor morale.
Increased conservation threats
The disastrous effects on tourism and the overall negative economic impact will increase rural poverty. The authors expect increased poaching, tree cutting, artisanal mining, encroachment, agricultural conversion and even the degazetting of severely affected protected areas.
Examples of realized and potential impacts of COVID-19 on conservation in Africa, as of April 2020. Source: Lindsey, P., Allan, J., Brehony P., et al (2020), Nature Ecology & Evolution
Risk of future outbreaks due to human impacts on nature
The report suggests that the combination of reduced conservation efforts and increased poverty could create a positive feedback loop where increased reliance on natural resources increases encroachment, exposure, and consumption of wild animals, ultimately increasing the risk of future pandemics.
What can be done?
The authors emphasise that a long-term perspective is essential – supporting conservation efforts will help local economies recover and create employment, especially as the tourism industry begins to bounce back. The report highlights three significant actions needed to mitigate these effects:
Manage the immediate crisis
The international community needs to intervene to provide crisis funding by recognising conservation as an essential service, and, realistically, this primary source of funding needs to be the developed world, as many governments in developing countries lack the capacity. This could involve donors creating an emergency fund for wildlife authorities, communities, private landowners, and conservation NGOs. The tourism industry, which underpins the conservation industry, needs support both in terms of tax breaks and direct financial assistance.
Defend against future disease outbreaks by regulating wildlife trade and minimising habitat loss
Governments and organisations across the world need to improve regulations and improve the enforcement of existing laws to curb unsafe wildlife trade practices that jeopardise either human health or conservation objectives. The authors do warn against undermining the legal, regulated wildlife trade that supports millions of livelihoods.
Conservation funding in Africa is currently insufficient, lacking diversity and vulnerable to shocks like the COVID-19 pandemic, but there are potential solutions. Source: Lindsey, P., Allan, J., Brehony P., et al (2020), Nature Ecology & Evolution
The report also suggests that efforts should be made to tackle other drivers of infectious disease such as habitat destruction, logging, and mining.
Address systematic flaws in the structure and function of conservation in Africa
Here the report suggests that COVID-19 has exposed the multifaceted shortcomings of conservation efforts in Africa, starting with the fact that funding is inadequate and reliance on short term, external funding streams is not sustainable. While tourism plays an enormous role, some countries are over-reliant on it for conservation funding, which makes efforts vulnerable to stochastic events such as pandemics. In areas where tourism does flourish, the communities that carry the cost of wildlife generally receive negligible benefits.
Increasing conservation resilience
The report suggests that this is an opportunity to rethink and restructure conservation funding in Africa to promote long-term resilience, with suggested solutions that would need to be tailored depending on the specific situation:
Recognise the reliance on the development of natural assets – that is, aligning conservation and development interests to build political and public will.
Quantify the value of natural assets and ecosystem services and incorporate those values in national budgets
Position protected areas as hubs for local development and service provision
Properly engage local people as stakeholders in conservations – allow communities to participate in protected area governance and ensure that communities benefit from tourism.
Encouraging conservation organisations to work with development specialists on visible support for communities
Support African civil society conservation efforts
Given that travel restrictions currently limit international conservation organisations, they should be supporting local conservation organisations by providing funding and sharing expertise which will increase local conservation capacity.
Diversify revenue-generating options from wildlife areas
The demonstrated volatility of international tourism, as well as the decline in trophy hunting, illustrate the need to create local revenue streams more resilient to global shocks. For some countries, that means fostering domestic tourism to increase resilience to global shock and build longer-term public support for conservation. The report also warns that, given current deficits, the collapse of the trophy hunting industry would have grave ramifications for conservation.
Increase domestic expenditure
African governments need to invest in protecting their assets – this could entail setting aside a budgetary allocation for the protection of nature.
Increase international funding
There are emerging mechanisms for international governments, organisations, and individuals to provide funding, including investment in land, payments for ecosystem services or debt-for-nature swaps.
Improve revenue distribution mechanisms
Africa needs to improve the mechanisms used to generate and disburse wildlife-related revenue in a way that recognises the role of governments, private landowners, and communities as custodians of wildlife.
a) The terrestrial ecoregions of Africa. b) Percentage tree cover with >10% canopy density in 2000 (source: Hansen/UMD/Google/USGS/NASA). c) Mammal species richness. d) Funding deficits of national protected area networks in African lion range states. e) The average number of annual international tourist arrivals to African countries from 2016–2018. f) The GDP per capita (corrected for purchasing power parity (PPP)) in current US dollars of African countries in 2018. In d–f, countries are filled white where data were unavailable. Source: Lindsey, P., Allan, J., Brehony P., et al (2020), Nature Ecology & Evolution
Conclusion
The authors of this report are some of the most prominent coal-face conservationists and scientists in the industry, and their sombre warnings carry significant weight. They conclude that the international community needs to act fast to protect and support Africa’s wildlife and protected areas, as well as the people who depend on them. This concerted effort will need the support and collaboration of the developed world, African governments, donors and conservation practitioners. “At this critical juncture, business, as usual, could be catastrophic, but decisive and collaborative action can ensure that Africa’s wildlife survives COVID-19 and that more resilient conservation models benefit humans and wildlife for generations”.
The allure of a safari adventure in Mana Pools is about far more than seeing lions, elephants and wild dogs; it is an experience that transcends spiritual barriers to create a sense of resonance with the land and her unique creatures. This connection is hard to find in our frenetic day-to-day existence, bombarded as we are by narrow information from brightly lit screens; which is why unfettered time spent in the wilderness acts as such a catharsis for the soul.
While there are many options available that offer this deliverance from daily reality, it is Zimbabwe’s Mana Pools National Park that truly epitomizes the salubrious and grounding effects of Africa’s untamed influence.
The Park and surrounds
Mana Pools National Park is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that encompasses 22,000km2 (220,000 hectares) of pristine African wilderness on Zimbabwe’s northern border, nestled between the Zambezi River to the north and the Zambezi escarpment to the south. The name ‘Mana’ comes from the Shona word for ‘four’, in reference to the four largest oxbow lakes – Main/Mana, Chine, Chisambuk and Long – remnants of a time when the mighty river flowed along a different route. On the floodplains, groves of Ana trees (Faidherbia albida) create the perfect photographic backdrop against which bull elephants stretch up to reach the nutritious seedpods, sometimes balancing on their hinds legs. The many islands, channels and sandbanks set the scene for the inevitable primordial battles for survival on their banks.
As one of the least developed parks in Africa, Mana Pools forms part of an enormous ecosystem and is contiguous with:
Zambia’s Lower Zambezi National Park (400, 000 hectares) – on the opposite bank of the Zambezi River
Sapi Safari Area (118, 000 hectares) – included with Mana Pools NP as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Chewore Safari Area (339, 000) – included with Mana Pools NP as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Hurungwe Safari Area (287, 000 hectares)
Dande Safari Area (52, 300 hectares)
Doma Safari Area (76, 400 hectares)
Charara Safari Area (170, 000 hectares)
Chiawa Game Management Area (approximately 234, 000 hectares)
The total protected area equates to almost 1.7 million hectares of some of the most remote wilderness in Southern Africa. Some of the areas outside of the national parks are utilized for trophy hunting.
Close encounters of the (somewhat) dangerous kind
There are many safari locations where the iconic wildlife is accustomed to the presence of humans, or at least humans in vehicles, but the animal occupants of Mana Pools take this relaxed approach to an entirely new level. None of the camps are fenced, and the park’s animal occupants are quite content to stroll through, at any hour of day or night. It is not uncommon to awaken in one of the more remote campsites to discover that a buffalo has decided to spend the night resting up against the side of your tent.
The wildlife viewing is spectacular, particularly during the dry season when large herds of elephants, buffaloes, zebras, waterbucks, and even eland and sable antelopes are drawn to the more permanent water sources. Naturally, the park supports the expected predators such as lions, leopards, cheetahs, and spotted hyenas but there is also the possibility of a rare glimpse of the shy brown hyenas. When it comes to predators, however, it is the painted wolves (African wild dogs) that have garnered the attention of regular safari-goers (more below).
Exploring Mana
Only a small area of the park is covered by the road network, the rest can only be explored on foot or by canoe. In fact, Mana is the only national park in Africa with large dangerous wildlife where you are permitted to walk without a guide. Zimbabwe is home to some of the best-trained and most experienced (and possibly eccentric) guides in Africa, and it is in Mana that they truly come into their own.
With over 12,000 elephants in the greater Mana ecosystem, an encounter with these giant, sentient beasts on foot is almost inevitable, and there is nothing in the world that genuinely compares to looking up into an elephant’s dark, heavily-lashed eyes when all artificial barriers are removed. It is a moment when time stands still, a heart-pounding combination of hyper-awareness, awe and a small (mostly healthy, certainly rational) dose of terror. Fortunately, these elephants are so used to the almost reverential attention of tourists that they are mostly content to ignore the somewhat physically inept primates around them. However, like any wild creature, elephants have the potential to be exceptionally dangerous, and it is incumbent on the tourists that visit to ensure that they are treated with the respect that 6 tonnes will otherwise demand.
Quite aside from heart-pounding encounters with Africa’s deadliest, walking is possibly the best way to get the most out of a safari experience, especially in Mana, where its wide-open spaces and rich diversity of habitats make it a playground for adventure. Long-neglected senses suddenly come into play as the human body quickly reverts to instinctive alertness, with tracks crisscrossing the earth like a wilderness newspaper. This extraordinary freedom was once nearly lost thanks to the foolhardy and arrogant behaviour of a handful of inconsiderate tourists. Fortunately, though, sense prevailed, and Mana remains available for bushwalking. However, a self-guided walk on the wild side is not for the inexperienced and, in most cases, it is more advisable to secure the services of a professional guide. This is partly due to the dangerous nature of the surroundings but, more importantly, because a wealth of knowledge is essential to experience the nuances of a walking safari.
Chitake Springs is a remote area at the base of the Zambezi Escarpment in the southern reaches of Mana Pools National Park – on the Chitake River, a tributary of the Zambezi River. The spring is a perennial water source in a usually dry riverbed and provides the only water source for concentrations of wildlife. Large herds of buffalo, elephant and other herbivores converge on the water – especially during the late dry season – and predators line the steep river channel banks to ambush their desperate prey as they drink.
Dogs, dogs, dogs
OK, so painted wolves are not really dogs. Or wolves. Read more about the name here. For our purposes, though, we will call them painted wolves. The painted wolves of Mana Pools are perhaps one of the park’s best known and loved aspects. There are two main reasons for this (apart from their documentary fame). The first is that, like the rest of Mana’s wild creatures, the painted wolves tend to be extremely comfortable with the company of humans, either on a vehicle or on foot. Nowhere else in the world is it possible to spend time at eye level with one of the planet’s most endangered carnivores at this proximity. Once again, this privilege is not one that should be abused.
The second reason is that by Southern African standards, the vegetation of Mana is relatively sparse, especially on the floodplains. This is ideal when viewing these lithe little predators because, once they get going, they can be extremely difficult to follow as their tireless lope eats up the ground ahead of them. It is only truly possible to appreciate their extraordinary athleticism out in the open.
Their unexpected and unexplained tendency to hunt baboons is also a significant factor in their popularity, as this is behaviour rarely seen outside of the Mana Pools environment.
Waterways
As the drought of the last few years has demonstrated, life in the national park is inexorably linked to water – whether the Zambezi River itself or the pools dotting the wetland region. The four pools that give Mana its name are found inland from the river, across the flood plains, and are filled with water long into the start of the dry season. The river itself teems with hippos, crocodiles, and sharp-toothed tigerfish and for those for whom that kind of thing holds some sort of appeal, it is possible to secure some of the best tiger fishing spots in Africa. Those who would instead do something more enjoyable can travel Mana’s waterways on a river cruise or even take the intimate approach of a canoe. This is a great way to explore the park from a different perspective, paddling peacefully past pods of hippos or perhaps watching elephants feeding peacefully on a nearby bank.
This is also an excellent way to enjoy some of Mana’s 380 bird species and, as carmine bee-eaters hawk overhead, keen birders can scour the banks for rufous-bellied herons and long-toed lapwings, or perhaps even spot a Pel’s fishing owl or African skimmer.
The experience
Are you keen to embark on your own trip to this epic safari destination? Check out our safaris to Mana Pools here. You can choose from ready-made safaris or ask us to build one just for you.
Remote and unspoilt though it may be, Mana Pools is not without luxury for those who would appreciate some pampering with their adventure. For those less luxury-minded (and possibly budget-restricted), there are several campsites to choose from, some of which are even positioned on the banks of the river itself. Booking ahead for the more private campsites is essential, as there are limited spaces available.
Mana Pools is a summer rainfall region, and many camps (and plenty of the roads) are closed during the peak of the rainy season from November until around March. The best time to visit (in terms of wildlife viewing) is during the dry season (between May and October) as animals congregate around the river and the remaining water in the main pools.
All funds and royalties raised from the sale of Africa’s Wild Dogs – A Survival Story will go into the non-profit organisation: Africa’s Wild Dog Survival Fund
Their tails are up, their spirits elevated and their eyes bright – light-footed and eager, the adult African wild dogs are off on the hunt…
Africa’s Wild Dogs – A Survival Story documents my adventures with one of Africa’s most successful predators, my insights into their lives and the outlook for their future.
Pack greeting
Historically, African wild dogs have been poorly understood, and it is only in the past 20 or so years that scientific revelations have started to unravel the nuances of their complex lives. Yet there is still so much to learn. Where do they go and how far do they travel when they are not denning? How will climate change affect the dogs’ hunting and pup rearing abilities? What made the Nagasanga pack in Mana Pools develop a taste for baboon? These are just some of the questions currently under investigation as scientists work to build upon our understanding of these enigmatic animals.
Dog and baboon headDog sleeping under trees
In studying wild dogs, researchers may sit for hours, watching a pack sleep, and drawing the patterns of their black, white, and tan coats for future identification. Even the smallest body language movement could be relevant, and scientists note every twitch of their satellite-dish shaped ears to keep track of their ongoing communication with each other.
Dog with puppy
It is these scientists and on-the-ground conservationists who also work tirelessly to keep the dogs safe – from engaging with enraged farmers who have lost livestock to educating local communities. As a photographer, I wanted to find a way to support this work, to capture and share the spirit and essence of these charismatic creatures.
Dogs playing with stick
We humans would be well-served to learn a thing or two from African wild dogs. They are forever celebrating; dancing and greeting each other with absolute exuberance, even on simply waking from an afternoon nap.
Playing in the waterCurious dog
Wild dogs are naturally curious, and during my time spent observing different packs, individuals regularly approached to investigate. No record of a wild dog attacking a human exists either in folklore or in a document. Whenever pups or adults have come over to ‘talk’ to me, I have always welcomed them in silence without any sense of fear. Instead, I have always felt an overwhelming sense of excitement and privilege.
Curious puppyPuppies are all ears
All funds raised from the sale of my Wild Dog images and all royalties from the sale of Africa’s Wild Dogs – A Survival Story will go into the non-profit organisation: Africa’s Wild Dog Survival Fund and from there to the following organisations across southern Africa in appreciation of their participation in the book:
Dr Harriet Davies-Mostert, Head of Conservation – Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT) South Africa and Chair of WAG – Wild Dog Advisory Group.
Dr Tico McNutt, Botswana Predator Conservation Trust.
Reena Walker University of Idaho – who conducted her Sneeze to Leave research together with the Botswana Predator Conservation Trust.
Prof Scott Creel, Zambian Carnivore Programme.
Dr Rosemary Groom, African Wildlife Conservation Fund (AWCF) – Zimbabwe.
Dr Dave Druce, KZN Wild Dog Management Group
Nick Murray, Bushlife Conservancy: Painted Wolf Conservancy, Bushlife Support Unit Trust, Zimbabwe.
Jocelin Kagan’s passion for wildlife crystallised when she saw her first wild dog in 2010. ‘It was love at first sight’. Since then, Jocelin has been photographing and tracking wild dogs in Mana Pools in Zimbabwe, Botswana, the Timbavati in South Africa, and the Selous Game Reserve in Tanzania. Jocelin has embarked on an ambitious undertaking to make known the plight of this most successful strategist of all predators. She holds Higher Primary Teacher’s Diploma with specialization in Speech & Drama from the University of Cape Town, a Master Practitioner Certification in Neuro-Linguistic Programming and a Henley Management College MBA, and is the published author of four books, an educator, and a public speaker.
While there is a tendency to view the bushmeat trade as a homogenous process with the animals as the generic resource, researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research propose a different approach. They suggest that understanding the drivers of hunting and trading in bushmeat is essential in developing a multifaceted strategy in managing and mitigating the effects on species numbers, especially in areas where consuming bushmeat is a vital aspect of everyday life.
While unsustainable hunting of certain species has had a devastating effect on species throughout the world (and continues to do so), viewing all bushmeat trade through one lens has the potential to over-simplify the complexity of the situation. For example, different approaches are needed for rodents as opposed to primates, since rodents have high reproductive rates and their populations are more resilient when hunted, whereas primate populations are less resilient, and their consumption is associated with increased risks of disease. Researchers set out to understand why certain species are selected by conducting interviews with the people around Taï National Park in Côte d’Ivoire.
Species that produce fewer offspring, like many primates, are threatened by even low levels of hunting. Hunters and consumers who were aware of the negative ecological consequences of unsustainable bushmeat hunting targeted or consumed primates less. Bushmeat traders, however, did not change their behaviour.
Because bushmeat trade is largely illegal, the researchers were initially met with a certain hesitance to provide information but, through careful work with local informants, they were able to interview 348 hunters, 202 bushmeat traders and 985 bushmeat consumers.
They identified several different motivating factors for each member of the trade chain from hunters to consumers and traders: financial gain, nutritional necessity, and cultural reasons. There are over 500 bushmeat species in Sub-Saharan Africa alone, and according to previous research, around 80% of bushmeat in West and Central Africa comes from fast-reproducing generalists such as rodents and small antelopes. These species can be a vital component of food security and livelihoods in certain areas. Interestingly, the research indicated that where hunters or consumers were aware that unsustainable hunting would have negative ecological effects on primates, they responded positively by avoiding hunting or consuming primates. Bushmeat traders, on the other hand, showed no such change in behaviour.
In situations where access to alternative protein sources was restricted, hunters and consumers generally targeted rodents. In contrast, hunters looking to make money from trading in bushmeat either targeted duiker or primates, and primates (7% of the analyzed trade) were almost invariably consumed as a “luxury” meat. Thus, the researchers point out, addressing a shortage of proteins through development-related projects could mitigate one of the main drivers of bushmeat trade but, at the same time, increased economic development could see an increase in primate hunting to feed a growing market for meat seen as a luxury. So, this approach would need to be complemented by educational strategies. Poorly planned interventions could have disparate and even unintended consequences at different stages of the bushmeat trade, as well as for the multiple species affected by it.
The study suggests that while the development, educational and cultural strategies currently broadly applied to control bushmeat consumption have the potential to be effective, they need to be directed at the correct groups of people in the correct manner to avoid wasting scant resources. While there is an understandably urgent need to protect certain species from unsustainable hunting, policies need to be tailored for each specific species. The authors emphasize that there is no “one-size-fits-all” solution to bushmeat consumption and strategies that aim to have conservation benefits need to be based on research that provides a clear understanding of the process within each community.
As Hjalmar Kühl, one of the leaders of the research team explains: “If we really want to solve the problem of the overexploitation of wildlife and reduce the threats associated with it, for species conservation and human well-being, we need to tackle it at its roots. We cannot continue ignoring this problem, but we need to invest resources and develop strategies that really help to create a more sustainable human-wildlife co-existence.”
Researchers studied a wildlife trading network in Côte d’Ivoire, West Africa, and compiled one of the most comprehensive data sets to date.
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Interesting question: Is there any difference ethically in the KILLING FOR FUN of an apex predator of the oceans versus a free-roaming lion or leopard?
I ask because of my confusion stemming from a recent Facebook post by a respected wildlife activist. She posted a photo of herself triumphantly holding up the bloodied carcass of a yellowfin tuna she had just killed. She referred to the kill as a ‘bucket list’ moment, and she was clearly very enamoured with herself. Her friends were ecstatic and heralded her achievement as something quite extraordinary. The post and reactions were reminiscent of a trophy hunting post – based on the imagery and energy of the subsequent praise. Hence my confusion and question.
Note that I am NOT addressing sustainable harvesting arguments in this instance, nor the eating of the fish. Yes, I do eat fish and venison – when I know that they are sustainably harvested. My question is specific and relates to the selective way we experience and express our moral outrage over the killing of animals – what with her being a wildlife activist and all. I would welcome constructive and thoughtful responses to ceo@africageographic.com.
Our first story below will have you develop a new respect for ‘flatdogs’. Those of us who spend extended time in the bushveld know better than to hang about on the banks of water bodies, but few appreciate just how SPECIAL this prehistoric survivor is. In our second story, we provide rare images of a gorgeous STRAWBERRY leopard. Please note the bit at the end about protection against poachers and trophy hunting (sigh). And last in our list of specially-prepared stories (just for you) is an excellent question that could have some of you feeling a shade uncomfortable. Cycads are extremely popular garden features, and there is a massive COLLECTOR demand for large and rare individuals. You may be surprised at how many cycads in your neighbourhood were poached…
Note: See our editorial comment below if you are concerned about the possibility of this leopard being trophy hunted or poached.
Just 35 minutes from Pretoria you will find Gauteng’s first and only free-roaming Big 5 game reserve open to the public – Dinokeng Game Reserve. The reserve grew from a concept into reality through a partnership between local government and landowners/farmers and conservationists. September marked its 9th Birthday; in this time, it has come a long way from being the home of a few species of plains game and small predators to a fully-fledged and recognised Big 5 tourist location.
The past 9 years have seen the introduction of many species including lion, elephant, buffalo, black rhino, spotted hyena and cheetah. Although we have a great diversity of species, the lack of substantiated leopard sightings was a concern for us.
Leopard Conservation Project joined forces with Dinokeng management to track and trace leopards within the reserve – using a variety of methods ranging from trail cameras through to physical tracking of scat and spoor. 19 months into the project, and we had minimal success; only logging spoor and scat but no physical sightings or trail-cam photos. The elusive leopard had remained very secretive and evasive.
This all changed in late August during an aerial census of the reserve. During a routine grid flight taking photos of wildlife within the reserve, management team member Boshoff and his rangers flushed what they presumed to be a lion from the bushes within the wilderness area. Several photos were taken during this period, and when reviewing the photos, the management team noticed that this was a huge male leopard and that he had a rather strange colouration.
This was exciting for us – considering this was the first official documented leopard in the reserve. We subsequently met with reserve management and reviewed the photos. We had no doubt that this was a massive male leopard, and after further research and consultation with various parties, we confirmed that this rather special individual was an erythristic leopard – an extremely rare genetic trait.
The strawberry/golden/red leopard or pink panther was first seen in 2002 and only photographed for the first time in 2012 in Madikwe Game Reserve. To date, there have been fewer than a dozen sightings – predominantly within the North West, Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces of South Africa. Erythrism requires the mating of two individuals carrying the rare genetic trait – at extremely low odds. The erythristic mutation causes the normally black pigmented rosettes to change into a reddish-brown colour. There is usually a total absence of black pigmentation on these rare leopards. As a result, these leopards appear pinkish in colour; hence the common names previously mentioned.
The fact that this leopard was found in the Dinokeng Game Reserve is especially important as it offers the reserve the opportunity to boast all of the BIG 5 as well as the fact that this specific mutation within the leopard population may be spreading beyond the previously documented range.
Dinokeng Game Reserve and Leopard Conservation Project believe this to be a unique opportunity to increase our research into this extraordinary leopard. We are expanding our operations in and around the reserve and would like to embark on a project to collect DNA samples from this particular leopard and from those in and around the greater Dinokeng area – to find if this mutated gene is being carried by more individuals in this range. It is our hope that we can collectively play an active role in protecting the leopards within our reserve and surroundings and hopefully increase the likelihood of having the strawberry leopard successfully increase its numbers.
