Across the runways of Paris, New York and Milan, supermodels parade the latest fashions draped across their slender frames. With steely looks and pronounced cheekbones, these young and glamorous walking clothes horses are, in theory at least, the pinnacle of human attractiveness. Yet for all the effort that goes into achieving this particular look, there is an African cat that effortlessly achieves the same effect: the serval.
The striking servals that stalk the savannahs, plains, wetlands, and forests of Africa bear a certain similarity to these leggy models, sporting a matching kind of composed elegance. These servals are, in essence, the ultimate masters of the catwalk (and stalk and leap and pounce).
Introduction
The serval (Leptailurus serval) is a medium-sized cat that looks somewhat like a cross between a small cheetah and a large house cat. In reality, they belong to the “caracal lineage” of the Felidae family, along with caracals and African golden cats, though their peculiar shapes, spotted colouration and missing ear tufts set them apart from the other two species. Servals have the longest legs in proportion to their bodies of any of the cat species (hence the model comparison) and a tawny-gold coat dotted with a mixture of spots and stripes. Like caracals, their tails are relatively short in comparison to other cat species. There are rare sightings of melanistic servals, particularly in East Africa, and leucistic individuals have been born in captivity.
Though the serval is the only member of its genus, there are currently three proposed subspecies recognized by the IUCN’s Cat Specialist Group: L.s. serval of Southern Africa, L. s. lipostictus of East Africa and L. s. constantina of Central and West Africa. These distinctions, however, are based mostly on the trend observed within other African cats, rather than genetic analysis, and may change as further research comes to light.
Solitary and silent, servals are seldom seen but surprisingly widely distributed across a range of habitats in most of sub-Saharan Africa. There are also some small and isolated populations scattered in North Africa – specifically in Morocco and Tunisia. As a general rule, servals are not fond of arid areas. They prefer wetter habitats where rodents tend to be densely populated, with the exception being the central tropical rainforests of Africa, where they are notably absent.
Quick facts
Height:
54-62cm at the shoulder
Mass:
8-18kg (the males are usually larger than the females)
Length (not including the tail):
67-100cm
Social structure:
solitary
Gestation:
around 73 days
Life expectancy:
10 years in wild, over 20 years in captivity
The pounce
The lanky limbs of the serval are not only useful in navigating long grass and dense wetland vegetation, but they confer the serval’s most well-known ability – a gravity-defying leap. The extended metatarsal bones and elongated and unusually mobile toes provide the perfect attachment points for a complex arrangement of tendons and muscles that store and release elastic energy. The result is that servals have been recorded leaping close to 3m straight up and 4m forwards, occasionally snatching hapless birds out of the air at the same time.
Aided by this penchant for pouncing, servals are exceedingly proficient hunters. While current research indicates that the diminutive black-footed cat holds the highest hunting success rate of any member of the cat family, the serval vies closely for the top spot. Studies conducted in Tanzania indicate that some servals have a hunting success rate of over 60%, with the possibility that this number is closer to 80% when only rodents are considered.
The hunt
The secret to this success lies in the serval’s hunting strategy. They are consummate ambush predators that use their massive, radar-like ears to detect the smallest movements of anything from rodents, insects and reptiles to birds and antelope lambs. Prey detected; the serval stealthily moves into a spring-loaded crouch, frozen until the time is right to launch an attack with legs drawn up to their chests and descending upon unsuspecting victims from above. Anything that manages to dodge this aerial assault is rapidly chased down in long strides. Snakes require a more combative approach, with lightning-fast blows from the forepaws dispatching them from a comfortable distance.
This particular strategy is most effective at night, and servals are described as primarily nocturnal. However, they are equally comfortable utilizing the daylight hours, particularly in the early mornings and at dusk. When large kills are made, servals have been observed caching the carcasses, hiding them beneath leaves and grasses.
The kittens
Efficient hunting is vital for mothers of young kittens. As is the case with all solitary cats, the females with dependent kittens expend approximately twice the energy and time hunting to keep their litters well-fed. The altricial kittens are born blind and weighing just 250g, covered in soft grey fur and entirely dependent on their mothers. The litters of between one and four kittens are hidden beneath dense vegetation or in abandoned burrows, and the mother starts to bring food back to the den when they are around a month old.
The transformation from vulnerable fluffballs to fierce little predators is a rapid one, and the kittens start hunting at around six months old as they acquire their permanent teeth. They will accompany their mother on hunts for the next six or so months before reaching full independence at around a year old. Overly attached youngsters who exhibit a reluctance to leave their mother’s side are eventually met with aggression as she chases them out of her territory.