As a footnote, since the initial sighting, he has been photographed on a trail cam within the reserve and, excitingly, there has been a second leopard photographed.
Editorial comment: We have confirmed with both the authors and Dinokeng management that in publishing this article, there is no increased risk to the safety of this leopard and no trophy hunting of the individual will be permitted. Their statements through direct correspondence are included below:
“Dinokeng is 100% committed to the conservation of animals in the reserve and not trophy hunting. We are a Game Reserve dedicated to the Conservation of Wildlife. We have specifically looked at various species that are key to building healthy gene pools and active populations within the Reserve and the Leopard is a key species we wish to protect within this Reserve”. – Mike Braun
“We can assure that the leopard is protected within the reserve.” – David Boshoff (Reserve General Manager of Dinokeng Game Reserve)]
When watching any animal in Africa smaller than a rhino approach the water’s edge, there is an almost palpable sense of terror to their body language. Slender limbed antelope skitter backwards and forwards before barely touching the surface with their lips, zebra snort and startle and even the ferocious lions snarl pre-emptively before quenching their thirst. Wildebeest driven to cross East Africa’s mighty rivers pile up on the banks, worked up into a frenzy of fear, too afraid to be the first to make the plunge. And for good reason. Crocodile!
Beneath the murky waters of Africa’s rivers and dams lurk prehistoric predators – lumbering giants whose presence is revealed only by an insidious ripple, waiting to explode in a fury of teeth and water. The wild animals of Africa know this. Stamped across their internal maps over every water source is the message: here be dragons.
Quick introduction
Neither dragons nor dinosaurs, crocodiles are the paradigm of an evolutionary recipe that proved successful – little about them has changed in the last 100 or so million years. They are perfectly designed apex predators with potentially massive bodies powered by robust muscles, covered in armoured scales and driven by clinical, calculating instinct. Crocodilians are also the ultimate masters of the ambush approach, drawing on their innate reptilian capacity for absolute stillness until launching an assault.
Of the five recognised crocodile species in Africa, the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) is by far the most common and one of the largest crocodilian species in the world, second only in size to the saltwater crocodiles of Asia, Micronesia, and Australia. They have a life expectancy of up to 80 years and range in size from 30cm hatchlings to adults weighing over 500kg, with the largest ever recorded individual measuring 6.45m from snout to tail and weighing 1,089kg. Somewhat unexpectedly, they are more closely related to birds than they are to other reptiles.
Evolution
It is common to hear crocodiles described as “living fossils”, but this is not entirely accurate. Their ancestors successfully survived a mass extinction event around 250 million years ago. From there, the surviving evolutionary line branched into the Archosaurs (“the ruling lizards”) – with one earlier branch leading to the crocodilians and the other later branch leading to the dinosaurs (and, ultimately, birds). Unlike their dinosaur cousins, however, the crocodilian ancestors were destined to survive another mass extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous.
Fossils of these crocodilian ancestors indicate a far greater variety in terms of size, shape, and hunting styles than seen today. Some were terrestrial and predatory and bounded across land to chase down their prey, whilst others were predominantly herbivorous or omnivorous. For those that took to the water, all weight restrictions lifted and, for a time, mega-crocs the sizes of buses haunted the oceans and deep rivers of early Earth. From the Late Cretaceous and with the extinction of the dinosaurs, through ice ages, and the subsequent rise of the mammals, the surviving crocodilians have barely altered.
Perfect predators
The lack of evolutionary action can be at least partly explained by a successful foundation for exceptional hunting abilities. While younger Nile crocodiles are primarily reliant on regular meals of invertebrates, amphibians, and fish, those that survive to adulthood will attain the status of apex predator, capable of ambushing large prey twice their size including buffalo, giraffe, humans and even young elephants.
Unique among reptiles, crocodiles have a four-chambered heart, improving the efficiency of the transportation of oxygenated blood around the body which, combined with extremely high lactic acid levels, allows them to stay submerged for up to 2 hours at a time (provided they remain inactive underwater). Specialised muscles attached to the lungs, liver and pelvis can contract to pull the lungs backwards into the body cavity, changing the crocodile’s buoyancy and allowing it to submerge without creating ripples and alerting potential prey to their presence.
It is relatively well-known that Nile crocodiles have one of the strongest bite forces in the animal kingdom – some 30 times that of a human at 5,000 pounds per square inch. This is powered by enormous muscles that attach behind the skull and wrap around the lower jaw, allowing the jaw to close (and stay closed) with tremendous strength whilst still maintaining a low profile in the water. There are between 64-68 basic and cone-like teeth rigidly fixed into the jaw, designed to withstand considerable force from every direction. These may be replaced throughout the crocodile’s life. When a crocodile pulls its prey into the water, these teeth maintain a grip as the crocodile goes into a “death roll”, using its powerful tail to spin the prey underwater until it drowns.
Unspecialised teeth mean that crocodiles cannot chew or bite off chunks of meat so, for larger meals, they tear chunks of flesh away before swallowing them whole, hooves, horns and bones included. Their tracheas are reinforced to avoid being crushed when swallowing large portions of food and their stomachs distend in every direction to accommodate awkwardly shaped meals. To complete the process, crocodilians produce stomach acid some ten times the strength of a human’s gastric acid.
Like all reptiles, they are ectotherms, meaning that their metabolisms are slow and large crocodiles can survive for months without a meal.
Doting mothers
While their approach to hunting is silent and deadly, crocodiles are surprisingly vocal animals and never more so than during the breeding season (the timing of which varies depending on the area). Males show off by “roaring”, slapping their snouts on the water and exhaling sharply, intimidating rivals, and attracting females.
Two months after mating, the female selects a suitable nesting site on the shore or in a dry riverbed and digs a hole in which to lay her eggs. The clutch size will vary depending on the size of the female but is usually between 25-80 eggs. Unlike other crocodilian species, the female Nile crocodile does not use moribund vegetation to incubate the eggs so she will be selective in ensuring that the nest receives adequate sunlight to maintain the temperature. Like several other reptile species, crocodiles have temperature-dependent sex determination – if the temperature is between 31.7˚ and 34.5 ˚C, the offspring will hatch as males, anything above or below that range will hatch as females.
The mother guards her nest, often aggressively, for the three-month incubation period until the hatchlings begin to make bird-like chirps to indicate their readiness to escape the nest. The female then carefully digs open the nest and may even take the hatchlings in her mouth to water. For up to two years, she will stay close to them, defending them (though the hatchlings hunt for themselves immediately upon leaving the nest).
Despite the best efforts of the mothers, the mortality rate of hatchling Nile crocodiles is exceptionally high. Until they reach a comfortable size, baby crocodiles are faced with a multitude of potential predators: from monitor lizards to birds, and any number of opportunistic mammal species. In some areas, studies indicate that only 10% of the eggs survive to hatching, and just 1% of those will reach adulthood.
Maneaters and monsters
The young crocodiles approximately double their length during the first two years, spending almost as much of that time on land hunting invertebrates as they do in the water. However, as they grow, their hunting habits become almost entirely aquatic, and they become more dangerous to people.
According to the IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group, Nile crocodiles are responsible for more attacks on humans than any other species of crocodile, including saltwater crocodiles. This is easy to understand in context, given their massive size and widespread distribution throughout the various waterways of much of the African continent. In areas where human populations are reliant on this water for fishing, drinking, and bathing encounters with crocodiles are inevitable and, on most occasions, fatal. There are no reliable estimates as to the number of people killed by Nile crocodiles every year (in many circumstances, the victim simply disappears or the attack goes unreported). Still, experts estimate that the number of attacks on people exceeds 300 per year. According to the most recent research, 63% of these attacks are fatal. Almost all of these attacks occur near the edge of or in the water.
While their lives are water-dependent, large crocodiles may cover large distances in search of new territory or better resources. They may choose to occupy unlikely-looking wallows or dams in the process. When in doubt, throughout most of southern and East Africa, bodies of water should be treated with caution.
Conflict and consumerism
Naturally, this propensity for grabbing imprudent visitors to the water’s edge has not served to create a particularly positive reputation for the Nile crocodiles of Africa. This, combined with the use of their skins for high-quality leather, led to widespread persecution of the Nile crocodile across most of its natural range, particularly during the 20th century. Given their low survival rates and slow maturation, populations that have declined due to human impact are often slow to recover. However, with the increasing number of crocodile farms, the IUCN Red List currently classifies wild Nile crocodiles as being of “least concern”, with the most recent estimate putting their total number somewhere between 250,000 – 500,000.
This is not applicable across their entire range, however, particularly in Central and West Africa, where their numbers are far less stable. In some areas, they have been eradicated entirely. Conflict with people, loss of suitable wetland habitats, bushmeat hunting and even entanglement in fishing nets are all potential threats to the future of the crocodile species in Africa. Other regions have stable populations that can be observed on a Malawi safari adventure, for example.
Conclusion
There can be no question that Nile crocodiles have acquired a particularly sinister reputation, despite the best efforts of certain conservation television and YouTube personalities. In many ways, they are difficult to sympathise with – powerful, self-contained, and entirely expressionless (with somewhat graphic table manners), they are a throwback to a time when reptiles ruled the planet. Yet while they may be prehistoric, that does not equate to primitive, and it is this ancient combination of brawn and stealth that has kept the Nile crocodile at the top of the food chain for millions of years.
The most endangered living organisms in the world today are not rhinos, elephants, or even pangolins – they are plants called cycads, and they are worth millions of dollars annually in a thriving illegal market.
Specifically, many species of the Encephalartos family of southern African cycads are either extinct or on the brink of disappearing from the wild thanks to the same human emotion behind the threat to Africa’s mega-fauna – greed.
Passionate collectors are fuelling an illegal market which sees increasingly rare plants stolen from the wild and exported worldwide. It is estimated that about 15,000 rare cycads, worth more than US$600 million, have been illegally traded over the past 20 years.
Unlike the trade in rhino horn and elephant ivory, there is no particular race or country for armchair experts and xenophobes to point the finger at in this racket – the person responsible for the demise of these national treasures could be your next-door neighbour in Johannesburg, Los Angeles, Sydney, Dubai or Kuala Lumpur.
With their long spikey leaves, cycads might resemble palms, but they are actually gymnosperms, ancient seed plants most closely related to conifers. Like pine trees, they produce cones, often large and garishly coloured, which adds to their appeal to collectors. They are also known as the broodboom, or “bread tree” in Afrikaans, because in times of famine the woody core of the caudex (as the stem or ‘trunk’ is known) could be boiled, fermented and ground into meal. Cycads also have a place in African traditional medicine.
Suurberg Cycad – Encephalartos longifolius
This, however, is not the primary threat they face, according to Phakamani M’Afrika Xaba, Conservation Research Horticulturalist at Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden in Cape Town.
“It’s bragging rights,” Xaba said of the real danger to cycads. Extremely wealthy collectors from around the world compete to see who can show off the biggest or most valuable collection of cycads. Fortunately, Xaba added, there are several cycad enthusiasts and farmers who are interested in the conservation of cycads and contributing to cycad research, such as the Cycads Society Branch in the Western Cape.
Collectors pay for cycads by the seed or centimetre of caudex length. With some plants fetching US$1000 per seed, a plant no more than a metre high could be worth US$100,000 – the value of a decent-sized rhino horn. Unlike rhino poachers, however, cycad smugglers are rarely up against armed rangers, and their crime has so far attracted a fraction of the media coverage devoted to iconic mammal species. And nor are the middlemen doing the dirty work, according to Xaba.
“People are poor here in South Africa, and in developing countries globally were cycads occur, and it’s very easy to exploit that,” he said. “You can go into a village and offer someone less than US$6 to dig up a plant from the wild, which you can sell for US$3000. Collectors should put more positive energy into conserving the cycads in habitat, or restoration of population, rather than removing them from the wild.”
Even though the cycad trade is legal and regulated, this does not stop the plants from being taken illegally from the wild. In fact, the opposite is true – the rarer the plant becomes in nature, the greater its value to collectors. The cycads most in demand by collectors are those that are already extinct in the wild, or very close to extinction. Among those most in demand, due to their rarity in the wild are the Venda cycad (E. hirsutus) and Heenan’s cycad (E. heenanii), while others in the high-value bracket include the Kaapsehoop cycad (E. laevifolius) and the Albany cycad (E. latifrons).
It is also easy for illegal dealers to get around the existing system, which requires permits for the trade and export of cycads. Cycads can survive weeks without water, so smugglers will sometimes simply drive their plants out of South Africa and export them from neighbouring countries with even fewer regulatory checks. Seeds and suckers (young cycads, also known as pups) and even medium-sized stems are also simply posted out of South Africa.
Eugene Swart, Deputy Director, Biodiversity Enforcement,with the Department of Environmental Affairs, makes the point that much of the damage to wild populations was done many years ago.
“During the past year or two, great strides have been made in combating illicit activities, which results in the successful prosecution of offenders with unique sentences,” Swart said. “For example, one convicted landowner had to forfeit 400 hectares of land which was donated to conservation.”
There have been fines issued ranging from R40,000 to R400,000, and in 2015 a trio of cycad poachers was imprisoned for a total of 25 years. The penalties are still well-short of those meted out to rhino poachers, and it’s fair to say awareness of the plight of cycads is not as high as for mammal species, but there are moves afoot to change that in South Africa.
Dedicated cycad champions are doing good work. At Kirstenbosch, Xaba and his team are working on artificial pollination techniques to help restore numbers of the rare E. latifrons, which numbers fewer than 70 in the wild.
Meanwhile, botanist Michele Hofmeyr has set up the South Africa Plant Conservation Trust, whose aim is to protect, research, conserve and support the management of rare and endangered plants.
The trust, established in conjunction with the NGO Conservation Outcomes, will also focus on training of a new generation of young botanists to fill a gap in the market.
“We need to combat ‘plant blindness’,” Hofmeyr said. “People look at the bush and think there are plenty of trees and flowers and it’s hard for them to get excited or passionate over a plant that’s missing because it has been collected to extinction from the wild.”
Allied to this blindness is a misconception peddled by collectors and middlemen that they are actually doing a service to rare plants by taking them from the wild, ‘protecting’ them in their gardens and producing seedlings. This ignores the fact that it was many of these same collectors who were responsible for the removal of cycads from the wild.
“Ecosystem services need to stay intact to maintain their integrity. If you take a plant out of its ecosystem, it’s like taking a tiny cog from a watch. You might not notice it missing initially, but it will not work properly, and then it’s too late.” Hofmeyr said.
Tony next to the loneliest plant in the world
“We all need to work towards conserving and appreciating our green heritage and creating an awareness of the value of all our indigenous plants. Cycads are the most vulnerable of all of these, so think twice before you are tempted to buy a cycad from an unknown or unreliable source.”
See Tony Park’s profile below. His latest novel, Last Survivor, deals with the illegal trade in cycads. For more information on the South Africa Plant Conservation Trust email michele@auroraafrica.co.za
When the billowing plumes of Atlantic mist part to reveal the enchanting Dorob coastline, expanses of vividly coloured water sprinkled with thousands of lesser and greater flamingo appear in a mesmerizing kaleidoscope of colour. Flying this section of coastline is in short, an aerial photographer’s and nature lover’s paradise and will take your breath away.
Sinuous inlets and waterways meander across the mudflats of the large saltwater lagoon of Sandwich Harbour. Namib Naukluft.An artist’s palette, the colours of salt adorn the coastal flats in a profusion of crusts and ruddy blotches. Skeleton coast.
To the north of the Dorob coastline, brine pans line the shores in a display of colour, shape and texture that leaves one’s heart racing with the ethereal beauty of it all. Further south a patchwork series of lime and raspberry saline lakes, edges encrusted with crystals, sparkle against a treeless landscape until they reach the shores of the Walvis Bay Lagoon.
Pale flocks of flamingo adorn the emerald brine pans south of Walvis Bay.Serpentine streamers of turquoise stand out in vivid contrast to the pale low tide sandbanks. Walvisbay Lagoon.
The cold Benguela current and its nutrient-rich waters, the commercial saline lakes and the Walvis Bay lagoon collectively made the area famous for the incredible profusion of birdlife it attracts each year. In this saline ecosystem, vast quantities of phytoplankton are produced which support other marine organisms such as algae and brine shrimp, food for many hundreds of thousands of resident and migratory birds including cormorants, terns, avocets and a profusion of shorebirds.
An upwelling of nutrients from the sea floor provides sustenance for a psychedelic algal bloom on the Atlantic Ocean.Like a giant marine lung; turquoise bronchi branch out through russet alveoli bringing with them the nutrients and habitat required by vast flocks of lesser and greater Flamingo that grace these shores. Walvisbay Lagoon.
According to Birdlife South Africa, the mudflats and lagoons sheltered from the open ocean by a sand spit at Pelican Point make this the most important coastal wetland in southern Africa and is one of the three most important coastal wetlands in Africa in terms of numbers and species of birds.
Seeming to float on an ocean of pinks, coastal rock outcrops emerge from the brine ponds north of Swakopmund.]
So how is it that these saline lakes display such gaudy colours? From lime green, clear turquoise to bright red these variations are caused by fluctuating concentrations of salinity and minerality and the various organisms that flourish in each. Cyanobacteria create the blue-green tones, and an algae called Dunaliella salina produces the rich pinks and reds. Brine shrimp rich in beta carotene are responsible for the rosy pink colour of the flocks of flamingos that forage this watery wonderland.
Serpentine streamers of pink stand out in vivid contrast to the dark shores of the Atlantic coastline.
Flying thousands of hours in their specially modified aircraft, aerial photographers Jay and Jan Roode have spent more than a decade photographing some of the most remote and spectacular wilderness areas of Southern Africa from above.
The continent of Africa has always held an irresistible allure and fascination for them, and they seem content only when free to roam the skies, capturing awe-inspiring images of the natural wonders of the region from above.
Their photography communicates their passion and reverence for the vast wild spaces of the region. As it allows us to start seeing whole ecosystems as entities in their own right; ecosystems that hold within them hundreds of thousands of expressions of life that need to be conserved.
Legend has it that there was once a young baobab, the first of its kind, growing near a small waterhole. The baobab spent many hours admiring its attractive neighbours – the elegant, fanned palms and luscious green fig-trees, verdant sausage trees with their bright profusion of pink flowers and darkly mysterious jackalberry trees. Finally, the day came when the young baobab was tall enough to spy its reflection, and it was horrified by what it saw. Instead of the lean, sophisticated figure it had imagined, it was bulbous and bulging, with wrinkled bark and tiny, nondescript flowers. Offended by this perceived injustice, the young baobab complained and complained to the creator until its perpetual whining reached a fever pitch and the tree found itself ripped from the ground and flung back into the earth, head first, far from water, never to see its reflection again. Nowhere else is this more evident than Ruaha.
Looking upon the baobabs scattered across the plains of Ruaha National Park in Tanzania, it is not hard to see why these mysterious “upside-down” trees have been the inspiration for countless such legends. The ancient baobabs are just part of the scenic beauty of Ruaha; an untamed wilderness that is perhaps one of Africa’s best-kept secrets.
The National Park and the larger ecosystem
Ruaha National Park is now over 20,000km² (2 million hectares), thanks to the inclusion of Usangu Game Reserve and important wetland spaces into the park in 2008. The semi-arid park is one of the largest protected areas in East Africa and is just part of a vital ecosystem in central Tanzania which includes Muhesi, Kisigo and Rungwa Game Reserves, as well as surrounding Wildlife Management Areas and community regions. The entire Ruaha landscape extends close to 50,000km² (5 million hectares) and, according to the Ruaha Carnivore Project, is home to around a tenth of the world’s lions, as well as the largest elephant population in Tanzania. The unfenced landscape and large numbers of wildlife have resulted in some of the highest levels of human-wildlife conflict in Africa, with several organizations working to mitigate these effects.
The park is named for the Ruaha River which flows through the Great Rift Valley and, along with a few larger tributaries, this river is one of the only permanent water sources in the park. No doubt the existence of this central river system is just one of the reasons why the greater Ruaha ecosystem has a rich and complex history. The first trade routes used by Arab caravans travelled through what is now the park, and, in later years, early European explorers followed these paths as well. In the late 19th century, the celebrated Chief Mkwawa of the Hehe people resisted German attacks before eventually fleeing to the rocky outcrops in the park.
Scenery and seasons
These rocky outcrops are just one aspect of the dramatic scenic variety of Ruaha, which straddles the transition between open East African savannahs and Miombo woodland. The rivers are probably the main attractions, flowing through steep rocky gorges in sections before stretching out lazily to create wide, sandy beaches fringed by towering palm trees. There are two rainy seasons in Ruaha, similar to the seasons in the Serengeti and Maasai Mara, with ‘short rains’ falling during November and December and the much heavier downpours of the ‘long rains’ occurring in March and April. During some years this distinction is quite blurred and the rainy season extends from November until April. The dry season runs from June until October, and it is during this period that the rivers become all-important to the wildlife of Ruaha and large herds of elephants, giraffe, buffalo, kudu and impala are drawn to the water, trailing predators in their wake.
Away from the rivers, the Ruaha scenery is no less impressive. The ancient baobab trees are among some of the largest in Africa and are essentially self-contained ecosystems in their own right. Fruit bats pollinate them, and their hollows serve as nest sites for anything from owls to ground hornbills and are home to countless reptiles, insects, and bats. The succulent-like capacity for water storage in the bark of the baobab, and their delicious, nutritious fruits makes the baobabs truly irresistible to elephants. Even these giants of Africa are dwarfed by the massive trees towering over them. Some of these baobabs even have old spikes driven into their bark to make ladders for the previous human occupants of the park to harvest honey from beehives.
Wildlife abounds
As already mentioned, Ruaha is said to be home to some 10% of the world’s lion population and is listed as one of Tanzania’s Lion Conservation Units, with regular sightings of large lion prides of 20 or more individuals. Leopard, cheetah, spotted hyena and painted wolf (African wild dog) sightings are also frequent, especially when the prey species are forced to congregate close to water. Lucky visitors might even have a chance to spot the elusive striped hyena. Elephant sightings are a given and, though they tend to be more dispersed during the drier months (probably to avoid over-utilizing an area), the rainy season can see combined herds of hundreds of elephants moving together. Ruaha National Park is also one of the few places where greater and lesser kudu occur together.
Not to be outdone, the birdlife is equally varied, and over 570 different species have been recorded in the park due to the diverse habitats of the ecosystem. While the dry season may be the best time for mammal sightings, the rainy months offer the best birding opportunities as seasonal migrants like the sooty and Eleonora’s falcons move through the area. Black eagles, ashy starlings, black-masked and yellow-collared lovebirds and the Ruaha hornbills (Tanzanian red-billed hornbill) are all resident in the area; and the inclusion of the Usangu swamps means exciting new opportunities for enthusiastic birders. Those that do wish to visit the swamp need to do so by arrangement with the park management, as most of it is still inaccessible for now.
Best of all worlds
As is the case with most national parks, there are a wide variety of accommodation options to suit most budgets, with the added appeal that the park rates are lower than the more popular reserves of East Africa. While it is possible to self-drive through the park, the more exclusive lodge options will offer more ways to explore the extraordinary landscape, including providing expertly guided drives, night drives, photographic guidance and walking safaris. The park’s proximity to the enormous Selous Game Reserve also makes it possible to combine trips into one all-encompassing safari experience.
While names like Serengeti and Maasai Mara may dominate the safari scene in East Africa, Ruaha National Park is perhaps East Africa’s best-kept secret. Those who go to the effort of travelling slightly off the beaten track are well rewarded with a truly wild, untouched piece of Africa at her finest and, best of all, very seldom have to share with others. For those searching for a pure safari experience, unsullied by modern development and crowds of tourists, Ruaha National Park offers the perfect combination of breath-taking beauty, a profusion of predators and an unparalleled sense of isolation and peace.
For accommodation options at the best prices visit our collection of camps and lodges: private travel & conservation club. If you are not yet a member, see how to JOIN below this story.
Much of the scientific understanding of the public perception of trophy hunting is based on the views of the Western public, while most existing studies tend to overlook the opinions of African people. One researcher set out to analyse the responses of three social media pages with predominantly African followers to understand better how African people view trophy hunting.
Mucha Mkono of the University of Queensland focused her research on the Facebook pages of BBC News Africa, News24.com and NewsDay-Zimbabwe, exploring and categorising the responses to posts relating to trophy-hunting subjects (1,070 posts in total).
She identified the prevalence of three major patterns and themes in the responses of African readers:
The neo-colonial privileging of the Western elite;
animals being valued over human lives; and
the perceived greed of African politicians allowing the exploitation of wildlife resources.
The first of these – the neo-colonial character of trophy hunting – was one of the dominant patterns in the analysed social media responses, with 70% of African participants viewing trophy hunting as a privilege given to rich Westerners, economically excluding Africans. Many of the objections to trophy hunting were based not on animal welfare concerns but rather on the more complex historical and postcolonial associations surrounding it. Mkono points out that this pattern of responses resonates with the concept of “distributive (in)justice”, which centres around concerns related to whether monetary gains from the system flow back to local communities. Where this fails to happen, accrued revenues re-enact economic imbalances of the colonial past.
Around 80% of posters also criticised the Western community for championing animal rights causes while overlooking the suffering of African people living in proximity to the wildlife – and questioning the West’s assumed moral authority. From the analysis of the social media comments, the suggestion is that many African people feel that Westerners fail to appreciate or understand the impact or cost of co-existing with wildlife. Many of the responses also indicated a general dismissal of the West’s criticism of violence against animals as being exaggerated.
The final major criticism of trophy hunting was directed at African politicians and leaders, characterising them as greedy and lacking a moral compass. 60% of the responses indicated a feeling that elite groups were taking advantage of both the economic climate of Africa as well as the corrupt politicians, with trophy hunting resulting as a product of this complicity.
Naturally, there are acknowledged limitations to some of these results, not least of which is that it excludes by default the opinions of Africans not active on social media, particularly in areas where internet access is non-existent. The opinions of those living on the boundaries of protected areas or employed by the trophy hunting industry may not have been expressed. Mkono also suggests the possibility that sensationalist stories and bias in the original articles may also have directed the nature of the responses. There are also outlying views of certain responses by African people, including those who objected strongly to the animal welfare aspects of trophy hunting and the potential ramifications to the tourism industry.
Mkono’s study offers a different perspective on a debate that tends to centre around the moral acceptability of killing animals and the links between trophy hunting and conservation. The critiques of trophy hunting presented by African opinions on social media come from an alternative standpoint – one which observes a neo-colonial distribution of power, wealth, and access to resources. The study concludes that regardless of the conservation aspects of trophy hunting, “it is crucial to continue to interrogate consumptive forms of tourism such as trophy hunting, not only in terms of their economic value but also concerning their moral integrity, and from the perspective of local communities. In that endeavour, Africa’s leaders are likely to have more support if they find meaningful ways of engaging their citizens in wildlife policy decisions.”
The five striking and powerful cheetah males sit motionless, shoulder to shoulder, staring at grazing antelopes on a sun-drenched grassland in the Maasai Mara National Reserve. Suddenly, their attention is drawn to another cheetah, sitting at a distance in the shade of a bush. Driven by instinct, all five set out at speed to investigate the intruder, intent on discovering which cheetah has wandered into their territory and confident in their own size and strength. The female, seeing the huge males approaching, dashes for the slim protection offered by a nearby thicket, followed by her tiny cub. It is Nora with her 2-month old daughter, and she has suddenly found herself facing five male cheetahs: the largest known male coalition in the Maasai Mara.
An extraordinary coalition
This coalition of five male cheetahs has been named the Tano Bora coalition, meaning ‘The Magnificent Five’ in the local Maa language of the region. Each male has also been given a local name: Olpadan (‘Great Shooter’ in Maa), Olarishani (‘Judge’ in Maa), Leboo (‘The one who is always within a group’ in Maa), Winda (‘Hunter’ in Kiswahili), and Olonoyok (‘The one who puts efforts to achieve better results’ in Maa). Since they arrived in the Maasai Mara, the five have proved to be an extraordinary force to be reckoned with and turned people’s understanding of cheetah behaviour on its head. So how did such a coalition come to be?
A female cheetah typically leaves her cubs when they are around 20 months old, and siblings will stay together in a group for several months. Once they reach sexual maturity, female and male siblings separate. Cheetah males can either become solitary (if there was the only male in the litter) or form coalitions – lifelong unions, formed by the males-littermates, which in some cases, may accept unrelated males into the fold, or even temporary groups of unrelated individuals.
Cheetah litters may be large, but the mortalities rates for cubs are extremely high
The group of five young males came into the Maasai Mara National Reserve from the adjacent Naboisho conservancy at the end of 2016. Based on what we observed at the time, we believe that the coalition is made up of three separate parts, as two of the males were initially larger, and the three others were smaller and, therefore, most likely slightly younger. We do know that one of the smallest males at the time – Olpadan – split from his sister in November 2016 before joining four other males in December 2016. (His sister, Siligi also gained notoriety in 2019, when she emerged with 7 cubs, the largest littler recorded in the Maasai Mara.) Within a few months, Olpadan grew and established himself as the dominant male of the coalition.
Life in a group provides several benefits to its members: males can hold a “better” territory with more access to favourable habitat and prey; they can take down larger prey; they care for each other by sharing responsibilities in terms of vigilance and territorial patrols, and numbers provide better defence against rival males and kleptoparasites. The Tano Bora males are no exception to this rule and cooperate in everything, apart from breeding.
Breeding rights
The described encounter with the five males was not Nora’s first. Four of the males encountered her in December 2017, and Olarishani used his chance to mate with her while other members were off hunting. When the other three noticed the courting couple, they immediately rushed back and, not to be outdone, started mounting the pair. When in February 2019 the coalition again encountered Nora, she was with her single cub. Interestingly, although the males attacked Nora, they did not touch her cub, who fearlessly defended herself from approaching males by howling loudly, hissing, and growling at them. After investigating Nora’s reproductive status, all males lost interest and left her and the cub in peace. The same situation played out with another female – Rani. In March 2018, Olpadan mated with her, while two other males made attempts to mount. When the coalition next encountered Rani in June 2019, she was with a 4-month-old single cub. Again, the males were only interested in Rani and did not attack the cub. In August 2018, Olonyok mated with Nashipai, and 11 months later, all five males came across Nashipai with her two 2.5-months old cubs. Of all five males, Olonyok was the most persistent and interested in the female. He did not give up and returned to the female twice even after all the other males had left the spot.
Nora’s cub bravely defended herself against the onslaught of the five males
The most likely explanation is that, along with the successful mating with one male, the attempts of the other coalition members to mount the female (but in fact mounting other males) helped to prevent an attack on the cub. Each of the males could have thought they had sired the cub. On the one hand, by mating with multiple males, females gain benefits including confusing paternity and thus avoiding infanticide, or else increasing the genetic diversity of offspring within a litter. On the other hand, competition among males for a female in oestrus reduces chances for all of the members of a male coalition to mate. Sometimes, only one dominates and gets the opportunity to mate successfully, which can be particularly problematic for unrelated males in a coalition. To mitigate this, the Tano Bora males implement useful tactics – one male separates from a group for a day or two, following and mating with a female and then re-joins his coalition-mates. Each member of the Tano Bora coalition has been observed mating with different females.
Who’s in charge?
Social animal groupings typically have a hierarchy with a linear or near-linear ranking and with expressed leadership of one of the members. In well-maintained cheetah coalitions, members share responsibilities, the level of affiliative behaviours between members is high, and aggression is low. However, in cases where the group consists of unrelated members, cheetah males face hierarchical instability. Olpadan became the leader of the coalition soon after he had joined the other four males. He would initiate hunts and lead the group across large distances, often walking for hours at a time. He was also the most successful hunter. By mid-2017, another big male – Olarishani – became co-leader, and both males began taking turns to decide when and which direction to move, where to cross rivers and how to approach a hunt. Interestingly, Olarishani also played the role of peacemaker during intragroup fights. The unfortunate Olonyok was often the target of Olpadan’s reverse aggression (aggression seen in a situation where, for example, groups of tourists disturb the cheetahs) and often these fights would escalate to involve all males. Under these circumstances, Olarishani would always step in to protect Olonyok.
Indications of leadership can be subtle, such as choosing the direction that the group moves in
In most cases, the dominance hierarchy is relatively stable, and members usually step aside when confronted by the leader. However, suppose the leader is weakened by injury, disease, or senility. In that case, the shift in ranking may occur, and the individual with the highest rank will move down to the lowest position. During intraspecific fights, cheetah males target anogenital area of rivals, and there have even been cases where males have bitten and cut off the testicles of intruders. That is what happened to Olpadan. His dominant status began to waver around the beginning of 2019, when two members of the coalition, Winda and Leboo, began to attack him regularly. In two cases, the fight happened during the courtship with different females. One fight in mid-March 2019 resulted in a serious injury to one of Olpadan’s testicles.
A fall from grace for Olpadan
After the necessary veterinary intervention and orchiectomy surgery, Olpadan lost his leadership position entirely, and Olarishani and Winda stepped forward to become the dominant members of the coalition. From being the most dominant, Olpadan became the lowest-ranking male in the group, the last in all joint activities from moving to feeding and was often the target of aggression when the coalition fed on smaller prey. Interestingly, Olonyok, whom Olpadan had targeted, became the one who tolerated Olpadan feeding next to him and who engaged with the ex-leader in mutual grooming after eating.
Cheetah social life is complex – unrelated males form alliances and maintain bonds for as long as it benefits all members of a group. Under certain circumstances, one of the members may start looking for an alternative group to join. In mid-February 2019, Olpadan tried to join another coalition, after the Tano Bora males chased two young males: Mkali and Mwanga, who had strayed into their territory. The ensuing pursuit saw the two intruders fleeing into a thicket, closely followed by the intimidating five. For some time, all seven disappeared deep inside bushes on the bank of a river, making sounds indicative of aggressive and defensive behaviours. After a few hours, four of the Tano Bora males departed, leaving Mkali, Mwanga and Olpadan. Instead of looking for his coalition-mates, Olpadan started following two males trying to sniff them and rest nearby, without making any attempt to harm them. When the two males responded with defensive behaviours, Olpadan would respond by displaying submissive behaviour – just sitting with his back to them.
By the next morning, Olpadan had abandoned his efforts and was desperately looking and calling for his own coalition-mates. When in the afternoon three males (Leboo, Winda and Olonyok) appeared in the area, Olpadan did not attempt to approach them, and over an hour later, they slowly approached the insecure Olpadan. While in the past, Olpadan had met returning males with aggression, this time, three males accepted him peacefully, and all set off to hunt together.
Submission and dominance is communicated through body language cues
Cooperative Hunting and Cofeeding
Large groups of predators require more food, and each member must contribute to the hunt. It took five males over a year and a half to learn the necessary strategies for cooperative hunting. Initially, all members would chase different animals in a herd but, with time, developed an effective style of hunting where four would expose themselves to grazing antelopes, and the fifth would slowly stalk the prey. Group hunting by male coalition cheetahs has typically been associated with enhancing confidence among members. This we observed during the long rainy season of 2019-2020 when one male would confidently chase and tackle a bigger prey thrice its weight such as topi or even wildebeest (six times the weight of a cheetah!) Others will join the hunter when the prey is captured. Single cheetahs hardly ever hunt such big prey, unless they have recently lost coalition-mates.
The Tano Bora males have become extremely adept hunters
When taking down large antelope, all five divide duties and act quickly and efficiently to feed as much as possible before the arrival of kleptoparasites. Cheetahs often lose their prey to larger predators – sometimes to lions and, more regularly, to hyenas. However, the Tano Bora males stand out in their relationship with other predators as well. On several occasions, they have chosen not to argue with a hyena but rather to share their kill with it instead! In both recent cases, cheetahs had made large kills (an adult topi and a wildebeest), and in both instances, Olpadan refused to feed alongside the hyena. In the first instance, all the other males were fed on the carcass from the opposite end to the hyena, while Olpadan watched from a distance. In the second instance, Olarishani and later Olonyok fed fearlessly next to a hyena while the three other males waited to the side.
Choosing to feed next to a competing predator is relatively unusual
A coalition like no other
The Tano Bora coalition is 4 years old, and it is developing through time – the relations between individuals (who are now around 5,5 years old) are undergoing dynamic changes that we never tire of watching. Nature is fraught with a variety of mysterious and amazing things, and in observing her creatures, patiently and with respect, she reveals her secrets.
Dr Chelysheva is a renowned cheetah expert, with over 30 years experience of working with cheetahs in captivity and the wild. She is a PhD holder in cheetah ecology and behaviour and a member of the IUCN Conservation Planning Specialist Group. In 2001, Elena developed a cheetah identification method which helps to identify individuals from a month old. Using this method, she was able to determine kinship between individuals over the years and is now monitoring the fifth generation of some cheetahs. In 2011, Elena started cheetah research and conservation study in Kenya as a founder of the Mara-Meru Cheetah Project and here she shares her amazing discoveries.
Jeffrey Wu is a Canadian professional wildlife photographer based in Toronto, Canada. He is a judge of the Nikon Photo Contest and Nature’s Best Photography Africa and is also a Nikon China contracted photographer. He leads professional photo tours in Africa for ten months every year, mainly in the Masai Mara in Kenya. He is an expert on photographing cheetah hunting; he has photographed more than 300 cheetah hunting scenarios since 2013. His works have been published more than 50 magazines and newspapers internationally, including the Times, Outdoor Photography Canada, and Chinese National Geography.
“I just wanted to send my first-born child to school so that he could get an education and be different from me. I wanted him to have the opportunity which I was denied as a child.”
“What attracted me most is that they were living a good life, they had nice houses, and they could afford anything they wanted, whenever they wanted it. I wished for that. One day I went to the tavern with a person who poaches rhinos. We met some other people there. The way they were behaving made me look like I am not man enough because I couldn’t afford what they could. I was turned into a laughingstock in my community.”
“But you know, if I were working, I would not have gone and done this. It’s just sometimes when you are in [a] tough situation; you resort to desperate measures.”
Who are the poachers feeding the illegal wildlife trade and what motivates them? These are fundamental questions that should shape the policies surrounding the fight against illegal wildlife trade but are often dismissed or overlooked. Calling for increased security measures and harsher sentences is the inevitable rallying cry but understanding what motivates a person to enter the world of wildlife crime is equally vital. Now a new report by TRAFFIC investigates the driving factors of poaching activities and how policymakers might go about addressing them, introducing a more nuanced perspective of the first step in the trade in animal parts.
The report indicates that over the past ten years in South Africa alone poachers have taken over 8,000 rhinoceros for their horns, illegally harvested 96 million abalone between 2000 and 2016, and that the illegal trade in cycads is considered the main threat to their survival in the wild. TRAFFIC’s investigation focussed on incarcerated individuals convicted of crimes in the illegal wildlife trade (mostly poaching) in South Africa, a country considered to be key in the illicit trade in wildlife due to the role it plays as a source, transit and destination country. Of the 73 interviewed individuals, 54 were serving sentences for rhino-related offences, 10 for abalone related crimes and 9 for roles in the illegal cycad trade. Of those poachers interviewed:
97% were male
48% were South African (the remainder were Mozambican, Zimbabwean and Chinese)
5% were aged between 29 and 35
83% did not have secondary education
38% were unemployed, and 36% had informal employment
54% were influenced by peer pressure
78% had at least one dependent
66% had sufficient income to cover only the day-to-day basics of food, water, and shelter
The report goes on to identify several factors that emerged as a common thread during the interviews with poachers.
Income generation: Every single person interviewed pointed to income generation as a major influence in persuading them to participate in the illegal wildlife trade. For 70% of interviewees, this pressure related to providing for their families, in terms of either the basics such as food and schooling or more expensive hobbies or interests. Worryingly, the authors of the report note a trend to view “successful” individuals in communities as those who have accumulated wealth through involvement in poaching activities.
Opportunism: 80% of the offenders point to opportunity was a factor, usually through meeting another person actively involved in illegal wildlife trade.
Skewed perception of risk: While most of the interviewees were aware of the illegality of their actions, less than half of the interviewed individuals were aware of the seriousness or severity of the legal consequences, especially given that many members of the community were observed to be participating without consequences.
Normalisation (contested illegality): 75% of the offenders suggested that using natural resources was a normal and acceptable way to earn a living – as legitimate as fishing or harvesting plants. There were no social deterrents at play and no concerns related to retaliation or ostracisation from their communities, or even a risk of being reported by those community members.
High value of and demand for the commodity: Nearly 70% of the offenders referred to the high values of, and demand for, wildlife commodities and the fact that illegal wildlife trade was far more lucrative than other legitimate ways of earning money.
Lack of viable economic alternatives: 65% of the offenders pointed to a lack of alternative ways to improve their financial and social circumstances. Most of the interviewees from Mozambique and Zimbabwe came to South Africa to search for employment opportunities, but the official unemployment rate in South Africa is 29.1%. This is predicted to increase due to the economic fall-out from the pandemic.
Peer pressure: 44% of the interviewees indicated that they were influenced by peer pressure, almost invariably by family or close friends.
Lack of state legitimacy: 40% of the offenders made some reference to dissatisfaction with legal authorities, whether related to a lack of basic service delivery, lack of sufficient job opportunities, wasteful expenditure, or corruption. There was particular frustration with corruption linked to the illegal wildlife supply chain.
Omission: This category relates largely to those offenders that played a role in the supply chain, rather than active poaching. These interviewees perceive their activities to be distanced from the illegal wildlife trade.
Provision of employment for others: A small proportion of interviewees employed individuals involved in illegal wildlife trade and claimed that they were responsible for putting food on the table for their “employees’” families.
These factors can be roughly divided into societal, community, and individual motivating factors. Naturally, any individual could be influenced by any combination of particular factors. Therefore, the TRAFFIC report suggests that a combination of collective strategies would be needed to increase compliance and prevent engagement in the trade.
Recommendations
The authors of the TRAFFIC report put forward several recommendations based on the outcomes of the interviews with poachers and the larger socio-economic context in South Africa.
The first is that concerted effort should be placed on investigating, arresting and prosecuting individuals that occupy the higher levels of illegal wildlife trade, rather than simply arresting and prosecuting poachers and drivers. The aspects and strategies outlined by the National Integrated Strategy to Combat Wildlife Trafficking need to be approved and implemented by the South African government as a matter of urgency.
The second recommendation is that the provision of public services such as health care, quality education, employment opportunity, food security and infrastructure are provided to those communities most at risk of being exploited by criminal wildlife trade syndicates.
The third recommendation involves local community-based interventions and initiatives (such as the Black Mambas Anti-Poaching Unit), which may include increasing incentives for wildlife stewardship; supporting livelihoods unrelated to wildlife; decreasing the costs associated with human-wildlife conflict; increase the costs of participating in the illegal; or education and awareness-raising.
The final recommendation is for the development of social intervention strategies that emphasise personal and familial consequences (rather than legal ones) and equip individuals with knowledge and tools necessary to resist peer pressure. This could potentially involve the sharing of previously unreported personal consequences experienced by offenders.
Conclusion
While active measures to safeguard South Africa’s precious wildlife resources are essential, the incarceration of ground-level participants such as poachers will have little impact if societal factors continue to motivate their replacements. Addressing some of the economic and social drivers is a significant aspect of the battle against illicit wildlife trade, and this is only possible with a holistic understanding of these drivers. As such, TRAFFIC’s report has wide-reaching ramifications that extend beyond its South African context into the wider world of illegal wildlife trade.
At 20 years old and new to the guiding fraternity, I followed the lead of more experienced safari guides, quickly adopting the conduct status quo of the time. For years there was an attitude of “almost anything goes” when it came to finding and getting close to as many of the Big 5 as possible on every drive. Little to no consideration was given to consequences of this attitude of impulsively taking from nature, as and when the opportunity or desire arose. And no one asked questions…
At the time (28 years ago), as safari guides, our knowledge and communication skills were of primary concern and not once, at any of the numerous camps I worked at, was ecologically sensitive conduct a topic for discussion amongst guides (bar extraordinarily callous extremes). We did what was expected to get our job done. From suspending my Land Rover on shrub mopane trees in an attempt to access a pride of lions to the constant hounding of a female leopard just to witness her hunt an impala, this was all in a day’s work. Indignation, outrage, and disgust are all eagerly employed when condemning “others” from a self-proclaimed moral high ground. Yet, it was a far less comfortable retrospective awareness that forced my ignominious personal admission of ignorant complicity.
The gradual awakening from my ignorance was born of guiding burnout which led to a hiatus. For 12 months, I exchanged my Land Rover for a tractor and launched myself into “habitat management” on the reserve. This comprised of road relocation to combat accelerated erosion, alien-plant control, the creation of firebreaks, and encroachment control on artificial clearings.
Observing how the scars from indiscriminate off-road driving at a leopard sighting, months earlier, had eventually deteriorated into accelerated erosion and deep dongas made me think twice about the impact of vehicle traffic on various soils. Simultaneously, my new-found mindfulness prompted an awareness of the subtle (and occasionally not-so-subtle) body language cues of the animals being viewed or pursued by vehicles on a game drive. From the slight flattening of the ears towards a perceived threat (such as a vehicle following too closely) to the flicking of a tail or stern stare when annoyed at the unnecessary close proximity of a vehicle – these indications of unease became increasingly apparent until, eventually, I was unable to unsee or ignore them.
Though I did return to lodge guiding, these revelations had an indelible impact on my convictions and would eventually lead to a parting of ways with the private lodge industry. The following are examples of some of the experiences at camps, ranging from rustic bush camps to 5-star lodges, that prompted my somewhat abrupt departure.
During my induction drive with a head-guide at a new camp, a large elephant bull came into view. It was clear from his body language that he was entirely relaxed and could not have cared less about our presence. Slowly, we made our approach until we reached the point that I felt was the perfect spot to stop. But we didn’t – onwards we continued, ever closer. I was shocked as my legs involuntarily kicked against the floor in an attempt to stop the vehicle. I felt deeply uncomfortable with our imposition on the bull’s personal space. The realisation that many guests had previously suffered similarly under my own “guidance” left me embarrassed and disappointed…why had it taken so long for me to become sensitised to the consequences of my actions?
Eventually, we stopped a mere 15m from the bull, who was still feeding placidly. I started questioning my violent reaction to the proximity, given that the elephant was not bothered by it. What has changed within, I wondered, to render previously acceptable conduct suddenly so upsetting? An evolution was afoot, and it was becoming more about my relationship with my surroundings than just outright impact.
During that same drive, someone found a female cheetah with three sub-adult cubs. They were walking across a clearing only 15m from the road. Sticking to the road on the edge of the clearing would have given them the requisite space and avoided unnecessary off-road impact. Instead, the three vehicles went off-road onto the clearing, following so closely behind the cheetahs that they were walking with their ears turned back towards us. The herd of impala they were stalking way up ahead noticed the line of vehicles driving slowly and paid closer attention, saw the cheetahs, and darted off…
The next incident took place with another guide when we encountered three rhinos only 20m from us on a shrubby open area. As the guide saw the rhinos, he immediately turned the steering wheel without slowing down and veered straight towards them off-road. The crashing and twanging of whipping twigs on the suspension sent the cow and two calves scrambling… “Tsk…these rhinos are very skittish today,” is all the guide uttered before returning to the road and continuing.