The sexes
The serval social structure and territory layout is not dissimilar to that of leopards, albeit over smaller home ranges of 10-32km2. Both males and females mark and defend territorial boundaries against members of the same sex, though physical confrontations seem to be quite rare. The territories of the males are larger than those of the females, and one male’s range may overlap the ranges of several females. Territory size and serval density are dependent on the resources available to them. When the habitat is suitable, and prey is abundant, the territories will be smaller in size and the population density will be higher.
The males and females generally only associate when the female is in oestrus, a state that she advertises through increased urination and repeated vocalizations.
The threats
Naturally, the main anthropogenic threat to servals is the constant degradation and loss of suitable habitats, particularly wetlands and grasslands. Fortunately, however, servals have proved to be highly adaptable and appear to be more tolerant of disturbed landscapes than many other mammal species. Recent research seems to indicate that the highest density of servals anywhere in Africa is in Secunda, South Africa, in the buffer zones surrounding a coal liquefication plant where they prey on the abundant rodent population.
To a lesser extent, trade in serval skins poses a particular threat to the servals of North and Central Africa. At the same time, in West Africa, their parts are used for ceremonial and medicinal purposes. Rural pastoralists may also target servals as a potential threat to livestock.
For now, however, the serval is listed on the IUCN Red List as “Least Concern”, though the populations north of the Sahara are considered to be “Critically Endangered”. These northern populations are primarily isolated to Morocco, though servals were reintroduced to Feijda National Park in Tunisia. While servals were once recorded in Algeria, fears are that they are now extinct there.
The pets
Over recent decades, the serval has seen a surge in popularity as an exotic pet, and the first savanna cat (an occasionally fertile hybrid between a serval and domestic cat) was bred in 1986. Most countries have strict regulations around keeping wild animals as pets, but in areas where such restrictions are more relaxed, exotic breeders have flourished.
While fortunately, the breeders supply most of the pet trade without significant impact on wild populations, there are practical and ethical realities to keeping a serval as a pet. Slender they may be, but a serval is an immensely powerful animal that can weigh close to 20kg and live for 22 years. Most importantly, their wild instincts are imprinted from birth. While pet sites are full of testimonials about how servals make wonderful, almost dog-like pets, the various rescue centres now home to abandoned, “troublesome” adult servals tell a vastly different story. It is unaccountably cruel to breed an animal genetically programmed to stalk the wilds of Africa and put it in a harness or cage as a status symbol and ego-boost.
Conclusion
For those looking to see an elusive serval where it truly belongs – in the wild – there is good news. Over recent years, particularly in East Africa, serval sightings are becoming increasingly common as more time and effort has been put into understanding their movements. For a fortunate few, this has resulted in astoundingly intimate glimpses into the lives of one of Africa’s most graceful cats.
And, the more time we spend with them, the more we will learn about these mysterious little cats with their model-like limbs, handsome faces, and sense of absolute self-possession.
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How I miss the restless herds of the Maasai / Serengeti, the cool crystal waters of the Okavango Delta & the walking paradise of Luangwa Valley – the list of where I would rather be right now is long. I MISS THOSE SAFARIS so much that my entire life seems out of kilter at the moment.
That said, I am comparably fortunate because I live on the border of the Greater Kruger, with regular forays into the nearby bushveld and wildlife encounters in my garden (including aardvark a few nights ago). I cannot even begin to imagine how deep YOUR LONGING to again come on safari must be. Most of our tribe are not from Africa – you mostly hail from the United States and Europe. Every newsletter we craft is our attempt to keep you involved with Africa, to keep that passion burning until you can join us again. Hang in there. Africa needs you.
Speaking of safari, it’s of paramount importance for the industry that we all get vaccinated against Covid-19. Please don’t be put off by the anti-vaxxers – JUST DO IT! Charlie Paxton from Namibia emailed me in response to last week’s newsletter with her candid thoughts on the Covid situation. She made the excellent observation, among many, that getting the jabs will “… calm the governments of the world down and get them to reopen normal travel and the economy.”
I forgot to thank Dr Michael D. Kock last week for sending us the article that formed the background to my observations. My sincere apologies for the oversight Michael. Thanks to you all for sending me your thoughts and links to some interesting reading!
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
‘Can you ride a motorbike?’ she asked.
‘Well, I can sort of make one go forward and change gears,’ I said, recalling the combined total of five minutes spent falling off a bike in my 38 years.