Another incident occurred on a concession inside Kruger Park, where off-road driving is forbidden, and sensitive soils are prevalent. On a guide training drive during the rainy season, we noticed the stunning yellow flower of a mouse-whisker plant (Cleome angustifolia) about 5m off the road. The deputy-head guide stopped the vehicle, reversed, turned, and drove the 5m off-road on soggy soils to park next to the blossom. No one, not even the head guide sitting next to me on the rear seat, said anything. Disbelief and anger started welling up inside me like a brewing volcano. Then he leant over and plucked the flower, laid it on his camera bag next to him, snapped a photo, picked it up, said “wow, this is really stunning”, before chucking it overboard and driving off.
Recounting these details is not so much a criticism of the conduct of other guides as it is an indictment of my very own behaviour until then. I too, for many years, was asleep at the wheel. There are also untold accounts of disrespectful guests asking/demanding to get closer for that perfect picture or sensationalist experience. This induced pressure, especially on younger guides, is unjust and can manipulate their still pliable resolve.
However, we should never outsource accountability when it comes to ethical conduct, and it is incumbent on every person to take a respectful stand. In many lodges now, there is a strong ethos of ethical behaviour and ecological sensitivity, with guides responsible for holding themselves and each other to high standards. Pragmatically, mistakes happen, and lines of acceptable behaviour can be blurred. Still, open conversations are the only way to redefine what is appropriate and prompt an evolution in the approach taken by guides and guests.
If necessary, guests need to be able to speak up when they are uncomfortable with a situation and would prefer to adopt a more sensitive approach or leave the sighting altogether. Guides, in turn, need to be comfortable enough to declare that there is a line they are not willing to cross due to ethical considerations, where respect for wildlife is paramount to sustainable guiding as well as conservation as a whole. Guest experience and ethical guiding are not mutually exclusive, but finding the balance is everyone’s responsibility, and this cannot be done under a cloud of ignorant complicity.
Marius Swart
About Marius Swart
A passionate naturalist and consummate enthusiast, Marius has been sharing his wonder through guided adventures, since 1992. Spending the first decade working in the private lodge industry in the Timbavati and Sabi Sands (among others) provided a solid foundation which prompted personal growth, awakening and evolution. With a penchant for the visceral experiences afforded by on-foot explorations, he truly believes that being out in the wilds allows us to see rather than look, hear rather than listen and feel rather than think.
“If what a tree or a bush does is lost on you…you are surely lost” – Robert Wagoner.
“Please join me on a journey of discovery, not only of Nature’s treasure-chest…but of yourself!” – Marius Swart
On the south-western tip of Africa, a bee-conservation group has spent the last seven years discovering the wisdom of our wild honeybees.
I make it to Simon’s Town to meet Ujubee’s Jenny Cullinan and Karin Sternberg just before the Covid-19 lockdown is enforced in South Africa. The national parks are already closed and the wildlife in Cape Point, Ujubee’s primary research area, has the place all to itself and is probably giving a big sigh of relief.
As bottles of sanitiser fly off the shelves faster than they can be reordered and customers are sanitising hands as they enter and leave shops, the Ujubee pair tells me that wild honeybees have a similar cleanliness procedure which ensures the health of the colony. I have never thought of bees as having a similar lifestyle or behaviour pattern to human beings, but I am soon to learn otherwise. These small social creatures have been around for about 80 million years and apparently have quite a lot to teach us.
Jenny explains that because wild honeybees live in such close proximity to each other, hygiene is of utmost importance as viruses and bacteria are their biggest threat. “The foraging bees that exit the nest to engage with the outside world disinfect themselves regularly,” she says. The key is in the propolis, the dark resinous substance that often acts as an enclosing entrance wall in a wild honeybee nest. “The bees maintain the essential oils in the propolis, continually bringing back resins to add to it.” These antibacterial and antifungal essential oils are applied whenever they leave the nest or on their return when they can be seen wiping themselves down.
Bees pollinate about 85% of fynbos, playing an important role in the Cape’s floral kingdom, one of the most diverse and richest floral kingdoms in the world. A colourful sour fig (vygie) flower provides a shower of pollen for this wild Cape honeybee.Jenny sitting in the fynbos at Cape Point observing the small creatures around her that form part of this incredible ecosystem.
The wild Cape honeybee, Apis mellifera capensis, immediately has my attention. And as the dogs curl up in their baskets and the first of the winter rains shower down peacefully outside, I listen to Jenny and Karin’s fascinating story. Before they teamed up in 2013 and went for their first walk in SanParks’ Cape Point Nature Reserve, there was little information about wild honeybees. Although there was a lot of material about apiarists’ box-hives, the information about bees in the wild was virtually non-existent. When Karin did some research, the only information she could find was from a scientist by the name of Anderson done in the 1980s when Cape Point was being proclaimed as a sanctuary. “He maintained that there were very few colonies in Cape Point. He thought that there was possibly a maximum of five colonies of wild honeybees,” she tells me. “Seven years down the road we have found 94 nests, about 83 occupied. Back then, we had to start from scratch.”
While discovering the world of the wild honeybee, the Ujubee team has learnt about many other creatures that are at home on the Cape peninsula.
At the time Jenny, who had moved to Cape Town from Kwazulu-Natal, was eager to meet up with the Cape wild honeybee, a different subspecies to the wild honeybee, Apis mellifera scutellata, that she was accustomed to further north in the summer rainfall areas. She had grown up on a farm, respecting the wild bee colonies that had made their home in the shed, in an old drum outside and under the bath. “I remember the honey-waxy smell when I bathed,” she says, reminiscing about the comforting fragrance that is happily intertwined with her childhood memories. Her father kept several beehives, and when Jenny arrived in the Cape and started to learn about wild honeybees, she soon realised that she had to quickly discard all that she had learned as a beekeeper. She discovered that honeybees live a completely different life in the wild than when managed in hives. The team started to collect data from hours of observation in the field, learning to record it scientifically with the assistance of entomologist Geoff Tribe. Their findings would intrigue conservationists worldwide. And, as South Africa, thankfully, still has a healthy wild honeybee population, Ujubee (Uju meaning ‘honey’ in Zulu) focuses on collaborating with and giving presentations to conservation bodies around South Africa, increasing the resource of knowledge about our wild honeybees, an important part of our indigenous wildlife.
A male carpenter bee (Xylocopa capitata), which as its name suggests, lives in tunnels it excavates in dead wood.
Karin and Jenny, under the umbrella of the self-funded Ujubee project, have been absorbed for the last seven years locating the wild honeybee nests that are found in hollows, crevices and under boulders in the reserve and learning about the resident colonies, as well as the many solitary bees that reside in the area. Not using any protective gear, they get up close and personal with the bees, so it’s vital to tune into the bees’ world and to learn how they communicate and live. Several years ago when I first heard them give a talk about how the wild honeybee colonies survive the fires that sweep through Cape Point, I was amazed at the photos of them lying on the ground right next to a nest, a far cry from the heavy protective gear I had always associated with working with bees in boxes.
Karin among a bevy of beautiful watsonia blooms that emerged after a fire.
“Because we’re unprotected in front of the bees, and we’re up close, the senses are heightened in the presence of a colony. You smell everything more intensely, you look more intensely at the behaviour, you listen so intensely,” Karin explains, transporting me to the place of their fieldwork on the often-windy Cape peninsula. Jenny adds, “Their language is so different to ours; it’s in vibrations, and it’s in chemicals, and it’s in dances – that’s how they communicate. We have to translate the bee language through ourselves into the human language – so humans can understand the bee world.”
Karin and Jenny have discovered on their journey of becoming wild-honeybee behaviour specialists that the bees co-exist harmoniously with other species. “By watching honeybees, it has opened the world to everything else around the colony,” Karin says. “Because you become a part of their world, you also look at how other species are interacting with the bees.”
A nest of wild honeybees (Apis mellifera capensis) under a boulder on the ground.Karin in the Rooiberg, Klein Karoo, one of the Ujubee research sites.
They explain that although people think of bees as pollinators, they’re actually an essential part of the food web. What’s really interesting is that beekeepers always try and get rid of ants, wax moths and larvae, hive beetles etc., but in nature, they co-exist because they each have a function in the nest.
For example, I learn that the tiny pseudoscorpions – with their hairy pincers that enable them to pick up vibrations – sit on flowers and wait for the bees, catching rides on their legs to the different nests. There the bees feed the extraneous wax-moth eggs to them, thus managing the number of eggs that are allowed to hatch in the nest. The bees even ensure this happens in an organised manner by bringing the eggs out onto a feeding station and dropping them there for them to eat. The wax moths’ role in the nest is to eat the wax when it is damaged and old, cleaning out the nest so the bees can rebuild it, so each species benefits the other. The wax moth larvae eat the leaf litter, which collects under the colony, doing their bit to help maintain the environment and hygiene of the colony. Lizards play their part by eating the dead bees that are deposited outside the nest. All the various species survive the fires that routinely rage through the peninsula because they live with the bees.
Leafcutter solitary bees (Family Megachilidae) often nest in wood, lining their nests with small pieces of leaves.
The Ujubee women tell me how they are absorbed by this small, multi-layered and complexed world and the many interactions between the species. Jenny laughs, “When we come home, we watch ‘bee’ movies, quietly focusing on what’s going on between the species. They all need each other, and they all realise that – and function well together. And that’s something that our species needs to understand, that there’s strength in diversity.”
Unlike some countries in Europe, South Africa still has a healthy population of wild honeybees.
The discoveries that Ujubee has uncovered in their studies are mesmerising. The project has extended its range over the last few years, with research also being done in Scarborough, Noordhoek, on organic farms in the Klein Karoo, the area around Porterville (which has very few wild colonies left) and it is moving further afield into Limpopo to use the information it has gleaned over the years to aid conservation efforts. Their helpful team of Ujubee volunteers in the different areas provides valuable assistance with data collection and understanding bees in different biomes.
The humidity and climate inside the wild honeybee nest are maintained at a healthy constant by the bees.
Ujubee realises that an important part of their work is raising awareness about the wild honeybee and making the knowledge available for conservation purposes. The presentations they offer are intriguing, with their excellent photographs and the incredible footage of bee dynamics, as is the information about the synergy in the wild honeybee colonies – and dare I say – the intelligence of the bees.
Wild honeybees seem to be one up from us on quite a few other things as well. Karin and Jenny explain how they are always in sync with the natural environment, regulating the number of eggs they lay according to the plants that are flowering at that time. “They take all things into consideration before a new colony is created. This includes all the other pollinators – butterflies, bees, birds, rodents, moths – the food availability and the nest site availability. The solitary bees, like the honeybees, invest in the home they make for their young. They are future thinkers – they invest in their children.”
A tailless black girdled lizard investigates Ujubee’s gear as the Ujubee team becomes familiar with the lizards around the wild honeybee nests.
When I hear about life in the wild honeybee colony, I can’t help thinking that If these small creatures are aware of all this, can you imagine what we human beings can accomplish.
New comb under construction in a wild Cape honeybee nest.
Jenny sums up her years of experience with these small creatures that have changed her life immensely. “The wisdom that they have about living on this planet has profoundly influenced who I am and how I move around. It has changed an enormous number of things in my life, and I’m truly grateful to be around a species that’s much older than us and which understands what it means to live in the community of life. An evolved species that lives healthily on Earth, it has learnt to fit in with everyone else. And doesn’t damage or destroy. It has taken millions and millions of years of refinement to understand that you don’t live on this planet by taking too much or by taking more than what you need.”
Pseudoscorpions are one of the species that harmoniously co-exist with the wild honeybees.Karin and Jenny at a wild honeybee nest in the tangled roots of a Namaqua fig growing on the cliffs along the Berg River.
Although I could stay and listen to them talk about the bees for hours, the light is dimming outside, the dog is asking for its supper, and there are arrangements to be made for the pending lockdown. As I drive off, looking down onto the Simon’s Town harbour below, I think of what they said in terms of what Covid-19 has to teach us, from what they have learned from the wild honeybees. “We have to go back to first principles. We have to go back to what we have done, what we are doing and look at how we can do it differently.”
Up close and personal. Without protective gear, Karin and Jenny rely on their senses to accurately read the signs and signals of the bees.
And many of the answers we can find by looking at this ancient species and gleaning the wisdom garnered over the centuries.
Photos by Ujubee and supplied (Geoff Tribe & Fiona Anderson)
A wild Cape honeybee with a hefty pollen sac visits a flowering bietou or tick-berry bush on the Cape peninsula.
About the author
Freelance writer, Ron Swilling’s work is regularly featured in travel and outdoor magazines in South Africa and Namibia. Her work has also appeared in books Wild Horses in the Namib Desert: An equine biography, Road Tripping Namibia and the children’s story The World Famous Sunbeam Collector. Ron’s travels lead her off the beaten-track to discover diamonds in the dust, wild desert horses, unspoiled nature and freedom in never-ending landscapes. When at home in Scarborough, Cape Town, she delights in finding wonders in her very own back garden, like the Cape’s wild honeybees.
In a historic translocation in 2016, Somkhanda Community Game Reserve welcomed a herd of 13 elephants donated by Nambiti Game Reserve – the first time two community-owned reserves had successfully worked together to extend elephant range and distribution. This illustrated the importance of community conservation, not only in fostering local economic development and social upliftment, but also in conserving iconic and endangered African wildlife.
Now, these elephants have been joined by a 20-year-old bull elephant from Tembe Elephant Park, owned by the Tembe Traditional Authority. The successful translocation to Somkhanda Game Reserve was a joint operation between WILDLANDS – a programme of the WILDTRUST, the Aspinall Foundation (in partnership with Albus Environmental), and Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife and Conservation Solutions.
Tembe Elephant Park was established in 1983 to protect some of the last remaining free-roaming herds of elephants in South Africa, including ‘tuskers’ (large elephant bulls, some of whose tusks touch the ground). Historically, these elephants would migrate between Mozambique and Maputaland in the extreme north of KwaZulu-Natal. During the Mozambican Civil War, those that escaped the rife poaching found sanctuary in Tembe and settled in the dense sand forests of the reserve. While the dream of reuniting the elephant population across the international border remains, until that is a viable option, management has to implement creative solutions for a growing elephant population in a relatively small reserve. Some of these solutions include the contraception of female elephants and the translocation of surplus elephant bulls.
Somkhanda Community Game Reserve, the new home of the large young bull elephant (yet to be named) is owned by the Emvokweni Community Trust (ECT), which was established in 2005 through formal land claims and declared a protected area in 2011.
Eco-tourism has been earmarked as an important vehicle for economic growth in the country, and the introduction of this new bull will strengthen the reserve’s offering. However, it will also strengthen the genetic diversity of the current elephant population in Somkhanda. According to Roelie Kloppers, the CEO of the WILDTRUST, “The Great Tuskers of Tembe are known all over the world as majestic giants. Bringing a Tembe elephant into Somkhanda’s herd will enable the continuation of the Tembe Tusker lineage in this reserve. This will not only be a massive boost for tourism here but also contribute to conservation efforts of Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife in Tembe Elephant Park. We are very proud to play a little role in support of this.”
As noted above, the introduction of this bull is seen as a strategy to contribute to the conservation of these giants. Elephant populations across Africa and Asia are under threat due to the illegal ivory trade driven by devastating effects of poaching, human-elephant conflict, and habitat destruction. It is up to collaborative efforts of these organisations that stand united behind conservation strategies that will end this crisis.
The translocation was facilitated and funded by the Aspinall Foundation, which is an internationally renowned animal conservation charity that is dedicated to protecting endangered animals around the globe. Dereck Milburn, Regional Director at Aspinall Foundation comments, ‘’I am absolutely thrilled to see this giant in his new home. I want to thank the Emvokweni Community Trust and WILDLANDS for their willingness to accept the responsibility of securing the life of this bull and the tusker genetics for the benefit our future generations’’. The Aspinall Foundation partnered with Albus Environmental in delivering this project.
Translocating big game requires a lot of patience, skill and technical support which was provided by Conservation Solutions. With 25 years’ worth of experience, Conservation Solutions has developed unique translocation systems to move elephants across Africa. “Community-driven conservation plays an essential role in the protection and restoration of flagship species such as elephant. A project like this highlights the potential for communities to collaborate towards the restoration of wildlife biodiversity. These species are ambassadors for the ecological systems in which they live – protecting them justifies the protection of their natural habitat, and all the thousands of other species which occupy the same space,” comments Founder Kester Vickery of Conservation Solutions.
The Somkhanda team on the ground have reported that this bull is settling in well in his new environment. Tembe is home to some of the biggest elephants in Africa, and the team are hopeful that he will soon interact with the Somkhanda herd to infuse the population with the genes of the ‘Tembe Giants’ for generations to come.
Etosha offers that iconic image of Africa: a waterhole surrounded by animals, the very epitome of an oasis teeming with life beneath the merciless sun. Thousands of hooves of every shape and size scrabble over the rocky ground as their owners seek out the life-giving water, while opportunistic predators eye the crowds in anticipation. Long-limbed giraffes assume their awkward straddle, reflected in the shimmering pan, while the imposing figure of a statuesque white elephant looms large, dwarfing the slight springbok. It is a wildlife photographer’s dream – a scene shimmering in the heat where Africa’s quintessential creatures assemble in numbers that boggle the mind.
Namibia’s Etosha National Park offers this visual overload in abundance, a special kind of wildlife opulence where visitors are spoilt by the opportunity to wait for the animals to come to them.
Etosha waterholes are always packed during the dry winter season when water is hard to come by
The Park
Situated in northern Namibia, Etosha National Park is a fenced reserve that is one of the country’s most popular safari destinations, with the stark otherworldly scenery and spectacular wildlife viewing being the park’s two major drawcards. Proclaimed as a protected area in 1907, Etosha was once the largest game reserve in the world and is estimated to cover around 80,000km² (8 million hectares), four times the size of South Africa’s Kruger National Park. Significant boundary changes throughout the 20th century eventually reduced the park to its current size of just over 22,000km² (2,2 million hectares). The enormous Etosha Pan dominates the park’s eastern side, while dolomite hills are the main geographical feature of the western half of the park. This western region has only recently been opened to all visitors – it was previously only accessible by local tour operators or guests at Dolomite Camp.
Big cat sightings are a regular occurrence at Etosha
There are six main camps within the park:
Okaukuejo Camp – the oldest of the camps in Etosha, Okaukuejo (‘the woman who has a child every year’) is famous for spectacular sightings at the floodlit waterhole, particularly of black rhino. This is the busiest of all the camps, both as the park’s administrative centre and for attracting the most visitors.
Halali Camp – situated halfway between Okaukuejo and Namutoni, Halali offers both chalet accommodation and camping. The floodlit waterhole is the central feature of the camp.
Namutoni Camp – situated in the eastern half of Etosha, this camp offers chalet accommodation and camping, with a raised walkway around its waterhole. However, it is the white crenulations of Fort Namutoni that give the camp a unique and historical character. The Fort was constructed in 1897 as a German military outpost to help control the spread of rinderpest, foot-and-mouth, and other cattle-related diseases. The fort was razed to the ground by an attacking Ovambo force in 1904 but was later rebuilt.
Dolomite Camp – located in the western half of the park, this unfenced camp features chalets dotted among the dolomite hills. No camping is allowed.
Onkoshi Camp – along with Dolomite Camp, Onkoshi is the second of Etosha’s more luxurious accommodation options and is entirely solar-powered. The camp is situated on the edge of Etosha Pan itself, and there are no campsites or self-catered accommodation options.
Olifantsrus Camp – a dedicated campsite without chalet accommodation, Olifantsrus is the newest of all Etosha’s camps and is located in the north-western section of the park. The campsite features a double-story, glass-fronted hide that overlooks its man-made waterhole. The elephant information centre bears testament to its history as an elephant abattoir during the 1980s, when elephants were culled by managers concerned about the destruction of biodiversity. Hence, the name Olifantsrus translates as ‘elephant’s rest’.
Etosha has a large hyena population
Outside of the park, there are several private game reserves where visitors can enjoy a range of accommodation from luxury, fully catered lodges to budget self-catering and camping options.
Dry season traffic jam as a large herd of thirsty eland arrive
The Pan
The park is named for Etosha Pan – an enormous 4,760km² salt pan – visible from space – which makes up nearly a quarter of the national park. The desiccated and bleached soils of the pan are dry for most, if not all, of the year. The word ‘Etosha’ is said to have originated from the Ndonga word for “great white place”, an accurate description of the chalky and desolate landscape.
The original human inhabitants of Etosha were the Hai//om Bushmen people, and they have their own legend as to the history of the pan. According to their mythology, there was once a small village at the centre of the pan that was raided by a rival tribe. All of the village inhabitants were slaughtered but for one woman, who was so grief-stricken that her tears created an enormous, salty lake. The lake dried eventually, but the salt of her tears remained. The likely scientific explanation for the formation of the endorheic basin is that tectonic shifts redirected the flow of the Kunene River, and the lake dried up over time – probably around the same time as the formation of the Okavango Delta.
Wind-blown lionsA honey badger feasts on his scorpion meal
Now, only the Ekuma and Oshigambo Rivers feed the pan with seasonal water, and in years of high rainfall, parts of the pan fill to a depth of around 10cm. The pan becomes a breeding ground for thousands of flamingos, and great white pelicans – a spectacle of pink that varies depending on rainfall and reaches its zenith around January and February.
A huge elephant bull looms over this herd of dainty springbok
Magic pools and a fairy-tale forest
Life in arid Etosha revolves around the waterholes dotted throughout the park. Many of these are fed by natural artesian springs, but others are man-made, and it is for good reason that the park’s road network is centred around these pivotal features. Apart from the height of the rainy season during the summer months, these waterholes offer the only available water for the park’s multitudinous animal species. As a result, remarkable sightings at the water’s edge are inevitable. For eager photographers and predators alike, the waterholes guarantee a gathering of animals unlike any other.
The diminutive Damara dik-dik is commonly seen in EtoshaBanded mongoose and pup
Regular visitors to the park naturally develop a preference for certain waterholes, and each has something unique to recommend it – whether it is the surrounding scenery, positioning for the best morning or afternoon light, or even the repeated visits of a ‘resident’ leopard. It goes without saying that a good lens (and a familiarity with camera settings) will do wonders to enhance the experience. Still, it’s always important to set the camera aside for a brief period to soak up the atmosphere. It is also well worth investigating the etymology of the waterhole names, which offer fascinating insights into the area’s history. For example, Natukanaoka Pan translates roughly as “you need to take long strides to walk here”, or Gobaub, which comes from the Hai//om word for a loincloth, supposedly after a man who lost his while beating a hasty retreat from an angry elephant.
Sprokieswoud, meaning “fairy-tale forest”, is also appropriately named for its unearthly scenery. Here, thickset Moringa trees (Moringa ovalifolia), usually found on rocky hillsides, dot the landscape and their strange bulbous shapes in the otherwise barren scenery create a dreamlike and surreal atmosphere.
Giant ghosts
A white elephant
As is so often the case in Africa’s treasured protected areas, Etosha’s animals are a testament to natural resilience. By the late 19th century, the region’s large mammal species, including elephant, rhino and lion had been all but exterminated. Still, mammal life has bounced back over the last century. There are two near-endemic antelope – the black-faced impala (a subspecies) and the minuscule Damara dik-dik with its piercing whistle alarm – not to mention an assortment of other antelope species. Black-backed jackals haunt the waterholes, exploding into action whenever the delicately coloured flocks of sandgrouse arrive to drink, while larger predators like lions and spotted hyena follow similar tactics with bigger prey in mind. Endangered mountain zebra can be found on the slopes of the dolomite hills of Ondundozonananandana (try saying that five times fast – or even once slowly).
Flap-necked chameleon
The looming figures of the elephants at the waterholes look enormous, and this is not just due to a trick of perspective – Etosha is home to some of the largest elephants in the world. When covered in the white clay soils from around the waterholes, they look like giant grey ghosts, which only adds to their gravitas. While physically enormous, their tusks are generally far smaller than those of other elephants in different parts of Africa, which may be due to genetics or the mineral balance in their diet, or a combination of both.