‘Oh you’ll be fine then!’ she said with a shake of her hand.
I was on Mashatu, part of the Tuli Block, about to film a cycle tour. My transport was an angry, spitting, offroad motorcycle (which may have been built for a child). Anyway, I hardly noticed the myriad cuts, bruises and burns. The elephants, scenery, baobabs, smells and endless skies of the Tuli Block helped me forget my potential departure from life courtesy of an inability to control the bike in front of an irritated elephant. Our first story below will manifest just such an escape from whatever traumas you currently face.
In January, my good wife and I spent a week working with Wildlife Act at Hluhluwe-iMfolozi. We woke at ungodly times, spent hours beep beeping with telemetry. We boiled in the sun and showered in the summer rain. It was wonderful. Our second story below is a tribute to the hard, poorly paid, long-houred, and, in this case, tremendously rewarding work done by conservationists dedicated to saving African painted wolves.
Our third story below is a little more nuanced – so read it before you have your first snifter. It delves into the complicated process of moving animals between the different CITES appendices. Mostly, it provides a strong reminder that every decision must be informed by data on the ground and not assumptions from ivory towers.
Ok, now you can take your first sip of the weekend and enjoy the 19th selection of Africa’s wonders. There is little time left to enter our Photographer of the Year and win 10 000 USD and a trip to Botswana. I’m sure there are thousands of award-winning snaps on hard drives and in attics yearning for their time to shine.
Finally, our video of the week is a tribute to Bob Scholes, world-renowned climate scientist and systems ecologist. He was taken from the earth he loved aged just 63, but his legacy lives in his academic work and the thousands he mentored in his quest to save our planet.
Story 1 https://africageographic.com/stories/tuli/
LAND OF GREY GIANTS
Botswana’s Tuli is a place where the wind carries stories of the past, whispering over rocks, around baobabs and across the vast wilderness
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
There is a special quality to the silence of Tuli. Indeed, it may be disturbed by the whisper of the wind, the rumbles of elephants or the distant echo of a lion’s roar, but beneath those sounds lies a blanket of silence so profound it stills the soul.
In this almost mystical atmosphere, there are strange ephemeral moments where past and present seem intertwined, and the existence of those gone before seems to flit over the red rocks and beneath the towering baobabs. It is a rough and rugged land where bloody history has taken its toll, but concerted effort has restored wilderness to a thriving landscape.
The Tuli Block is a narrow stretch of land in the southeastern corner of Botswana, sandwiched between South Africa to the south and Zimbabwe to the north and east. This strip of land has a colourful history, and the Limpopo River, which forms its southern boundary, has witnessed it all.
The Tuli Block extends 350km along the Limpopo River, southwest of its confluence with the Shashe River. It comprises mixed-use, fenced and unfenced private properties of varying sizes. Some are farmed, some hunted, and many offer photographic safaris. Rustic bush camps are set beneath ancient fever, Ana, nyala and baobab trees, offering budget escapes for intrepid travellers searching for unspoilt wilderness.
The Northern Tuli Game Reserve
The most well-known and best-protected portion of Tuli is the Northern Tuli Game Reserve (Notugre) – a collection of 36 private properties to the east of the Tuli Block, including Mashatu Game Reserve, that are jointly managed for conservation and ecotourism. It extends across some 720km2 (72,000 hectares), making Notugre one of the largest private game reserves in Southern Africa.
The reserve is also a cornerstone of the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area, which covers nearly 6,000 km2 (600,000 hectares) and centres on the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashe. South Africa’s Mapungubwe National Park is south of Tuli, across the Limpopo River international border, once home to the Iron Age kingdom of Mapungubwe. To the north and east, Northern Tuli is contiguous with the Tuli Circle Safari Area in Zimbabwe.
The History
As might be expected for a region bordering three countries, Tuli is littered with reminders of a turbulent past – from ancient stone tools and San rock paintings to corroded ammunition casings, left over from wars and the passage of hunters.
During the late 19th century, Botswana was part of the Bechuanaland Protectorate under the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. At the same time, Cecil John Rhodes was looking for a suitable route for his envisioned “Cape to Cairo” railroad and petitioned to have the Bechuanaland Protectorate transferred to his company: The British South Africa Company. Alarmed by the potential consequences of the transfer, Chief Khama III of the Bangwato Tribe travelled to England to petition the Queen. He managed to win her sympathy but agreed to cede what is now the Tuli block to the company so that Rhodes could continue his railway plans. It is quite probable that Chief Khama III also hoped the company’s presence would keep out the advancing ‘Boers’ (a slang term often used for Afrikaans people, but which means ‘farmers’ when translated literally).
Rhodes quickly concluded that building a railway through Tuli would be a logistical nightmare, and his focus shifted to more forgiving landscapes further west. Some of the northernmost battles of the South African War (Anglo-Boer War) played out in the Tuli Block – including the fight at Bryce’s store, the ruins of which lie on Mashatu Game Reserve.
As the dust settled in the aftermath of the war, the British South Africa Company sold off most of the property to commercial farmers. However, the rugged and inhospitable landscape proved to be largely unsuitable for cattle farming and, eventually, landowners began to turn to game farming and ecotourism. Cooperative efforts of conservation-minded owners saw the gradual return and reintroduction of wildlife, though buffalo remain absent due to strict foot-and-mouth veterinary protocols.
The Scenery
The trees along the riverine areas are an attraction in their own right. Massive, ancient leadwood and gangly apple-leaf trees contrast against the lush dark greens of the majestic nyala and weeping Boer-beans and dense stands of vivid, yellow-green fever trees. Away from the rivers, the landscape becomes less hospitable and more arid, though equally breathtaking. It is dominated by jagged rocks and bulbous baobabs. Famously, Cecil John Rhodes scratched his name into the bark of one of these giants which stands like a sentinel on the Mmamagwa rock formation and is now known as the Rhodes Baobab.
Solomon’s Wall, close to confluences of Motloutse River and the Limpopo, is another of the main geographical attractions – a 30m basalt wall jutting through the landscape on both sides of the riverbed. This wall once formed a natural dam that held back a massive lake, as evidenced by the deposits of several kinds of semi-precious stones.
Cycle, walk, drive, ride, experience
As mentioned, the Northern Tuli Game Reserve consists of an amalgamation of private properties, which means that entry is only through arrangement with one of the multiple lodges. However, the fact that the land is privately owned means that almost anything goes in terms of exploring (provided, of course, that it does not damage the ecosystem). Aside from the traditional game drives led by expert guides, adventurous visitors to Tuli can explore the surrounds on foot or horseback – galloping alongside herds of giraffe or zebra. For the even more physically active, Tuli’s rocky outcrops and networks of dried riverbeds make for exciting and challenging mountain biking opportunities, with the added adrenaline of encountering some of the reserve’s many elephants.
For those looking for a more sedate experience, underground hides present amateur and professional photographers with a unique perspective of the reserve’s waterholes. From the quick dips of the birds on a hot day to extreme close-ups of elephants’ muddy toenails, the low-level photographic hides offer something entirely different to the safari experience.
There are various accommodation options to suit most budgets, some intimate and rustic and others geared to more luxurious tastes.
The wildlife viewing in Tuli is spectacular, not just in terms of the variety of animals but because the extraordinary scenery creates the perfect backdrop against which to view them. Elephant viewing is best between January and March when large herds of 100-300 individuals gather. The dry season between April and November offers the best nocturnal viewing of less common species like brown hyenas, honey badgers, African wild cat, aardvark and even aardwolf. This period also offers the best predator viewing because water resources are limited to the deep pools and waterholes.
The reserve is open to surrounding areas, so the elephant population has sufficient space to thrive. and Tuli is said to have some of the highest densities of elephants anywhere in Southern Africa. While the reserve is not home to buffalo or rhino, it supports healthy populations of the three big cat species, and deep pools in the rivers are home to pods of hippos and large numbers of crocodiles. Recently introduced painted wolves (African wild dogs) are a rare sighting.
As a transition zone between the Kalahari Desert and Lowveld bushveld, Tuli offers varied and exciting birding opportunities, with over 350 recorded species. The large riverine trees hide Pel’s fishing owls, and the kori bustards (Botswana’s national bird) pick their way through the grasslands while lanner falcons swoop through rocky valleys.
The Land of Giants
The Northern Tuli Game Reserve is often affectionately referred to as the Land of Giants, a name which it lives up to in so many different ways. It is home to the largest antelope species (the eland), and large herds of elephants crisscross its dusty paths. Ancient baobabs, ecosystems in their own right, dominate the extraordinary vistas and the landscape, with its outcrops of red rocks, resembles a giant’s playground.
Listen closely beyond the silence in Tuli. You may just hear the echoes of the history that played out in a rugged, somewhat inhospitable, but infinitely wild and beautiful land.