Yet is the black rhino that truly steals the show in Etosha. Famously myopic and short-tempered, the park is a stronghold of the world’s black rhino population. Although no official numbers have been published, Namibia is home to about half of the world’s black rhinos, and many of them are found in Etosha. Their nocturnal social gatherings around certain waterholes have become almost legendary, turning the myth about black rhinos being cantankerous and solitary on its head.
The experience
The Etosha National Park experience is unlike any other safari experience in the world – nothing quite compares to the vast abundance of animals of every shape and size, gathered together in one place at one time. For those for whom a trip will be a once-off treat, it is essential to visit during the dry season, when the waterholes are critical to the park and wildlife viewing is at its best. That said, this is also when the park is at its busiest, and it may well be worth seeking private accommodation in a private reserve outside of the park if large crowds are an unattractive prospect. For those fortunate to return regularly, the park offers something all year round, with the added advantage of quieter periods and lower rates during the rainy season.
Regardless, Etosha National Park is guaranteed to furnish its fortunate visitors with something spectacular – from prime wildlife viewing, to entirely unexpected animal behaviour or, simply, an insight into Africa’s inimitable seasons and how life adapts.
Elephants are amazing animals. Besides being the largest land animal on our planet, they have relatively complex societies and appear to have individual personalities. Watching elephants in their natural habitat is a joy for those of us who can do so at our leisure, from a safe distance or with a knowledgeable guide. For those who face the real danger of meeting an elephant on foot at night while walking home, elephants can be terrifying.
It is no wonder that the idea of hunting elephants is a sensitive one, and that the people who spend much of their time observing these ponderous, loveable beasts want to do everything in their power to protect them. There is also little wonder that people living with elephants want them to be more controlled – to stay away from their crop fields and houses. Yet, as with many things, how you see an elephant is a matter of perspective and managing this species must take vastly different perspectives into account, along with the relevant science.
The topic of elephant management requires a book (or several), and I am not an elephant expert, so I will leave that task to others. My primary interest lies in the field of human-wildlife conflict, which affects humans in every part of the world and a dizzying array of species, including elephants. So these observations are not limited to elephants, although popular opinions about elephants and the intense conflict among different interest groups over whether or not they should be hunted make this species a great case study.
There are two sides to human-elephant conflict, and both sides have been studied in Botswana and elsewhere. We will dive into some of the science of these two sides first, before considering how these two sides should inform the tricky business of elephant management.
The Elephant Dimension
Elephant hunting is the most controversial aspect of elephant management, particularly when it is for ‘sport’ or ‘trophies’, whereby hunting clients pay large amounts of money to hunt large male elephants. Elephants may also be hunted due to human-elephant conflict – whereby a particular individual is earmarked because it causes repeated damages to crops or infrastructure, or for killing people. Hunting an older male elephant for ‘sport’ is more controversial than hunting in response to conflict. Scientific studies of male elephants thus elicit popular attention and are frequently used in hunting debates.
A recent study by Allen et al. entitled Importance of old bulls: leaders and followers in collective movements of all‑male groups in African savannah elephants discovered that mature elephant bulls play a role in leading younger bulls, particularly when travelling to the Boteti River in central Botswana. They found that adolescent males (< 20 years old) rarely travelled to the river alone, but preferred accompanying mature bulls. Additionally, in groups of males, the older ones were most likely to take the lead. The oldest age category they used was over 26 years, which is really just the age of maturity, rather than an indication of particularly old individuals (elephants can live up to 60-65 years).
The authors conclude that older male elephants are therefore important for determining movement patterns for younger males in the landscape (they go further than that, to be discussed later). Other elephant biologists have noted that older males function as “disciplinarians” for younger ones – teaching them appropriate behaviour within elephant society and even towards other species. The latter observation is supported by the experience in Pilanesberg National Park, South Africa, where male elephants that were orphaned due to historical culling operations were released into the Park without older elephants. These traumatised young males caused havoc by killing rhinos and attacking tourist vehicles. The introduction of older males into this population caused the troublemakers to calm down.
Another line of scientific evidence that emphasises the importance of male elephants is from a paternity study in Amboseli National Park, Kenya. This study revealed that male elephants reach their breeding peak (i.e. number of calves they father) between 45-53 years old and they can still reproduce in their late 50’s, although their numbers of offspring decline sharply in these later years. The conclusion one can draw from these results is that male elephants should ideally not be hunted before or during their prime reproductive age of around 40-50 years old. Elephants older than this have already contributed a great deal to the population; their genes will therefore not be lost if they are hunted when they are past their prime (more about age-related hunting can be found here).
Allen et al. also point out that male elephant society differs from female society in a number of important ways. First, males will group together or split with others over time, while female breeding herds stay together and do not randomly split up and regroup. Second, the matriarch walks at the back of her herd and to keep a watchful eye on those in front of her, thus actively caring for her group. Meanwhile old males walk at the front and seem unconcerned about whether or not they are being followed by younger males. Finally, adolescent females do not travel large distances anywhere on their own (unless something is seriously wrong), while adolescent males do, even though they prefer the company of older males.
In terms of their function in elephant society, then, it is reasonable to say that older females (matriarchs or soon-to-be matriarchs) are more important than older males, although it is certainly not advisable to remove all older males from the population. The scientific evidence showing that older male elephants have a role to play is important, and should certainly be incorporated in elephant management plans – no subpopulation of elephants should be left without mature elephant bulls.
Yet Allen et al. do not stick to their scientific findings in the concluding remarks of their paper, as they state: “We argue mature bulls occupy a similar role in male elephant society as old female matriarchs in breeding herds and require equal protection” (emphasis mine). They further argue that the quota of 400 male elephants set by Botswana for 2020 “would not be sustainable”. With that, they stepped out of elephant biology and into the human realm of policy.
The Human Dimension
These children in Botswana are part of the programme called Coaching for Conservation where they learn about wildlife conservation while playing soccer and other games.
While the practice of science – creating and testing hypotheses, gathering and analysing data, drawing conclusions and suggesting real-world applications, and finally submitting it all for peer review – is designed to reduce our inherent bias as much as possible, the fact remains that scientists are humans too. People who study animals, particularly animal behaviour (which requires many hours of watching them) naturally become attached to their study species. Indeed, they probably had a natural affinity for those species before they even started their studies, which was why they became biologists in the first place.
I can empathise with this – the reason why I chose to study carnivore conservation biology is because I have always loved cats of every kind. Yet I have an issue with the conclusions reached in this paper. First, the conclusion that male elephants should have equal protection to matriarchs is an over-reach, as even in the paper itself they describe how older males are less important to younger males than matriarchs are to younger females.
Second, the elephants they are concerned about (>26 years old) represent 19% of the males in their sample of 1,097. If one considers that there are 130,000 elephants in Botswana, let’s say half of which are male (65,000), then we have roughly 12,000 mature males in the country (this is a rough estimate, based only on their reported demographics and a 50:50 sex ratio – quota setting is a much more complicated business in reality). A quota of 400 adult male elephants thus equates to about 3% of the available males (note that 400 is a maximum, actual numbers hunted are likely to be lower). If only 3% of the older males are removed from the population, will male elephant society break down such that younger males start behaving badly like those in Pilanesberg where no older males were present? Or will young males have no older males to follow to the river, as they did in this study? The numbers just don’t add up, revealing that their conclusions stem from an understandable desire to protect the elephants that they have spent so much time studying, rather than the results of their study.
While the results of good biological research such as those summarised above must be incorporated into animal management, the views of animal researchers must be considered alongside the views of other stakeholders. The conclusions regarding elephant hunting (but not the results or other conclusions based on their data) of Allen et al. are clearly personal views, and should be considered as such. Furthermore, biological science is not the only scientific discipline that should inform animal management policies. After reading the article by Allen et al. on male elephants near the Boteti River, I looked for an article on people living near the same river to get the other side of the story. Interestingly, both studies included one author (a different person in each one) from the non-governmental organisation Elephants for Africa, which is working to reduce human-elephant conflict in this area and clearly understands both the elephant and human dimensions of this situation.
The study by Mayberry et al. is entitled Well-being impacts of human-elephant conflict in Khumaga, Botswana: Exploring visible and hidden dimensions. Khumaga is a village located on the Boteti River, which is associated with several smaller farming settlements that stretch either side of the village along the riverfront. The Boteti River is also the boundary between farming areas and the Makgadikgadi Pans National Park, which supports over 2,000 elephants (most of them male, for as yet unknown reasons). At the time of this study, the boundary fence of the Park was in severe disrepair so the elephants regularly crossed the river into the farming areas and back into the Park.
The Boteti River separates the Makgadikgadi Pans National Park and human settlements around the village of Khumaga (also called Xhumaga). Note the cleared squares of land between the road and the river where crops are grown near outlying settlements called cattle posts.
The researchers wanted to know how the presence of elephants impacted the people living along the Boteti River. They went deeper than the usual tallying up of elephant damages (e.g. destroying crops or breaking fences) and also asked their 61 respondents about the impact of elephants on their personal security and freedom, physical and mental health, and relations with their families and the government.
They found that 72% of their respondents felt unsafe around elephants and that the presence of the elephants limited their freedom of movement, especially at night. Even more worryingly, 90% reported that the damages caused by elephants to crops threatened their food security. Food is expensive Botswana relative to the earning power of rural people, so not having a good yield from their crops means that these subsistence farmers may not have enough to eat, as their sources of cash income are limited. Nearly two-thirds (63%) of interviewees said that their access to water was hampered by the presence of elephants at the Boteti River. While limiting their access to food and water was a clear physical health concern, a quarter of the interviewees also reported an intense fear of elephants – thus affecting their mental health. Also read Life with Elephants, in which Africa Geographic Simon Espley spent time in two known human-elephant conflict zones and interviewed community members.
Balancing the dimensions – the tricky issue of management
Tourists crossing the Boteti River near Khumaga into the Makgadikgadi Pans National Park. This river is an important resource for humans and elephants.
Unsurprisingly, the people living near the Boteti are frustrated; their main request was that the Park fence be reinforced. Given that the river is the boundary and people also need access to the river, they want the fence to be reinforced on the Park’s side of the Boteti River. Yet, as the elephant study showed, this river is a critical resource for elephants, so any fence blocking their access to the river is likely to be broken down by elephants desperate to quench their thirst. The government suggested moving the boundary of the Park such that the Boteti is within the Park and human communities are fenced out and therefore safe from elephants. Yet the river is a key source of water for these farming communities, so they were unwilling to give up their land and this critical resource to the Park.
Considering this local situation gives us an idea of the complexity involved in managing elephants, and all other animal species that conflict with humans. While the area around the Boteti is a hotspot for human-elephant conflict, it is certainly not the only one in the country. If trying to please its citizens while simultaneously conserving its large elephant population was the only struggle the Botswana government had to deal with, that would be difficult enough. Recent media furores over their decision to allow elephant hunting and some mysterious (likely natural) elephant deaths, however, reveal that Botswana is being watched and judged internationally. Namibia has experienced its share of international judgement over its wildlife management policies, so we can commiserate with our neighbour.
Both countries allow elephants to be hunted (along with several other African countries), much to the dismay of people who love elephants, yet don’t have to compete with them for food and water. Hunting permits are invariably granted for male elephants, particularly older ones that bear larger tusks. The quota in Botswana is set at 400 adult male elephants. “Yet scientists say that older male elephants are critically important, so we cannot allow this!” Cry the activists from afar. Very rarely does anyone stop to critically assess the differences between what scientists actually found and what they recommend, as I did above.
Studies like the one by Allen et al. are used as a club by international media to batter Botswana and other elephant hunting countries into submission. This article was popularised by no less than the New York Times and the BBC, among numerous others. Yet the findings of Mayberry et al. – that 90% of people living alongside the Boteti River are food insecure as a result of elephants, not to mention the other impacts – remain tucked away in a scientific journal article, to be read only by scientists interested in the topic of human-elephant conflict. The next time someone says that elephants should be managed based on science, ask them what science – just the science focusing on the elephant dimension, or all of the science?
What are we trying to achieve?
Besides using science to guide management, one also needs to ask a critical (but often overlooked) question – what is the ultimate objective for management in this particular area? The answer to this question then guides how the science should be used. The objectives for National Parks are usually to conserve plant and animal species, although they may also include generating income for Park management and the country. Yet on the edges of Parks and outside them, either in buffer zones or on farmlands, the objective may be different. Particularly in areas where people are present, the objectives have to include their needs – ignoring them is both a violation of their rights and a recipe for disaster.
Around the world, in nearly every human-wildlife conflict situation, whenever people feel that the authorities tasked with managing wildlife are ignoring them or trampling their rights, conflict intensifies. Anger and frustration generated by such intense conflict can reveal itself in a multitude of ways, including public protests, increased poaching, and a distrust of conservation officials generally. More often than not, the animals are used as a pawn in a greater conflict between different groups of people, with sometimes devastating results.
I hope we can all agree that no one wants human-wildlife conflict to escalate to the point of no return. If so, some compromises between the different human interest groups must be made. Within strictly protected National Parks, elephants and other animals should be allowed to continue their lives as unimpeded by human activities as possible (tourism can, and does, cause some issues but this should be minimised by managing the humans, rather than the animals). Outside the Parks, we need to be more flexible.
The existence of wildlife in human farmlands relies directly on the level of tolerance farmers have for it. Our efforts should therefore focus on maximising tolerance, which is achieved primarily through listening carefully to the concerns raised by the people in question and genuinely making an effort to address these. As a rule of thumb, we should aim to reduce the costs people experience and increase the benefits they derive from the presence of wildlife.
Achieving either or both of these goals may require the sacrifice of a few individual animals – e.g. killing or translocating particular individuals that habitually cause conflict (reducing the cost), or allowing a few older males to be hunted by foreigners and thereby generate income and meat for the affected community (increasing the benefit). There is much scope for further research into the long-term impacts of removing individual elephants (either as ‘problem-causing’ or for income generation) on the level of human-elephant conflict, and we hope to pose some of these pertinent research questions in a future article.
This is not to say that non-lethal efforts should not be attempted – they are needed just as much. Around the Boteti, education regarding how to behave when seeing elephants will reduce fear, better fencing around crops will reduce damages, and providing piped water near settlements can reduce direct competition for water. Elephants for Africa is heavily involved in helping this community live with elephants using an array of non-lethal methods – this article in no way criticises their efforts. In terms of income generation, finding different sources of revenue to incentivise tolerance for elephants and other wildlife that do not rely on foreign visitors (with cameras or guns) would increase the resilience of African conservation and is therefore a welcome endeavour.
The various different actions one can take to reduce human-wildlife conflict are often likened to a ‘toolbox’, with each tool being needed for a different task and under different circumstances. Precluding the use of lethal methods reduces the size of the toolbox and may even render our non-lethal tools less effective. If people ask for a particular elephant to be removed, yet conservation authorities respond with an educational talk on the importance of elephants without explicitly addressing their request or trying to understand their point of view, the effort may be seen as patronising – at best! In practice, government conservation authorities need to implement policies regarding elephant management (either in terms of identifying and removing individual ‘problem animals’ and/or granting quotas for hunting elephants) that include the needs and perspectives of their citizens who live alongside elephants.
Striking the balance
Elephant behaviour and society are complicated things that will no doubt continue to attract the attention and fascination of many scientists. Yet understanding and mitigating human-elephant conflict is more complicated still. Countries that must find the delicate balance between the rights of their citizens and their responsibility for conserving biodiversity should be supported, particularly by providing sound scientific evidence on both the elephant and human dimensions of the problem.
Scientific findings should not be used as a club to beat countries into making policy changes, and scientists must realise that their perspectives on elephants are not the only ones that matter. Constructive engagement between policymakers, affected communities and scientists cannot happen if we ignore each other’s perspectives and real concerns. While the international media is partly to blame for making a difficult situation worse, each party can choose to either stoke the fires of conflict or douse the flames by trying to understand the other side’s point of view. Perhaps the proverbial question should not be “how do you eat an elephant?” but “how do you see an elephant?”
African Parks has announced the signing of a 20-year agreement with the Government of Rwanda to manage Nyungwe National Park in Rwanda. The national park is home to the largest expanse of forest in the country, and the agreement is intended to preserve the park’s biodiversity to secure last benefits for Rwanda’s people and wildlife. It comes after a successful 10-year partnership which resulted in the ecological and economic revival of Akagera National Park.
Nyungwe National Park is located in the south-west of Rwanda on the border with Burundi and covers a total area of 1, 019km² (over 100, 000 hectares) including large tracts of montane forest interspersed with marshland. As part of the Albertine Rift, the park is home to 13 species of primate including chimpanzees and Hamlyn’s and L’Hoest’s monkeys. Among the more than 1,000 plants, over 90 mammals and 300 bird species recorded, many are endemic and found only within Nyungwe. The park is a critical catchment area that feeds both the Congo Basin to the west and the Nile Basin to the east, as well as providing 70% of Rwanda’s water.
L’Hoest’s monkey
Chimpanzee
African Parks will work with the Rwanda Development Board (RDB) to secure the sustainability of the park through improving law enforcement; investing in and stimulating local enterprise, and optimizing Nyungwe’s potential for conservation-based tourism. Commenting on the partnership, Clare Akamanzi, the RDB Chief Executive Officer, said that the agreement with African Parks “is testament to the good partnership we have built with African Parks over the last ten years. We look forward to making Nyungwe National Park an even more spectacular place to visit”.
In turn, Peter Fearnhead, CEO of African Parks added that “by investing in the long-term protection of Nyungwe National Park, one of Africa’s biodiversity hotspots, the Government of Rwanda has continued to demonstrate global leadership in taking action to preserve ecosystems which sustain human health, local livelihoods and economies”.
DID YOU KNOW that African Parks offers safari camps (lodges and campsites) where 100% of tourism revenue goes to conservation and local communities? Find out more and book your African Parks safari.
Nyungwe National Park is the 19th park to join the African Parks portfolio, made possible thanks to the support of the Rwanda Development Board, The Wyss Foundation, Rob and Melani Walton Foundation, the players of the People’s Postcode Lottery and Fondation Segré. African Parks now manages 19 national parks and protected areas covering over 14.2 million hectares in 11 countries: Angola, Benin, Central African Republic, Chad, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Republic of Congo, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Zimbabwe and Zambia.
Presentation by Lord Ashcroft KCMG PC to the High-Level Panel examining the policies, legislation and practices related to the management of elephant, leopard, rhino and lion in South Africa. Delivered on Wednesday, 07 October 2020.
Earlier this year, I sent each of you a copy of my book, Unfair Game, in which I expose the appalling truth about South Africa’s captive lion industry.
I have no doubt that you are all busy people, but I sincerely hope that you found some time to look at it.
If you did, you’d know that lion farming is a four-stage process. As cubs, these animals are taken from their mothers and used as tourist magnets. When older, they entertain tourists on “lion walking” excursions. Later, they’re shot in a “canned hunt” – a hunt in an enclosed space from which a lion cannot escape. Either that or they’re slaughtered for their bones and then stripped for their parts much as a thief might plunder a car. These bones are then sold for large sums of money in Asian wildlife markets.
Between being born and dying, some of these creatures are drugged and beaten to make them behave. They exist on a very limited diet. They carry diseases. They’re emotionally damaged. The abuse they suffer is unimaginable.
But it’s not just the appalling cruelty to the lions themselves that is harming South Africa’s reputation around the rest of the world.
The business of lion farming surely ranks as a prime example of how quickly profound wickedness can take root and then wreak havoc on a thing of beauty in a civilised country – a country that I love, by the way.
My research suggests there are now about 12,000 of these animals now being held in pens around South Africa. They outnumber wild lions by four to one.
These animals are bred in the name of profit. A lot of the money generated by these lions is the product of illegal activity, making these gains truly ill-gotten. In my opinion, this puts all of the beneficiaries of the captive-bred lion industry on a par with drug dealers.
In a world whose animal population is diminishing, and whose human population is growing, the problems associated with the lion industry are complex.
And yet, as my lengthy studies of this trade demonstrate, it really does seem that South Africa’s authorities have so far had no interest in tackling this hateful situation in earnest.
Arguably, the authorities have become the enablers of all of this, overseeing lion hunting regulations and awarding licences for the export of lion bones with what appears to be the lightest of touches and wilfully ignoring wrongdoing when they learn of it.
At the moment, this is largely restricted to South Africa. But once the international criminal syndicates have worked out how to create greater demand for the body parts of lions, wild lions right around Africa will become increasingly heavily poached – just like rhinos and elephants.
Then there is the health aspect to consider.
As my book shows, thousands of lion bones are smuggled out of South Africa each year to feed the Asian market for big cat products and so-called “traditional” medicines. Experts quoted in the book say a major public health incident will occur in Asia as a result of its people’s rampant consumption of lion bones – bones which are harvested in South Africa. It could be a serious infectious disease or a new disease we’ve never heard of, just like Covid-19. Lions also carry TB, which killed 1.5 million people in 2018. Any sense that South Africa failed to act when it had due warning would be disastrous for your people and their livelihoods.
So what can be done to solve this problem? I would urge you to recommend that the South African government bans captive-bred lion farming.
I would ask that you ensure airlines, shipping firms and freight companies operating in South Africa are heavily penalised if they are caught transporting the trophies or bones of captive-bred lions.
And ‘voluntourism’ holidays, lion cub petting and ‘walking with lions’ experiences must also be outlawed. Editorial note: Lord Ashcroft subsequently clarified that he was referring to voluntourism associated only with the lion-breeding industry, and NOT other forms of voluntourism.
One of the most shocking aspects of the recent investigation into lion farming that I launched was that when it ended, my team took their findings to a senior police officer in Pretoria who specialises in wildlife issues. Not only did he not read the evidence file they gave him, but having rejected it, he also threatened to put them in prison.
I don’t believe that the members of this panel hold this unsympathetic attitude. I am certain you know right from wrong.
I wrote Unfair Game because I wanted to help end lion farming in South Africa for once and for all.
I hope that you will all share this aim. I will help you in any way I can to bring about its demise.
The Tihongonyeni waterhole is a virtual dust bowl, the windmill scrunched up, and some of the blades were lying below.
Editorial note: Kruger National Park management has embarked on a long-term management plan that includes closing certain human-made waterholes (some permanently and some seasonally) to ensure more natural movement of wildlife, in particular elephants and other large herbivores. One regular Kruger visitor endured a rather stressful and confusing time as she encountered waterholes that appeared open and yet not functioning. Our attempts to obtain clarity from SANParks, detailed at the end of this story, did not yield the hoped-for results and our hope is that this story sparks better communications between SANParks and interested parties.
Kruger waterhole problems- by Shirli J Carswell
Late afternoon and the elephants are arriving from all directions, the zebras and wildebeest have scattered and are standing to the side, waiting patiently. A small herd of buffalo move in and try to find a space between the giants spraying the water. Warthog families criss-cross, looking for a spot to get a drink. Dust devils move across the landscape in the background, sending the dust into the air as more bull elephants saunter in with their askaris – for a photographer, this is magic unfolding.
The Middelvlei waterhole is in full swing when there is water available; a steady parade of wildlife.
Middelvlei is one of my prime waterholes in Kruger. I have sat there for hours, in the early morning and late afternoons when I know there will always be something to see. The landscape is open to the horizon with stunted Mopani bush in the background. For years, northern Kruger has been my pilgrimage, once or twice a year.
The early morning light and sprays of water create beautiful visuals.
In October 2018, I spent two weeks there. The park had no rain yet, and already the temperatures were reaching over 37 °C. I had spent some blissful time driving around the park, always ending up at Middelvlei or the next waterhole at Malopenyana, which is about 23 kilometres from Tsendze camp. Every day was a hive of activity, on one occasion there was a civet lying in the shade across the road, perhaps waiting for a quieter hour.
The demeanour of elephants changes when they close-in on the water; they start running and kicking up more dust in the afternoon light.
Two days before leaving, I realised that there was something wrong at Middelvlei – the animals were arriving and departing without drinking. The two troughs seemed to have very little water, and some of the animals were climbing right into it. The bigger elephant bulls, who would typically ignore the troughs and stand at the cement reservoir using their trunks to splash and suck up the water, were coming up with nothing but puffs of dust, no matter how they stretched.
Zebra as always are skittish at waterholes.
I am no expert on windmills, but the process seems pretty simple: the blades catch the wind, turning the rotor which drives the pump rod up and down. Although the windmill was rotating, the rest was motionless. Every day the weather seemed to be getting hotter and drier. Before leaving, I drove to Mopani to report it. The reception ladies were as helpful as possible, getting the sector ranger on the phone for me. I described the problem, and he assured me that the following day his team would see to it. I could go home with the knowledge that the wildlife would have water in their troughs.
A dagga boy is tired of waiting and challenges the giants by pushing in—the water in the trough is low.
Two months later, I was back in Kruger. I left early morning for Middelvlei to get the golden light. There was nothing. The water troughs were empty and catching dust, and the mid-December temperatures were over soaring over 40 °C. It was clear that it had been dry since October. Again I reported it to the section ranger, and he promised he would see to it the following day. Still, nothing the next morning. So began a relentless campaign, driving back and forth on my holiday to get the waterhole operational again.
A young buffalo is dying to get to the water, with an expression that says it all.
I lost faith in the assurances of a sector ranger who seemed irritated by my calls for help. Eventually, I insisted on a time to meet the maintenance people at the waterhole. We met early morning, and I watched the team fixing the problem for over two hours until they announced that the water would be full by that afternoon. Was the water pumping? Yes. I need to be patient; the reservoir would fill first then start filling the troughs. Finally, over a week of my holiday had already passed. My victory dance was short-lived. There was no water in the afternoon, nor the following morning. There was some blockage in the pipes.
Bulls have the height to get into the reservoir, leaving the water troughs for the smaller individuals.
Once again, with feeling, back to Mopani camp to speak to the section ranger, who I now found out had gone on ‘long leave’. The hospitality and duty manager I met was concerned but said, in all honesty, he had no idea who to contact and would investigate and call me at Tsendze. True to his word, he got back to me, and the next day I met the team at Middelvlei. With the blockage cleared, the water was now flowing, and in a couple of hours, the troughs were full again.
At Malopenyana the bulls congregate around the reservoir, drinking and splashing.
The midday temperatures were insane, climbing to over 46 °C. Driving around the northern area, I noticed a number of the waterholes had problems. At Mooiplaas there was a swampy area of mud. I watched as some elephants used the clay for their skin then run to the water troughs and reservoir only to find them empty. It was heartbreaking. During one conversation, a section ranger had advised me to go to the Tihongonyeni waterhole for photography. It was a dust bowl with the same conditions; mud but no water. Animals can’t drink mud. I began to wonder when last anyone checked this waterhole.
Wave after wave of red-billed quelea descend at Malopenyana, which has two water troughs.
The report of 20 roan antelope dying of dehydration in northern Kruger came as no surprise to me. Instead, it angered and motivated me to write about my scenario, which seems to follow a repeating script. Comically, some visitors even asked me if I worked for SANParks; they’d seen me drive up and down, talking and watching crews fix windmills. Who looks after the waterholes? Who inspects them to see they are in working order? Why is there no standard route of reporting a problem at a camp, where it can get the responsive traction it deserves without a visitor having to go to these measures?
The Tihongonyeni waterhole is a virtual dust bowl, the windmill scrunched up, and some of the blades were lying below.
The Biodiversity department determines which waterholes are dismantled or remain active, but I doubt they are the people who carry out maintenance. I stand to be corrected. The sector ranger had gone on leave, and nobody seemed to know who to contact, which seemed absurd.
I asked a SANParks ranger what a ‘sector rangers’’ job description entails. “He is the ‘senior farm manager’ in charge of all the field rangers that patrol and carry out conservation work in each of Kruger’s 22 sections. It takes 15 years of field ranger experience before consideration as a sector ranger position,” was the response. Certainly one of the essential tasks is to appoint field rangers to inspect the waterholes regularly where there is no natural water source, given that they are a lifeline for wildlife.
A buffalo trying to get water out of deep mud at Tihongonyeni waterhole. But no water in the troughs.
That roan antelope perished through thirst was undoubtedly criminal. In my opinion, the stated ‘action plan’ should include the entire Kruger because it seems to be occurring throughout the national park. There seems to be complacency rot in high and long-held positions, without accountability.
The Tihongonyeni waterhole – when last has anyone checked the water? The signage is in disrepair.
Kruger National Park belongs to the people of South Africa, and we have layers of histories and memories through generations. Every one of us is a custodian. As a visitor if you see a waterhole not working, use your voice for those that can’t; it is your right.
[AG Editorial note: We reached out repeatedly to relevant SANParks officials to request a response to Shirli’s article submission. The initial response, from a senior member of the Communications and Marketing team, was that “there are millions of visitors to KNP who request information from the source and don’t run off to sympathetic media for attention”.
When we pointed out that this was precisely what Shirli had done, he responded by saying that “four years ago SANParks embarked on the decommissioning of artificial water points. This was informed by research undertaken by the Conservation Management team. We did release a statement on the subject matter.”
Again we questioned why, if this were the case, it had no been communicated at the time and why maintenance teams were sent to repair the waterhole pumps. When we received no response to this line of questioning, we approached other contacts within SANParks, reiterating our initial questions and requesting a list of decommissioned waterholes or perhaps a rotational schedule. The only response that we have received to date was that our “queries around the decisions informing the water policy, concerns around the maintenance of the KNP waterholes, and concerns around communication, is noted”.]
SUGGESTION: SANParks to place an information sign at each waterhole – explaining the closure strategy and the status of each particular waterhole. Also a phone number/email address for reporting problems.
Melkvlei had plenty of mud – no water.
About Shirli Jade Carswell
Born in South Africa, Shirli’s career and passion revolve around the African continent and its wildlife and cultures. She cut her teeth on advertising after art school and eventually moved into photography. She periodically packs her 2004 Defender, known affectionately as Tintin, and heads out to some remote location to capture a library of images for her fine art portfolio. Recognized for her wildlife and landscape photography, Shirli is a passionate conservationist and steward of Africa. She co-authored the book, Africa’s Ultimate Safaris, an extraordinary photo journey through the continent showcasing some of its most beautiful and wild destinations. She is currently working on a series of books which will take her into Africa once again.
Visitors to Khwai in northern Botswana enjoy the luxury of game drives, bushwalking and gliding down water channels in a mokoro – the best of everything in one of the most scenic reaches of the Okavango Delta.
Make no mistake, experiencing a safari by vehicle is an extraordinary experience. As Africa’s wild animals have come to accept these peculiar moving parts of their everyday landscape, excited passengers have the opportunity to view them at close proximity. Which is perfect. That said, there is nothing that quite compares to the silent glide of a mokoro through the thick reed beds of Botswana’s pristine waterways.
Surrounded by lilies and with only the gentle splash of the expertly guided pole, these traditional dugout “canoes” follow ancient elephant and hippo paths through the reeds and grasses at a sedate pace that makes the experience even more absorbing. Brief flashes of colour draw the eye to tiny, flamboyant malachite kingfishers and dancing dragonflies hovering over the surface. And the occasional elephant could loom large from a neighbouring bank or wade through the shallow floodplains in front of view. Exhilarating. As the mokoro cuts through the water, its motion is almost hypnotic, yet the soothing effect is undercut by a profound sense of excitement as to what lies around the next bend in the watery pathways. Video: Mokoro magic in the early evening.
This languid pace contrasts beautifully against the heart-pounding adrenaline of viewing a buffalo herd or lion on foot, or perhaps the frenzied excitement of following (at a discreet distance) a hunting pack of painted wolves (African wild dogs) in a game-drive vehicle. This is Khwai – a Botswana safari gem.
Basic facts
The 200,000 ha (2,000 km²) Khwai area consists of the small Khwai Community Concession (NG19) and the larger Khwai Private Reserve (NG18). The tourism core of this area lies along the banks of the Khwai River and its tributaries with associated floodplains and woodlands – much of the area north of the rivers is remote and dominated by mopane woodlands and open floodplains.
Khwai comprises the north-east fingers of the Okavango Delta and lies between two of northern Botswana’s world-famous parks: Chobe National Park and Moremi Game Reserve. There are no fences restricting animal movements between these protected areas, so the wildlife viewing experience in Khwai is equal to the spectacular standards of anywhere in northern Botswana; possibly even more so due to its ideal geographic positioning.
Botswana, and particularly the Okavango Delta, can be a seasonal safari experience for those seeking big cats – based not just on the rains themselves but also the rise and fall of Delta water levels. The dry (no rain) season in Botswana runs from about April until October, which coincides perfectly with the arrival of the Angolan floodwaters to the Delta’s many waterways and swamps, and to Khwai. As a result, many herbivores that spend the rainy summer months in search of nutritious green grass deep in Chobe/Savute move towards Moremi and the Delta during the dry season, in search of a more reliable source of water and nutritious food. There are no fences to restrict animal movements, and Khwai lies directly along this seasonal migratory route. As the annual flood arrives during the dry (no rain) season, the Khwai River levels rise in turn, and mokoro safaris are once again possible in the many channels.
Visitors to Khwai are guaranteed the full Botswana wildlife viewing experience – resident lions, leopards, cheetahs and hyenas revel in the opportunities afforded by a rich abundance of prey, herds of hundreds of buffalo regularly stream through the waters on their way to fresh grazing grounds and naturally, given northern Botswana is the population stronghold, there is an elephant around every corner. Hippos eye passing mekoros with a degree of suspicion by day and wander the camps at night, and massive crocodiles silently slice through the permanent waterways. Khwai is renowned for its wild dog sightings, and these lithe, athletic canines regularly give birth in known den sites in the area during the dry winter months. Naturally, herds of ubiquitous waterbuck and red lechwe dot the floodplains and healthy populations of rare roan and sable antelope regularly leave the surrounding mopane forests to quench their thirst. Despite the seasonal fluctuations described above this smorgasbord of wildlife is viewable all year round, though naturally, the dry season offers better sightings due to the lack of dense vegetation.
The diversity of habitats found in Khwai automatically translates into impressive birding opportunities, with over 500 different species recorded in the area. An added advantage for keen birders is that the best time for birding is during the summer months when visiting migrants have arrived in full force, which also happens to be the low tourism season in Botswana, which means fewer visitors and cheaper rates.
Unlike the (unfenced) neighbouring national parks and reserves, the Khwai concessions allow night drives, meaning that guided visitors to Khwai have the opportunity to search for leopard, serval, porcupine and honey badger, as well as the elusive and mysterious aardwolf. This flexibility also allows off-road driving (with rules) and guided walking safaris.
Most of the Khwai Community Concession is open to the public and to mobile tented safari operators, and so wildlife sightings can be crowded during the prime safari season of July to September. This concession hosts numerous lodges and campsites, and prices range from budget to luxury. On the other hand, the larger Khwai Private Reserve has a few mid and upmarket lodges, and access is restricted to guests.
Community benefits
Most importantly, Khwai Community Concession – which receives the majority of visitors – is owned and run by the local community, with camps and lodges renting the privilege of operating in this exquisite space. For visitors, that means knowing that the proceeds from their trip directly benefit local people, which, in turn, is vital to the survival of any conservation area. A visit to Khwai village, situated within the concession, also offers the opportunity to meet some of Botswana’s charismatic citizens and to appreciate their history and culture, which are so intricately entwined with the wilderness around them. Khwai Private Reserve also pays concession fees, which benefit the local community.
Human-lion conflict is a major issue for the conservation of wild lions. The Zambezi Region (formerly the Caprivi) is a small strip of land that fits like a Namibian key in a lock made of four other countries – Angola, Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe. This strip of land is near the centre of the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA).
The KAZA landscape comprises fully protected National Parks, community conservation areas and mixed-use areas around towns and villages in all five countries. The Namibian component of KAZA has all of the same features of the broader landscape, only on a smaller scale. Most of the large carnivores and herbivores inhabiting this strip of Namibia don’t stay here their whole lives, or even for a year at a time. These animals move from country to country unencumbered by border controls that restrict human movements.
While small, the slender Zambezi Region (called the Zambezi here) is critical for conserving wildlife in KAZA – for a number of reasons.
The Zambezi provides an important connection for animals moving north to south (e.g. Zambia to Botswana) or east to west (e.g. Zimbabwe to Angola) and vice versa;
If wildlife populations decline in this area, it will create a “sink” or vacuum that will affect wildlife in all of the neighbouring countries;
Lessons learned from conservation actions within the Zambezi, which is a microcosm of KAZA itself in many ways, can be useful for neighbouring countries.
Land use zones in the Zambezi Region are a heady mix of three National Parks, one State Forest, seven community forests, 15 communal conservancies (the community forests and conservancies often overlap), numerous villages and one major town – Katima Mulilo. With over 90,000 inhabitants in 2011, the Zambezi is one of the more densely populated parts of Namibia. Nearly 70% of the human population here is rural. While conservancies generate income from wildlife-based activities to spend mainly on community development projects, the average household relies heavily on farming activities like planting crops and raising livestock for their livelihood.
Into this milieu walks the lion; particularly the dispersing young male lion who is trying to find a pride in one of the five KAZA countries and pass his genes onto the next generation. Within a few days, a young male lion can move from Botswana to Zambia, walking right through Namibia. Young males tend to avoid the best lion habitat found in protected areas, because dominant pride males and their prides reside in these areas and will chase young interlopers out. This means they spend much of their time in farming areas and marginal habitats during their wandering adolescence. Then there are the established prides that spend most of their time in the National Parks, yet still make occasional forays into livestock farming areas nearby.
These movements inevitably bring conflict, as lions and cattle come into contact frequently and losses are suffered on both sides. According to conservancy Event Book records, 196 cattle were lost during 2012-14 leading local farmers to kill 20 lions in retaliation. One particular pride of 15 lions in 2012 had only three left by the end of 2014. Given the importance of this region within KAZA and the global importance of the KAZA lion population (one of the largest remaining strongholds for the species in Africa), the escalating human-lion conflict could not be left unchecked.
The Kwando Carnivore Project therefore established a human-lion conflict mitigation project in 2013, focusing initially on conservancies near Nkasa Rupara National Park (NP) that experienced the highest level of conflict. Given their initial success, they expanded their efforts to conservancies north of Mudumu NP in 2016. In 2017, they expanded yet again to include Namibian conservancies near the Chobe River floodplains lying to the north of Chobe NP in Botswana.
Given that lions usually attacked cattle at night while they were in makeshift traditional enclosures (“kraals”), the first order of business was to upgrade kraals in conflict hotspots to make them predator-proof. The conservancy Event Books were particularly useful in identifying where these hotspots were and the Project staff work closely with the conservancies to plan where to put kraals and then monitor the results. A total of 170 kraals have been upgraded to predator-proof status since the project began, resulting in cattle losses from kraals declining by 90% and lion killings being reduced from 20 in 2013/14 to one or two per year for the period 2015-19.
Predator-proof livestock kraal
Traditional livestock kraal
These are excellent results, but the work is far from over. Protecting cattle at night is just one part of the solution that needs to adapt with the lions’ response to cattle protection. If cattle are more difficult to prey on in one area that used to be a conflict hotspot, the lions may just move on to another area where the kraals have not been upgraded yet. If cattle are only protected at night and allowed to roam unattended during the day, then the lions adapt to target cattle during daylight. Lion behaviour changes with the seasons, as their natural prey gets easier (dry season) or harder (wet season) to find, thus making cattle more or less attractive for lions at different times of year.
The seasons also affect how people farm their livestock, which in turn affects losses to lions. Farmers allow their cattle to graze on harvested fields during the mid-dry season to help them survive until the rains come, often leaving them out there at night. Crop farmers in the Zambezi are especially busy during ploughing season, so they leave their cattle unattended more often in these times. Cattle on the Chobe floodplains are more vulnerable in the late dry season when the Chobe River almost dries up, thus allowing crocodile-free passage for lions coming from Chobe NP in Botswana. Finally, kraals that are filled with cattle dung become muddy havens for disease in the late wet season, so farmers prefer to let them roam outside to protect their health. All of these factors make cattle more vulnerable to attack by lions at certain times of year.
Due to the complexities of lion and human behaviour in response to climatic and ecological conditions, building predator-proof kraals is only part of the solution. While the project has reduced lion attacks on cattle, the issues of cattle not being brought into the kraal at night during certain times of year and not being herded during the day led to 67 cattle losses to lions during 2019.
In the coming year, the Kwando Carnivore Project will continue building kraals where they are needed but will add a few more tools to its conflict mitigation toolbox by collaborating with other conservation organisations. With Integrated Rural Development and Nature Conservation (IRDNC) and WWF-Namibia, they want to investigate employing “Lion Guards” to protect cattle during the day. Meanwhile, the Namibia Nature Foundation (NNF) and IRDNC have ideas for introducing conservation agriculture and better rangeland management practices.
Besides suffering fewer livestock losses to lions, it is important that people living with lions see a real benefit to their presence. In this way, a species currently seen as a liability can become a valued asset. The project thus assists with a Wildlife Credits scheme in Wuparo Conservancy that links lion sightings by guests at Nkasa Lupala Lodge to direct payments to the conservancy. These collaborative efforts will provide more holistic solutions to a complicated problem in a complex landscape.
Picture the typical lodge scene: a sparkling pool surrounded by lush gardens, overlooking a dry riverbed. Behind the scenes, the housekeeping staff are working their way through the laundry, cleaning linen and towels for a fresh contingent of guests, while the trackers and guides are hard at work cleaning the dust and dirt from the safari vehicles. Lodges are entirely dependent on a constant supply of water, which, given their rural locations, is usually sourced from rivers, dams and boreholes that tap into the underground water supply.
The wildlife tourism industry is a significant income generator in southern Africa and supports the livelihoods of many individuals in rural communities. Yet in an area where water resources are scarce, how much water are the lodges in southern Africa using, how much should they be using and how does this compare to the consumption of surrounding communities? These are the questions that researchers from the Department of Environmental Sciences at the University of South Africa set out to answer in a new study that analyses the water quantity used at 31 wildlife lodges in South Africa, Botswana and Namibia and provides a baseline and water usage benchmark for the wildlife lodge industry in southern Africa.
There are existing international guidelines for sustainable water use and consumptive quantities in the tourism industry, but these cannot be applied to the wildlife lodge industry for one fundamental reason: most employees at a lodge reside on the premises, rather than returning home every day. Creating a baseline for lodges would need to consider daily staff water usage as well.
Litres per guest per night
The researchers partnered with andBeyond and Wilderness Safaris, two companies with multiple lodges across South Africa, Namibia, and Botswana, for assistance in their research. Lodges with a variety of locations and geography (from desert to permanent swampland) were selected, and these were allocated codes to ensure anonymity. The majority of the lodges had complete water consumption records, and the study utilizes data from March 2015 until February 2017.
The researchers focussed on direct water usage, which includes all water used for bathing, gardening, laundry, cleaning, wash bays, kitchens, swimming pools and staff quarters. They used the international standard of measurement – litres per guest per night – for measurement purposes. The average water consumption across the three countries was calculated at 2,073 litres per guest per night – an amount which is exceedingly large when compared to international 5-star hotels, in some cases up to three to four times higher than the average tourism water consumption in some countries. However, in modifying these calculations to include staff numbers and their water usage, this number dropped to 503 litres per bed per night, which compares more favourably to international averages*. The water consumption by lodges was significantly higher in Botswana, while Namibia typically showed the lowest consumption levels.
* Editorial note: A certain amount of water usage will be ‘fixed’ – in other words, not materially variable based on the number of beds or by how many guests visit the camp. These include water used by core staff, the swimming pool and garden. Comparing international 5-star hotels to lodges is therefore not practical because hotels usually have more available bednights and higher occupancies – with the fixed water usage quantity, therefore, being divided by a higher figure to get to a lower average.
The study concludes by proposing the use of these averages (2,073 litres per guest per night or 503 litres per bed per night) as a benchmark for how wildlife lodges in Southern Africa should plan to manage their water consumption. These proposed benchmarks would be the first of their kind in Southern Africa to aid lodges in setting targets for water usage, as well as assisting developers in planning future lodges, but the authors suggest that these numbers would need to be reviewed regularly in the future.
Litres per bed per night
While at this stage there is no governmental oversight or regulation of water usage, it is incumbent on the wildlife lodge industry in southern Africa to ensure that the lodge water consumption is sustainable to avoid disadvantaging both surrounding wildlife and local communities. Most lodges are mindful of this fact and encourage both guests and staff to conserve water but investing in water-saving measures can be costly. However, for comparison purposes, the water consumption of surrounding local communities ranged from an average of 88 to 371 litres per person per day. In setting a standard which takes into account the unique southern African lodge circumstances, this study offers a realistic starting point for lodges looking to improve or maintain their approach to water consumption.
This is a time of change for Tanzania’s Selous Game Reserve – some good, some terrible.
At the Mtemere gate of Selous lies an ancient husk of an old steam train, the joints and bolts hidden beneath over a century’s worth of rust and grime. Shining against the aged relic, the attached plaque reads “This steam engine was left behind in 1917 by the German troops under Lettow-Vorbeck near Madaba/Selous Game Reserve”.
Time has taken its toll on the old train, and yet, beyond the gate, the vast wilderness landscape lies almost unchanged – for now. In common with so many of Africa’s wild places, the Selous Game Reserve has always engendered a feeling of time standing still – its vital life forces untouched by the passage of the years. Yet nothing seems to escape the inexorable march of time or the mark of human progress forever…
The Selous Game Reserve becomes Nyerere National Park
The entire protected area, historically known as the Selous Game Reserve, and for now recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is 54,600km2 (5,5 million hectares) and is one of Africa’s largest and oldest protected areas. It was named after Frederick Courteney Selous, a British explorer, officer, hunter, and conservationist, who was killed by a German sniper during World War I near the Beho Beho River in the western section of the reserve, where his remains are buried today.
Rufiji River, Selous
The Beho Beho and Ruaha rivers are just two of the many tributaries of the mighty Rufiji River, the largest river in Tanzania, which fans out into an intricate network of channels, lakes and swamps across the riverine regions of Selous. During the wet season, the Rufiji becomes a swirling torrent of brown water before spreading across floodplains downstream, filling the swamps, clearing sediment build-up, and refreshing the oxbow lakes, effectively changing the face of the landscape every year. The crocodile-infested river divides the Selous Game Reserve into two and, up until very recently, the northern sector of Selous (around 8% of the total area) was set aside for photo tourism purposes. In contrast, the rest was divided into hunting “blocks” of around 1,000km2 each.
In 2019, President John Magufuli announced that the Selous Game Reserve would be split in two. The larger portion (30,893km2 – more than twice the size of the Serengeti National Park) becoming the Nyerere National Park, while the southern section will, presumably, remain the Selous Game Reserve. While the exact boundaries of this new national park have yet to be formally announced, it will be the largest national park in East Africa and is named after independent Tanzania’s first president, Julius Nyerere – an iconic figure in Tanzania’s history.
What does this mean?
National Parks are afforded the highest levels of legal control over human activity and habitation within the park and are managed by the Tanzanian National Parks Authority, TANAPA. Game Reserves are similarly protected but are managed by the Tanzania Department of Wildlife with regions set aside for trophy hunting.
Selous scenes as captured your Photographer of the Year entrants: Clockwise from top left: 1) A large elephant bull wandering the wooded hills of Selous. 2) Hippo pool 3) Languishing leopard 4) northern carmine bee-eaters.
President Magufuli has made clear that the intention is to increase the tourism revenue potential of the area. While the largest protected area by far, Selous Game Reserve has typically been overshadowed by the northern Tanzanian safari circuit, including Serengeti National Park, at least in terms of photo tourism. In reference to the hunting blocks of the old Selous Game Reserve and the creation of Nyerere National Park, President Magufuli stated that “tourists come here and kill our lions, but we don’t benefit a lot from these wildlife hunting activities”. Apparently, the park management intends to improve road network to be accessible for the majority of the year (most of the luxury camps in the reserve typically close from April to June at the height of the rainy season), and the government has called on investors to look into creating new camps.
Yet for all the protection afforded by “national park” status, the plan is for the newly formed Nyerere National Park to include one of the largest dams and hydroelectric power stations in Africa. This dam will forever change the natural ebb and flow cycles of the Rufiji River and its tributaries, oxbow lakes and swamps.
Progress be dam(n)ed
Along its journey through the Selous to the Indian ocean, the Rufiji River passes through Stiegler’s Gorge, once considered to be one of the main attractions in Selous, where the water plunges through a narrow ravine with walls 100 metres high. Stiegler was a German engineer who set out to measure and survey the gorge in the early 20th century, where he met an unfortunate end after being charged by an elephant and falling off the edge of the ravine. While the gorge’s potential for infrastructure was recognized even then, both for hydropower and irrigation, various obstacles continued to preclude its development. When President Nyerere turned the newly independent country’s plans towards hydropower, donors chose to finance smaller hydropower dams at Kidatu, Mtera and Pangani.
After a series of extensive studies and investigations, the World Bank concluded that the construction of a large dam was simply not viable at Stiegler’s Gorge. Plans continued to fall through until current President Magufuli announced in 2017 that the dam would be a flagship development project of his government. Logging teams moved into the area at the beginning of 2019 and, as of June 2020, the project was declared to be close to 40% complete (though this seems highly unlikely for a construction project of this magnitude). According to a statement by the President Magufuli, only 10% of the Tanzanian population is connected to the national power grid, and the dam is expected to contribute some 2,115 megawatts in a country where regular load shedding causes enormous losses to the GDP.
While there is no question that Tanzania needs to increase its electricity production substantially, critics of the Stiegler’s Gorge dam project are far from convinced that a mega-dam is the answer. There are profound concerns surrounding the economic and technical viability of the project (a full and objective assessment of the costs can be found here), and many external experts suggest that alternative options such as smaller dams, natural gas or renewable energy sources such as wind and solar would have been less risky. Yet it is a risk the government of Tanzania appears to be determined to take, regardless of the consequences, be they financial or, perhaps even more concerning, ecological.
Baobab trees at sunset in the Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania
EIA? What EIA?
The controversial dam and Julius Nyerere Hydropower Station, to be built by Egyptian construction companies, are expected to cover around 1,350 km2 (135,000 hectares) upon completion. This covered area equates to about 2,5% of the total protected area of the Selous but will destroy significant portions of forest and riverine habitat and impact the downstream ecosystems. The plans were met with resounding criticism from many conservation organizations, as well as the IUCN and UNESCO’s World Heritage Centre. They called for an immediate halt to logging and construction efforts.
The Environmental Impact Assessment submitted in 2018 by the University Consultancy Bureau of the University of Dar es Salaam has been slammed by critics (including this technical review by the IUCN) for a combination of factual errors, an oversimplified approach to an immensely complex project, and the omission of several significant environmental consequences. The EIA does not meet the required international standards on almost every level and goes so far as to suggest that the construction of the dam will result in increased biodiversity in the area and control salinity levels downstream. Dr Rolf Baldus, an economist and expert on the Selous, concluded that this “EIA does not deserve the name it carries, and its academic authors have lost all scientific credibility”.
Tanzania inaugurates the dam that will hopefully boost power supply but certainly threaten the ecosystem.
The price of power
Before the 2018 EIA, the WWF released their assessment of the Stiegler’s Gorge Hydropower Dam, entitled “The True Cost of Power“. The report provides a far more substantive evaluation of the impact of the proposed dam, from disrupted connectivity of habitats and erosion to increased downstream sedimentation and the loss of downstream lakes. It also highlights the fact that the area downstream of the gorge is the richest habitat area in the Selous, with the largest concentration of fauna and flora. This area is almost entirely dependent on the seasonal pulse of the river. Even further downstream, though equally reliant on the seasonal flow of the river, the Rufiji River Delta is home to the largest mangrove stand in East Africa and is a designated RAMSAR site. The livelihoods of the populations reliant on the river for agriculture and small fishers are also of concern. The report concludes that “it is unprecedented to risk losing the integrity of not one, but two globally significant protected areas to a hydropower project”.
President Magufuli has dismissed environmental concerns. “Tanzania is among global leaders in conservation activities, having allocated over 32% of our country’s total land to conservation,” he said. “Nobody can teach us about conservation.”
Typical idyllic Selous safari scene
A World Heritage Site in Danger
Somewhat unsurprisingly, the World Heritage Committee is expected to strip the Selous Game Reserve of its World Heritage status should these plans continue due to the significant and irreversible damage to the region’s Outstanding Universal Value. The Committee had already placed the Selous on the List of World Heritage in Danger in 2014. According to their report at the time, the number of elephants and rhinos in the reserve has dropped by almost 90% since 1982. While these numbers have stabilized in the last few years due to concerted conservation efforts, there are believed to be just over 15,000 elephants and a handful of black rhino remaining. To put this into perspective, there were over 100,000 elephants in the Selous Game Reserve in 1976.
To add insult to ecological injury, a uranium mine was established in the south-western corner of the Selous in the 1990s which required an extensive boundary modification to the World Heritage Site. By January 2017, there were 48 prospective mining concessions within the greater Selous ecosystem. While the Tanzanian Wildlife Authority has confirmed that none of these will be opened for exploration and no concession will be granted in the future, a 2018 Geological Survey of Tanzania confirmed the presence of copper, silver, cobalt, zinc, and gold in the Selous.
Conclusion
In general, internal criticisms of the Stiegler’s Dam project have been somewhat muted, which is perhaps unsurprising after Tanzania’s environment minister announced that “the government will go ahead with the implementation of the project whether you like it or not…those who are resisting the project will be jailed”. According to international experts, the chances are that the construction of Stiegler’s Gorge Dam will cost far more than anticipated and its completion will be delayed, probably by more than six years. In the process, conservationists estimate that close to 3 million trees will be cleared in the dam’s intended reservoir.
For now, however, life goes on in Nyerere National Park and Selous Game Reserve as it has for thousands of years, albeit largely at the mercy of human impact. Elephants wade through the swamps, dwarfed by enormous, towering borasis palms, and the park’s network of waterways continue to supply the vast abundance of life around them.
This lodge was closed down to make way for the dam, and the chopping down of riverine forest has commenced.
Africa’s Wild Dogs – A Survival Story is a photographic book celebrating these charismatic predators and telling their story. All royalties raised from the sale of the book and photographs will go to organisations at the frontline of African wild dog (painted wolf) conservation.
The story of the persecution of Africa’s wild dog is well known. In 1914, R C F Maugham, a prolific British writer, explorer and hunter, was so enraged and appalled when he witnessed a wild dog kill that he declared the dogs’ undesirable vermin’ and ‘an abomination’, calling for their extermination. Other ‘conservationists’ and farmers at the time shared this view and so began the systematic decimation of African wild dog (painted wolf) populations, leaving just a few scattered packs in southern Africa.
Leaping joyously into the water
Times have changed, and the collective efforts of scientists and conservationists have seen great strides in improving the outlook for these fascinating predators. In putting together these images, I was driven by a strong desire to move the narrative forward and create a visual statement of these enigmatic and lively animals in a way that will reveal their extraordinary natures. Africa’s Wild Dogs – A Survival Story documents my adventure with the dogs, my insights into their lives and their future.
An enthusiastic greeting ceremony
When I started on my wild dog adventure just five years ago, I was relatively new to photography. Naturally, I wanted to capture the typical iconic shots of them standing shoulder or dashing after each other in a game of chase, but my vision centred around creating portraits. I found myself lying in the dirt and lugging lenses while racing across the bushveld and trekking through thick bush, not to mention waking up before the dawn to spend hours searching for my subjects. It was then that I learned that you never find wild dogs – they find you.
An intense stare from an African wild dog
Through my time spent in the company of wild dogs, I have witnessed how they hold their own in the animal kingdom, playing a vital role in the ecological balance. They are equally deserving of the respect and awe generally attributed to larger, more fearsome predators.
African wild dogs playing in the water
Possibly the most successful hunters of all the larger predators, wild dogs work as a close-knit team to bring down their prey. They are athletic, long-limbed predators that seem to have boundless energy. They seldom sleep for long, and when it is time to move, they tend to run rather than walk.
Pack life
In following this dream, I was able to team up with like-minded and passionate people. I am so grateful to have learnt from scientists who have sat for hours observing, checking and double-checking their facts to understand and explain wild dog behaviour. Each pack-family-member knows their role and sticks to it. They care for the pack’s puppies with dedication and do everything in their power to keep them safe and healthy.
Meeting a new member of the pack for the first timeThe alpha female returning to her pups
I was privileged enough to witness tiny month-old pups being greeted by the rest of the pack for the very first time. The pack had been dancing merrily around the mouth of the den, calling and whooping until the alpha female deemed the timing appropriate. As the puppies crawled to the lip of the den, they were met with the adoring attentions of the older pack members – gently licked, sniffed, and examined from the tip of their tiny noses to their tails.
A curious puppy is all ears
And there is good news. Under the careful guidance of Dr Harriet Davies-Mostert, her fellow scientists, researchers, rangers and all the hardworking volunteers at the Wild Dog Advisory Group (WAG) have been diligently sharing knowledge, research, and experience to nurture wild dog packs. And the numbers are growing. So much so that suitable and sustainable reserves and parks need to be found for these new families. Packs have been successfully translocated to Mozambique, Malawi and beyond. We now have approximately 6600 wild dogs in southern Africa.
All funds raised from the sale of my Wild Dog images and all royalties from the sale of Africa’s Wild Dogs – A Survival Story will go into the non-profit organisation: Africa’s Wild Dog Survival Fund and from there to the following organisations across southern Africa in appreciation of their participation in the book:
Dr Harriet Davies-Mostert, Head of Conservation – Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT) South Africa and Chair of WAG – Wild Dog Advisory Group.
Dr Tico McNutt, Botswana Predator Conservation Trust.
Reena Walker University of Idaho – who conducted her Sneeze to Leave research together with the Botswana Predator Conservation Trust.
Prof Scott Creel, Zambian Carnivore Programme.
Dr Rosemary Groom, African Wildlife Conservation Fund (AWCF) – Zimbabwe.
Dr Dave Druce, KZN Wild Dog Management Group.
Nick Murray, Bushlife Conservancy: Painted Wolf Conservancy, Bushlife Support Unit Trust, Zimbabwe.
Jocelin Kagan’s passion for wildlife crystallised when she saw her first wild dog in 2010. ‘It was love at first sight’. Since then, Jocelin has been photographing and tracking wild dogs in Mana Pools in Zimbabwe, Botswana, the Timbavati in South Africa, and the Selous Game Reserve in Tanzania. Jocelin has embarked on an ambitious undertaking to make known the plight of this most successful strategist of all predators. She holds Higher Primary Teacher’s Diploma with specialization in Speech & Drama from the University of Cape Town, a Master Practitioner Certification in Neuro-Linguistic Programming and a Henley Management College MBA, and is the published author of four books, an educator, and a public speaker.
Researchers working in the Kenya Long-term Enclosure Experiment have been monitoring the effects of the presence or absence of elephants and other wild herbivores and cattle on savanna ecosystems for 20 years, to understand the impact that each has on the critical processes of long-term functioning of the ecosystem itself.
As wild animal populations decrease throughout Africa, many populations have been replaced by livestock, particularly cattle. As would be expected, moderate to large densities of cattle have negative effects on the nutrient levels in the soils of these habitats, particularly the carbon and nitrogen pools and cycles. One of the main questions that the study set out to answer was whether or not land management strategies could be formulated to minimize the negative impact of the presence of cattle.
The study, funded by the National Science Foundation, showed that the presence of megaherbivores, particularly elephants, increased the total soil carbon and nitrogen pools and reversed the negative effects of cattle-related depletion. The researchers believe that there may be livestock management practices that could be compatible with the conservation of these habitats. Their results suggest that there may be ways for the negative impact of moderate densities of cattle to be mitigated by the presence of wild herbivores in “black cotton” savanna habitats, but crucially this wild herbivore mix must include larger species such as elephants.
“By experimentally manipulating both domestic and wild herbivores in combinations that occur in the real world, this research demonstrates the importance of megaherbivores to sustaining natural savanna ecosystems,” said Betsy von Holle, program director in NSF’s Division of Environmental Biology.
Queen Elizabeth National Park offers a classic safari with a few twists. The impressive variety of habitats includes acacia woodland, grass savannah, lakes, rivers, dense papyrus swamps, rainforest and extinct volcanic crater cones with lakes.
For some 3 million years, the impassive Rwenzori Mountains have born witness to the natural and human forces that have shaped equatorial Africa. Following the line of the Albertine Rift, the western branch of Africa’s Great Rift Valley, these jagged, snow-capped peaks are evidence of a time when enormous tectonic forces shaped the face of the African continent. One day, these mountains will mark the line where the African continent will split in two, the ocean rushing in to fill the space. But only in the next 10 million or so years.
For now, the Rwenzori Mountains, or the Mountains of the Moon, serve as the dramatic boundary between the Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda and create the perfect backdrop for a unique and thriving wilderness.
The fantastic variety of scenery and safari experiences make it easy to understand why Queen Elizabeth National Park (QENP) is one of Uganda’s most popular safari destinations.
The basics
Situated in southwestern Uganda, QENP covers an estimated 1,978km2 (close to 200,000 hectares). The park is bookended by Lake George in the northeast and Lake Edward to the southwest, linked by a stretch of water known as the Kazinga Channel, and is contiguous with Virunga National Park in the DRC. The smaller Kibale National Park, Kigezi and Kyambura Game Reserves all border the park and serve as buffer zones for the ecosystem. Near the northern boundary of the park are four other major protected areas: Rwenzori Mountains National Park, Semliki National Park, Toro Game Reserve and Katonga Game Reserve. The gorilla-trekking Eden of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park lies about 150km to the south.
Formerly known as Kazinga National Park, QENP was renamed to commemorate a visit from Queen Elizabeth II in 1954, while Uganda was still under colonial rule. After independence and through the troubled decades that followed, the people of Uganda were to suffer terrible hardships and unimaginable cruelty, and, as is so often the case with human conflict, the wildlife paid a dreadful price as well. In so many ways, this is what makes QENPark such an extraordinary wilderness – it is a testament to the dedication of the local population’s determination to restore the country’s wildlife in the face of destruction wrought by war. This same dedication allowed Uganda’s elephant population to recover from 700 remaining individuals in the 1980s to more than 5,000 today – a revival of more than 600%.
Seismic scenery
To those who know and love Africa’s wild spaces, each one offers its own particular brand of unique beauty, and QENP is no exception. The land is pockmarked by explosion craters, magnificent calderas filled with either saltwater lakes or rich savannah, each capturing a feeling of a world within a world, a place where time seems to stand still. Seen from the air, it is easy to imagine the violent explosions of superheated gas that created the Katwe and Bunyaruguru crater fields.
A mosaic landscape of unique features and habitats, QENP’s fortunate visitors can go from exploring expansive savannahs dotted by euphorbia trees to the lush paths beneath the canopy of the Maramagambo Forest or drift down the Kazinga Channel on a boat, past one of the largest populations of hippos in Africa.
Tree-climbing lions
While Uganda’s diverse landscapes are always a drawcard, QENP offers first-rate wildlife viewing as well, with over 95 recorded mammal species including elephants, buffalos, hyenas, leopards, lions, giant forest hogs and chimpanzees as well as herds of Ugandan cob. It is also one of the few places where visitors are almost guaranteed to see tree-climbing lions, found only in the southern Ishasha region.
Unlike their leopard cousins, lions are not typically particularly skilful tree climbers. Their impressive bulk puts them at the top of the predator hierarchy and imparts the power to pull down powerful prey, but they are not well designed for nimble balance or agile leaps. While all lions can and occasionally do climb trees, it is very seldom that they make a habit of it. Yet, in QENP, the lions are famed for their arboreal tendencies. Not even a shared familial ability to look comfortable whatever the situation can bely the incongruity of 150kgs of lion draped over the spikey limbs of a giant euphorbia tree. The most likely explanation for their behaviour is that it helps them to escape from the tsetse flies that plague the area and perhaps capitalize on the cool breezes a few meters above ground level.
The chimpanzees of Kyambura Gorge
In the mystical forests of Kyambura Gorge (cover image) in the heart of QENP ecosystem, there is a small, isolated population of primates that have become known as the “Lost Chimpanzees”. These chimpanzees are isolated from the other populations in the larger forested areas of the park, lone survivors cut off by the historic deforestation of the area. Now protected in the Kyambura Game Reserve which was created as a buffer zone to the national park, these chimps are the only habituated individuals in the region. While finding them is not always guaranteed (chimpanzees can cover vast distances in a short space of time), the experience of tracking them down is a reward in itself and contributes immensely towards the empowerment of the local community and the slow but steady process of reforesting key areas.
A birder’s paradise
It is no exaggeration to suggest that Queen Elizabeth National Park offers some of the best birding in Africa, thanks mainly to its astonishing variety of different habitats. There are over 610 different bird species recorded, the second-highest of any park on the continent. A visit to Lake Kikorongo (an extension of Lake George) offers the chance to see the legendary shoebills, though the keen birders can also occupy themselves with the search for the papyrus gonolek in the reeds while en-route. Raptors of every shape and size scud across the skies, from the vast martial and crowned eagles to palm-nut vultures and the angular outlines of keen-eyed grey kestrels. The lakes and channels provide the ideal habitat for a plethora of water and swamp species including both species of pelicans, white-winged and gull-billed terns, African skimmers, and swamp flycatchers. Moving from Ishasha to Mweya you will do well keeping an eye out for African crake, blue-throated roller, sooty chat, black-and-white shrike-flycatcher, northern black flycatcher, black-headed gonolek, moustached grass warbler, red-chested sunbird, and slender-billed weaver. Read more about bird-watching in QENP here Uganda’s other best bird-watching spots.
The safari experience
With so much to offer both in terms of scenic diversity and the variety of available activities, a visit to QENP should be savoured by allowing adequate time to explore. Booking a stay at one of several luxury lodges will guarantee access to an experienced and knowledgeable guide to tie together the richness of the biodiversity and history of the region, and, naturally, to make the most of the wildlife viewing opportunities. The lodge will also be able to tailor the various activities to the interests of its guests. There are also several budget accommodation options, and it is relatively simple for a competent driver to travel through most areas of the park and the surrounding regions. That said, be prepared for what is euphemistically referred to as an “African massage”, particularly just after the rainy season when the roads have dried out but are rutted and uneven where many a vehicle has fallen foul of the cloying mud during the wet months. The highest rainfall levels are experienced in April and May and October to November in the south, which can mean closed roads and postponed experiences. Though the drier months offer the best wildlife viewing, the park is open year-round.
Want to go on safari to Queen Elizabeth National Park? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
Cross-border donkey smugglers in Zimbabwe and Botswana are operating pipelines used for ivory, pangolins and Covid-19 contraband. Oscar Nkala investigates for Oxpeckers Investigative Environmental Journalism
To new arrivals, “Dip 27” is no different from any other rural service centre in Madabe communal lands south of Plumtree in Zimbabwe. Yet locals know that the daytime semblance of law-abiding peace masks a vast cross-border crime enterprise that makes millions from running ivory, illegal immigrants, contraband cigarettes, marijuana and, of late, stolen donkeys in or out of Botswana.
With unhindered access to vast stretches of the unfenced border with Botswana 7km west and a highway link to Plumtree town 40 minutes to the north, Dip 27 is a citadel of smugglers seeking quick and hassle-free access to Botswana.
By day, trucks from Harare and Maputo deliver contraband cigarettes and liquor. From dusk to dawn, baggage carriers cart goods across the dry Ramogkwebana River into Botswana for fees ranging between P100 (R145) and P1,000 (R1,450) per crossing, depending on quantity and risk levels involved.
On the second day of posing as a stranded motorist at Dip 27 business centre, Oxpeckers met a rustler who asked not to be named. He said he had been a “money changer” [illegal foreign currency dealer] at Plumtree border post until it closed due to Covid-19 late in March.
“The closure of the border and subsequent ban on alcohol and cigarettes in Botswana created new money-spinning options as those products are available in Zimbabwe,” he said. “Minor smuggling springboards like Madabe started bustling with contraband goods.”
According to the rustler, Mozambicans use the pipeline to run elephant tusks to Chinese clients in Francistown, about 80km from the border in Botswana. Smuggling syndicates from Harare and Bulawayo also run marijuana, alcohol and cigarettes to Botswana and South Africa, he said.
Investigations by Oxpeckers established that these men who call themselves Mozambicans may be Zimbabweans working for a seemingly well-connected Harare-based syndicate that has for years kept a low profile while quietly running ivory and live pangolins to as yet unidentified Chinese buyers in Francistown.
Police sources stationed at the border post said the syndicate reaps most of its ivory from Matusadona National Park, about 680km away in Zimbabwe, and uses government vehicles to transport the tusks from Harare to Plumtree.
“We have arrested the runners before, but they only go for an initial appearance in court, get bail and disappear,” said a police detective who requested anonymity for fear of reprisals.
He cited the example of a smuggler who was arrested in February 2019 while allegedly trying to smuggle seven elephant tusks across the border stashed in several places including the engine compartment of a BMW vehicle. He had Mozambican papers, but on further investigation, he was found to be a Zimbabwean from Harare.
“On his phone, we found the contact details and several calls made to a Botswana landline, which later turned out to be a Chinese-owned shop at China Mall in Francistown,” the detective said.
“Just as we were preparing to collaborate with the Botswana police on a sting operation to arrest the alleged Chinese buyer, we were told to send our suspect to court, where he appeared only once and was let out on bail. He returned to Harare immediately and the next thing I got a call from one of my commanders saying I should hand over all case files and evidence, including the Zimbabwean identity document and Mozambican passport of the suspect and two cellphones I had confiscated, and to stop investigating the matter.
“She told me the matter would be handed over to Interpol since it now involved Botswana. I was shocked at how the case was being handed over to Interpol without the suspect, but I did as ordered. Within a week I saw the same man driving a different car into Zimbabwe from Botswana.
“Ivory smuggling is one of the biggest criminal enterprises of the Ramokgwebana border area, and the buyers operate various cover businesses at China Mall in Francistown,” the detective said.
Donkey smugglers
Donkey smugglers on the Botswana side of the border are mostly locals from nearby villages, but the masterminds of the smuggling syndicates are predominantly Zimbabwean. On both sides of the border, donkeys are used by communities for ploughing and transporting humans, water and essential goods.
Oxpeckers met the alleged kingpin of a prominent cross-border donkey rustling syndicate in Nxele, a Zimbabwean border village that shares water, shops and grazing pastures with the Botswana villages. He declined to be identified and photographed but agreed to discuss the Zimbabwean link to the cross-border donkey skin trade.
“In all border villages donkeys are most sought after because the Chinese abattoir in Francistown is failing to get its weekly requirement of 100 donkeys from Botswana,” he said. “Zimbabwean syndicates have stepped in to fill the gap with stolen stock.
“To reach their weekly targets, middlemen even hire thieves to steal donkeys from Batswana who refuse to sell. They bring those to Zimbabwe to swap with stolen stock for the abattoir.”
On the Zimbabwe side, donkeys sell for between US$20 (about R330) and US$30 (R500). Due to the scarcity of donkeys in Botswana, prices across the border have more than doubled from P200 (R290) in 2017 to P500 (R725).
Norman Mpofu, former Member of Parliament for the region, told Oxpeckers there was widespread trafficking of donkeys between Botswana and Zimbabwe, with most of the traffic going one-way in favour of Botswana.
“I am not sure if they are going to an abattoir or not, but far too many donkeys are disappearing into thin air in Botswana. Something with a big appetite is eating them in Botswana,” Mpofu said.
“Once in Botswana, the trail turns cold. Syndicates exploit loopholes ranging from collapsed border fences to lack of resources and corruption among border police.”
Image: Dead donkey on the smuggling route linking Madabe in Zimbabwe to Matope in Botswana. Photo: Oscar Nkala
Rustlers Gorge
Plumtree is not the only Zimbabwean cross-border donkey theft hotbed with links to the Bo Chang abattoir in Francistown. In Gwanda South, about 200km away, cattle- and donkey-rustling syndicates with tentacles reaching into Botswana are found in Kafusi, Rustlers Gorge and Shanyaugwe.
When Oxpeckers visited Rustlers Gorge, an age-old smugglers route dating back to the 1800s, members of the Neighbourhood Watch Committee were interrogating three suspects arrested while trying to drive 54 stolen donkeys into Botswana. The men were later handed over to the police and taken to the provincial capital, Gwanda, for trial. The outcome of the court proceedings could not be established at the time of publication.
Village head Keabetso Nare said the donkey thefts have escalated in recent months, with almost all being smuggled into Botswana, where they disappear without a trace.
“The trend is now alarming. They take entire herds in one raid and drive them across the border within hours. The border is just a river. No fence and no signposts. You can be in Botswana without even knowing it,” he said.
“Donkeys stolen from Rustlers Gorge and other Zimbabwean villages end up in Botswana for sale. Previously, we could recover animals in Botswana, but nowadays everything that goes in vanishes without a trace,” Nare said.
Efforts by Oxpeckers to get comment from the Zimbabwe Republic Police were fruitless.
Zimbabwe’s Department of Veterinary Services said their figures showed cross-border movements of donkeys due to theft and straying are rampant between the two countries. Veterinary disease control regulations introduced in 2006 empower the Botswana police to shoot and destroy the remains of all cloven-hoofed animals found to be in the country illegally – in July alone, 108 donkeys from Zimbabwe were shot dead in Botswana.
Animal welfare organisations in Botswana believe the smuggled donkeys end up at the Bo Chang abattoir in Francistown.
The Bo Chang Group returned to Botswana in April 2018, a year after the government temporarily suspended all licences for the slaughter and export of donkeys and their products as a result of the inhumane treatment of donkeys at Bo Chang, which was also operating an industrial-scale facility without a waste disposal plant (See the Oxpeckers exposé “Inside Botswana’s illegal donkey trade”).
Bo Chang exports donkey meat and hides to China, where the skins are used to make ejiao, a traditional medicine marketed as having life-extending, anti-ageing and aphrodisiac qualities.
When Botswana re-opened the donkey skin trade in April 2018, Bo Chang Group was one of four applicants who obtained operating licences. Its abattoir re-opened in October 2019 and by March 2020 the facility was slaughtering an estimated 50 donkeys a week. The donkeys were primarily sourced from Gumare near Maun.
Mpho Kganyago, an animal welfare activist, affiliated with the Botswana Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, said the abattoir stopped buying donkeys in Maun in November 2019 and turned to villages along the border with Zimbabwe, where the communities refused to sell.
“In February they were down to the point of using a 2-tonne truck to deliver about four donkeys per week. In May they suddenly started receiving a double-decker 34-tonne truck with a capacity of 100 donkeys per week.
“Today, they slaughter up to 100 donkeys per week. We have tracked their truck movements to border villages, and when our village-based monitors reported no large-scale buying of donkeys, we realised they were not coming from Botswana. The cross-border donkey theft syndicates have now turned to smuggling animals from Zimbabwe to supply the Bo Chang Group abattoir,” she said.
Claire Mayers of the Bulawayo-based Matebeleland Animal Rescue and Equine Sanctuary said her organisation has been receiving reports of donkeys being stolen in Zimbabwe and trafficked to the abattoir in Botswana.
“We have heard reports of donkeys being stolen for illegal exports to Botswana from our community-based groups in and around Marula since last year,” Mayers said. “Unfortunately, we are unable to verify if indeed they are being taken to the abattoir. What we can confirm is that donkey theft is a huge problem for communities around the western border, and there are suggestions that they end up in the abattoir in Francistown.”
Oscar Nkala is an Associate of Oxpeckers Investigative Environmental Journalism. This investigation was supported by The Donkey Sanctuary and was published by The Standard in Zimbabwe here.
Tests have revealed cyanobacterial neurotoxins to be the cause of the deaths of hundreds of elephants in Botswana, according to an official announcement from the Principal Veterinary Officer of Botswana’s Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Mmadi Reuben. He also confirmed that the official number of elephant deaths had risen from 281 to 330 but that no further carcasses had been found since July.
The elephants died in the Seronga district of Botswana’s Okavango Delta between March and June this year. Many of the carcasses were found near water, but officials quickly ruled out poisoning or poaching, and further tests also eliminated the possibility of an anthrax or encephalomyocarditis virus outbreak.
Cyanotoxins remained as a possible cause. They are produced by cyanobacteria that occur in water and, under certain conditions, from blooms of blue-green algae which are often associated with the end of a drought. The bacteria produce potent neurotoxins, hepatotoxins, cytotoxins and endotoxins that have been known to cause the deaths of aquatic animals, birds, livestock and even humans.
Several samples were sent for testing in laboratories in South Africa, Canada, Zimbabwe, and the United States, but results were delayed due to the strain of Covid-19 on various testing centres.
There are still several unanswered questions, such why these toxins seemed to affect only elephants in that particular area, and Mmadi Reuben confirmed that officials are still investigating.
The cause of death of the 22 elephants in Zimbabwe is still being investigated, and while it may be due to cyanotoxins, this has yet to be confirmed.
Clarias cavernicola or blind cave catfish, as it is called in English, is known only from one cave near Otavi in Namibia, where it lives in total darkness. It is classified as Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the global authority on the status of nature and its species. The total population of catfish in the cave is probably less than 200 individuals, which is the minimum genetically viable population size required for any species to survive over a longer period of time. This makes the blind cave catfish one of the rarest freshwater fish species in the world.
This little catfish species, which grows only up to 17 cm long, has lost its eyes. Additionally, it lacks the pigmentation that produces the normal dark skin colour of other catfish species, and is thus a beautiful golden-pink. In a dark cave, eyes and skin pigmentation are not necessary for survival, so it is likely that not producing these characteristics is part of the catfish’s survival strategy. Conserving energy is especially important for survival when food is scarce. It seems that this rare catfish feeds mainly on invertebrates or insects falling into the cave. Another possible item on the catfish’s menu is an isopod (a shrimp-like organism) that is also endemic to this cave and lacks colour and eyes. Our research team further speculates that the catfish uses guano from the bats in the cave to supplement its meagre invertebrate diet.
The cave catfish seems to be closely related to the snakehead catfish found in the Kunene, Kavango and Zambezi rivers. Since catfish species in these rivers need a flood to stimulate breeding, we assume that the cave catfish needs similar conditions to breed. During Namibia’s summertime thunderstorms, water rushes into the cave and may stimulate breeding. We found that females carry about 50 transparent, sticky eggs with a greenish yolk. On a recent research dive we found smaller individuals of around 5 cm in length, indicating successful breeding within the last couple of years although very little is known about the growth rates of this species.
The water in the cave is currently very clear, but if that were to change it might negatively affect reproduction, as the sticky eggs will be smothered by particles suspended in the water, thus limiting the oxygen supply to the eggs. The newly hatched larvae of this catfish are very small, meaning their food source must be even smaller. The larvae of other catfish species feed on large zooplankton, but we do not yet know what the cave catfish larvae feed on; this is one of our future research questions.
A team from Dantica Diving did a recent research dive in the cave, with kind permission from the owner of the property where the cave is located. Given their rarity and vulnerability, studying this fish species calls for the utmost care to avoid disturbance and harm to individuals. On a previous dive, one of our team went down to a depth of around 90 metres and still did not find the bottom of the cave. Despite the great depth of the cave, the catfish were only found at a maximum depth of 15 metres. It seems they prefer to live near the surface on ledges where food is readily available. Consequently, the catfish is very vulnerable to lowering the water table, as much of their food source accumulates in an area that may no longer be accessible to them if the water level drops.
What will the future bring for this unique and rare fish species? Current threats to its survival include: direct negative impacts on the cave and its water, future climate change resulting in less rainfall and subsequent lowering of the water table, a decline in their food source and illegal harvesting for the aquarium trade. The survival of the blind cave catfish depends on the integrity of the entire ecosystem. Anything that negatively affects the ecosystem around the cave may eventually affect the catfish. It is therefore very important to protect the ecosystem around the cave, although factors such as climate change require international conservation efforts.
On a positive note, there seem to be more openings to the cave that we have not yet been able to explore. It is therefore possible that there are more catfish near these openings, but this has not yet been confirmed. The Namibia Nature Foundation is supporting this research project with funding from the Namibian Chamber of Environment and the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research. We hope to better understand these incredible, unique fish and ensure that they continue to survive in this cave, their only habitat in the world.
Research team:
Clinton Hay (University of Namibia/Namibia Nature Foundation)
Francois Jacobs (Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources)
Tor Naesje (Norwegian Institute for Nature Resource)
The island of Madagascar has been isolated for the last 88 or so million years, giving the fauna and flora of the island ample time to evolve into an eclectic assortment of strange shapes and sizes, from cat-sized chameleons to hairy, long-fingered aye-ayes. For evolutionary biologists, it is a wonderment of ecological mysteries that have the potential to provide an unparalleled insight into the way life as we know it has developed. There is one peculiar creature that presents the archetypal Madagascan enigma: an animal that looks like a bizarre cross between a mongoose and a cat, and, quite possibly, a civet. Despite being the island’s largest predator and having a fundamental role in the Madagascan ecosystem, the fossa (also spelt fosa) has always lurked in the shadows cast by the more popular and better-researched lemurs.
1. What is it – a cat? A mongoose?
The simple answer is that the fossa belongs to its own family: the Eupleridae, but the riddle of their classification has kept biologists occupied for centuries. Edward Turner Bennet first described the fossa in 1833, identifying it as a kind of civet and, therefore, part of the viverrid family. To complicate matters, however, the fossa has several features in common with the felid (cat), herpestid (mongoose) and viverrid (civets and genets) families, including retractable claws, felid-like dentition, a viverrid-shaped skull and a herpestid body structure. As technology developed, biologists increased the tools in their species-classification process, but even then, no clear answer presented itself. A series of studies conducted in the 1990s still resulted in different conclusions – one DNA study grouped the fossa with the herpestids. In contrast, another morphological study concluded that they should be grouped with the felids.
Finally, in 2003, scientists conducted extensive nuclear and mitochondrial gene analysis to prove conclusively that all carnivores in Madagascar share a common ancestor that excludes all other known carnivores, though their closest relatives are Asian and African herpestids. Thus, the fossa and the 9 other endemic Malagasy carnivores were placed in their own family: the Eupleridae.
The relationships of the individual species within the Eupleridae are still poorly understood but, as it stands, the fossa’s closest relatives are the two falanouc species, the Malagasy civet, the ring-tailed vontsira and four Malagasy mongoose species.
2. Madagascar’s dominant (natural) predator
While the astounding predatory skills of members of the mongoose and civet families are often eclipsed by the dramatic larger carnivores, their hunting style is acrobatic and lightning-fast. The fossa’s hunting prowess is equally formidable – combining cat-like power with mongoose speed and agility. Equally at home on the ground or in trees, fossa are capable of adjusting their feet to either a plantigrade-like (walking on the souls of the feet like a human)or digitigrade-like (walking on its toes, and not touching the ground with its heels, like a dog) gait, and the ankle joints in their back legs are extremely flexible, allowing them to descend trees head-first.
An adult fossa can reach lengths of around 1.5m (including its long tail) and can weigh over 8kg. They are opportunistic hunters and will feed on rodents, birds, and reptiles, as well as invertebrates. Their main prey, however, is lemurs, some of which can reach almost the same weight as the fossa themselves. Interestingly, while fossa are primarily solitary in nature, Mia-Lana Lührs (one of the world’s few experts on the fossa) witnessed three males cooperatively hunting a sifaka. She believes that this may well be an evolutionary throwback to a time when giant lemurs existed on Madagascar.
3. Battle of the sexes
Even though males are slightly bigger than females, the mating process is dominated by the female by the simple expedient of conducting her dalliances in a tree. In a highly seasonal behaviour most similar to lekking (seen in some bird and antelope species), a female in oestrus ascends a tree judged to be sufficiently sturdy to accommodate energetic activity (often reusing the same tree year after year) and calls loudly to declare her status to the males in the area. For up to a week, would-be suitors gather at the mating site, competing for her attentions, and suitable males will be permitted to join her on the branch for a few hours at a time. The process is accompanied by cacophonous vocalizations and astounding displays of dexterity.
Mating is somewhat protracted due to the backwards facing barbs on the male’s penis (which itself can extend to between his front legs), and the formation of a copulatory tie. Penile spines are relatively common in the mammal kingdom and usually consist of small barbs of keratin which are believed to play a role in triggering ovulation or removing copulatory plugs. They are found in many members of the cat, rodent and primate families, though it appears, mercifully, that human ancestors lost theirs around 700,000 years ago.
4. Going through changes
Litters of up to six youngsters are born in a suitable den after a 90-day gestation period and stay with their mothers for the first year, only reaching sexual maturity at around 3-4 years of age. This relatively slow developmental process also translates into an extended life expectancy – fossa in captivity have been known to live over 20 years. Bizarrely, young females display what is known as transient masculinization: at around 1-2 years, the clitoris enlarges and develops spines similar to a male’s penis. This gradually diminishes in size as the female reaches sexual maturity, and it is possible that this mechanism reduces harassment by adult males and/or aggression from adult females. This transient masculinization is extremely rare in the mammal kingdom.
5. There may be fewer than 2,500 fossa left in the world.
And this may be an overestimate. The fossa population size is challenging to measure, but research suggests that only the Masoala-Makira and Zahamena-Mantadia-Vohidrazana forest ecosystems are of sufficient size to support a population of more than 500 adults. Despite their widespread distribution, fossa seem to occur at extremely low densities for a predator of their size, which in turn makes the fragmented and small protected areas available to them insufficient to support viable populations. While they are currently listed as ‘vulnerable’ by the IUCN Red List, the reality is that the fossa may be far more threatened than most realize.
Like all of Madagascar’s fascinating fauna, fossa are faced with the combined threats of habitat loss and fragmentation. Slash-and-burn agriculture is common, and forests are continually destroyed to increase grazing land for local cattle. When natural prey is scarce, fossa turn to surrounding villages in search of food, putting them in conflict with people and domestic animals and, while in certain parts of Madagascar it is considered taboo to consume the fossa, they are still regularly hunted for bushmeat.
Conclusion
The lemurs of Madagascar might steal most of the limelight, but the island’s largest carnivore should not be forgotten, underappreciated, or relegated to the status of the ‘antagonist’ of the forests. The evolutionary conundrum that is the fossa is one of nature’s works of art – powerful, agile, intelligent, and enthralling in its own right.
There is a significant amount of research and knowledge surrounding the role that older female African savannah elephants play in decision-making and leading their herds, but little is understood about the contribution of older males. The assumption has generally been that these old bulls are largely redundant in terms of the overall survival of the population, but a new study conducted in Botswana has yielded results that challenge this conclusion. Instead, researchers argue that the selective harvesting of older males (through trophy hunting and illegal poaching) could have detrimental effects on wider elephant society.
The authors explain that when animals move as a coordinated group, specific individuals may consistently be observed to influence the decisions and routes taken – whether due to their hierarchical dominance, a bolder temperament or advanced age. In species with a relatively long life expectancy, such as elephants or killer whales, older individuals have been seen to respond more appropriately to a change in environment, as well as mobilising in response to potential threats. While research into this area has tended to be mostly female-focused, there is no reason why there should be a sex-based distinction in the accumulation of knowledge over time, nor is it necessarily the case that males do not have the potential to occupy socio-cognitive roles similar to the females of the species – acting as “repositories of ecological knowledge”.
Male African elephants congregate at hotspots of social activity on the Boteti river in Makgadikgadi
In social animals, males are typically the dispersing sex and, therefore, are assumed to be replaceable. In elephants, the males tend to leave their natal herds between 10-20 years of age, roaming vast distances and often forming temporary associations with other males of various ages. In associating with older males, the study explains, adolescent bulls could benefit from decades’ worth of experience in utilising their environment effectively while negotiating potential risks such as conflict with people.
The study was conducted in the Makgadikgadi Pans National Park – where male elephants account for some 98% of the elephant sightings. The researchers focussed on all-male groups travelling on pathways to and from the Boteti River. The results indicate that young elephants show a significant preference for travelling in groups and that mature adult males were more likely to lead these group movements. These findings applied throughout the year in both the wet and dry seasons, suggesting that these mature bulls offer a significant contribution to elephant society, regardless of the season. The researchers found little evidence that size (particularly stride length) influenced the positioning of individual elephants in the group.
Male elephants socialising at the Boteti River
This observed pattern of movement is in direct contrast to that of a breeding herd, where the matriarch will initiate movement and direction but generally move to the back of the group where she can monitor the members of the herd. The process appears to be more passive in male leadership, with the older elephant making decisions and the younger members of the group choosing to follow them. It is, however, an essential role in the male society of elephants, particularly when leading young males between crucial resources such as water.
Young adolescent bull elephants sparring at the Boteti River
While they represent the minority in elephant populations, bull elephants are targeted by trophy hunters and poachers due to their larger body sizes and tusks. The researchers suggest that their findings regarding the leadership of older males during collective movement complements other research into the importance of mature bulls in all-male societies. The study expresses concern that targeting these old male animals in trophy hunting could disrupt these all male-societies, as well as the “inter-generational flow of information concerning decades of accumulated ecological knowledge, such as effective navigation and location of critical resources”. Instead, the authors suggest, the role of mature bulls should be recognised as similar in male groups as that of a matriarch in a breeding herd and, as such, they should be afforded equal protection.
Professor Keith Somerville investigates the mysterious deaths of more than 300 elephants in Zimbabwe and Botswana.
The discovery of the carcasses of 22 elephants near Hwange National Park in western Zimbabwe in early September has reactivated concern in the region and among those interested in elephant conservation that we still don’t know what killed 281 elephants in the Seronga district of Botswana’s Okavango Delta between March and June this year.
The Zimbabwe deaths occurred in a relatively restricted area in the Pandamasuwe Forest in western Zimbabwe, between Hwange NP (its largest fully protected conservation area) and Victoria Falls. All the dead elephants were young, under 18 years of age, according to the Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority (Zimparks). A spokesperson for Zimparks, Tinashe Farawo, told the media that all the elephants still had their tusks, ruling out poaching as a cause of death.
Zimbabwe has a recent history of the use of cyanide by poachers, who poison waterholes used by elephants. He added that there was no evidence that they had been killed by the disease anthrax, which is found in wild ungulates and livestock in southern Africa. Final tests are awaited to find a specific cause of death, though naturally occurring toxins in plants or contaminated water have not been ruled out, nor have so far unidentified bacterial infections.
Zimbabwe has between 80,000 and 86,000 elephants – about 55,000 of them in and around Hwange NP. They are part of the estimated 220,900–240,000 elephants to be found in the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area, KAZA, which includes regions of Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
Botswana has the largest elephant population there and in Africa as a whole, with between 130,000 and 150,000, numbers fluctuating as elephants move across the KAZA region to find water and food. Herds move across the region throughout the year, and it is not possible to give a definitive population figure for any one country, as numbers change with the seasons.
The Zimbabwean deaths are worrying but not as extensive as the demise of hundreds of elephants in the northern Okavango Delta earlier this year. These were first reported in May, when the southern African media said that by early July, 400 carcasses of elephants that had died suddenly had been discovered around the Seronga region of the northern Delta. In what is known as the Panhandle – none had their tusks removed, and they did not appear to have died of starvation or thirst.
Poaching using poisons like cyanide and strychnine and anthrax were ruled out by laboratory tests early on. Tests also ruled out the nine most common pesticides and other agricultural chemicals used by farmers, and which have been used to poison wildlife. The environment ministry has also said that Encephalomyocarditis virus, which is an acute viral disease, another possible cause, also has been eliminated as the cause of deaths.
After initial testing in Botswana, samples from the elephants were sent to South Africa, Zimbabwe, the US and Britain for more extensive tests. These confirmed that poison, anthrax, dehydration and starvation could be ruled out. The Botswana Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources Conservation and Tourism (MENT) has said that the original estimates above 375 elephant deaths, reported by the NGO Elephants Without Borders (EWB) was incorrect. EWB and the government have a history of conflict over the conservation, elephant numbers and poaching levels in northern Botswana. It was now known that 281 had died from unexplained causes. Many were found dead on their knees, indicating sudden deaths rather than the long-drawn-out deaths that occur with starvation or lack of water.
The testing of samples outside the region has been slow. The Botswana environment ministry explained this as being a result of the strain placed on testing centres across the world by Covid-19 and its effects on international shipment of samples from the elephants, which has slowed the whole process.
No other carcasses suspected to be linked to the Okavango deaths have been found since July. However, those in Zimbabwe will cause renewed concern about the number of unexplained deaths in the KAZA area. Suspicion, according to the Botswana environment ministry, now centres on potentially lethal naturally-occurring toxins. But an experienced conservationist working in Botswana said a specific cause might not be identified as ‘the chances of definitive identification of a natural toxin are practically zero unless it is one of the known cyanotoxins, and even they are all challenging and expensive to analyse – even in good samples. Rotting elephant is not a good sample.’
Cyanotoxins include cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) which can occur in waterholes and especially after droughts – the region had a three-year drought which ended earlier this year. This toxin has been implicated in the deaths of livestock following droughts. Conservationists hope that these deaths are isolated and are not indicative of a virus that can be transmitted between elephants.
Professor Keith Somerville is a senior research fellow at the Institute of Commonwealth Studies (ICWS), part of the School of Advanced Study (SAS), University of London. He is a Member of the Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology at the University of Kent where he teaches at the Centre for Journalism and is editor of the Africa Sustainable Conservation News website. He is the author of Ivory. Power and Poaching in Africa.
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Jocelin Kagan’s passion for wildlife crystallised when she saw her first wild dog in 2010. ‘It was love at first sight’. Since then, Jocelin has been photographing and tracking wild dogs in Mana Pools in Zimbabwe, Botswana, the Timbavati in South Africa, and the Selous Game Reserve in Tanzania. Jocelin has embarked on an ambitious undertaking to make known the plight of this most successful strategist of all predators. She holds Higher Primary Teacher’s Diploma with specialization in Speech & Drama from the University of Cape Town, a Master Practitioner Certification in Neuro-Linguistic Programming and a Henley Management College MBA, and is the published author of four books, an educator, and a public speaker.
The study suggests that while the development, educational and cultural strategies currently broadly applied to control bushmeat consumption have the potential to be effective, they need to be directed at the correct groups of people in the correct manner to avoid wasting scant resources. While there is an understandably urgent need to protect certain species from unsustainable hunting, policies need to be tailored for each specific species. The authors emphasize that there is no “one-size-fits-all” solution to bushmeat consumption and strategies that aim to have conservation benefits need to be based on research that provides a clear understanding of the process within each community.
Flying thousands of hours in their specially modified aircraft, aerial photographers Jay and Jan Roode have spent more than a decade photographing some of the most remote and spectacular wilderness areas of Southern Africa from above.
A 
Freelance writer, Ron Swilling’s work is regularly featured in travel and outdoor magazines in South Africa and Namibia. Her work has also appeared in books Wild Horses in the Namib Desert: An equine biography, Road Tripping Namibia and the children’s story The World Famous Sunbeam Collector. Ron’s travels lead her off the beaten-track to discover diamonds in the dust, wild desert horses, unspoiled nature and freedom in never-ending landscapes. When at home in Scarborough, Cape Town, she delights in finding wonders in her very own back garden, like the Cape’s wild honeybees.