A new pack of endangered African painted dogs has been released into the iconic Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park (HiP), managed by Ezemvelo KZNWildlife, with support from Wildlife ACT and the Endangered Wildlife Trust. This is an important milestone in the conservation of the most endangered carnivore in Southern Africa. There are an estimated 3,000-5,000 individuals left in the wild, of which only around 550 live in South Africa.
Painted dog conservation in Hluhluwe-iMfolozi
Established in 1895, HiP is the oldest proclaimed reserve in Africa. It is most famously known for helping to save the white rhino from extinction. However, a lesser-known accomplishment is the integral role the park has played in saving the African painted dog.
During the Population and Habitat Viability Assessment Workshop held in 1997, the plight of the painted dog was laid bare. At the time, the only functional packs were thought to be in the Kruger National Park. The workshop’s main objective was to boost painted dog numbers through the ‘Managed Metapopulation and Range Expansion Project’ and, in so doing, create a second viable population outside Kruger.
The project continues to capture and transfer individuals between reserves to mimic natural dispersal and colonisation events. These transfers are fundamental to ensuring good genetic flow in the metapopulation, reducing inbreeding and safeguarding individuals from disease outbreaks and persecution while searching for new mates.
Due to its large size (90 000 hectares at the time) and conservation record, HiP was chosen as the first reserve to receive painted dogs back into KwaZulu-Natal (KZN). The first pack of nine arrived in 1980. Since then, Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife has had great success in boosting painted dog numbers. The park’s population grew to 85 individuals by 2017.
This success has allowed HiP to be a primary contributor to the South African Wild Dog Metapopulation Strategy, with several single-sex cohorts being moved off the reserve to supplement and build new founder populations around South Africa. These relocation operations (50%), coupled with a number of natural dispersals (15%), natural deaths (30%) and human-wildlife conflict (5%) have led to a recent decline in the local population.
Through these natural and anthropogenic events and in line with the HiP’s management approach, the parks’s wild dog population is currently in a phase of rebuild, consisting of 19 animals. These individuals will now form the foundations of a new and genetically resilient population.
The Mbhulunga Pack
The new pack, aptly named the ‘Mbhulunga Pack’ after the area where they were held in a boma, was composed of five males brought in from Tswalu Kalahari Reserve and four females which naturally dispersed from the Maphumulo Pack in the Hluhluwe section of the park. The Tswalu males brought a much-needed injection of new genetics to the area.
Initially, the males and females lived in two adjacent compartments of a predator holding facility (or boma) in the iMfolozi section of the park. This passive bonding method allowed the dogs to get to know each other through the separating fence. Over time they began to sleep on the central fence line and greet one another through the wire when they woke up.
Once the monitoring team were comfortable with the interactions, they opened the interleading gate and the males and females formed a cohesive pack. They spent another few weeks in the boma before being released into the park. While the pack was in the boma, the Wildlife Act iMfolozi monitoring team completed daily checks, maintenance of the fence and feeding.
All nine pack members are fitted with tracking collars to enable daily monitoring of their movements, behavioural dynamics, ecological influences, disease, snaring incidents and any other human-wildlife conflict issues. The information gathered allows for informed decision making – both at the reserve and the species level.
Following their release, the Mbhulunga Pack has moved north into the Hluhluwe Section of the park, into the natal range of the pack’s females. Wildlife ACT’s monitoring teams based in the Hluhluwe and iMfolozi sections will continue to work closely with Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Management to monitor the progress of the fledgeling Mbhulunga Pack.
The future
‘HiP remains an ideal setting for ecological research and information gathering on these endangered species, and so contributes to their effective management and overall conservation strategy,’ says Dave Druce, park ecologist – Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park.
The survival of painted dogs depends on how they overcome competition for resources from lions, leopards, spotted hyenas and crocodiles. Other potential threats include injuries from pursuing prey, disease outbreaks (rabies and canine distemper) and human-wildlife conflict. Hopefully, the Mbulungas will mitigate these challenges, establish a territory and raise pups of their own to boost HiP’s painted dog numbers and strengthen the genetics of the species countrywide.
This project is a partnership between Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, Wildlife ACT and the Endangered Wildlife Trust. It is supported by generous contributions from the Hans Hoheisen Charitable Trust, the Gabrielle Faickney Charitable Trust and a group of passionate individuals, the Jocks of the Bushveld.
The Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) is one of the largest and oldest conservation and sustainable use agreements in the world. The treaty was ratified almost half a century ago, designed to control the trade in plant and animal species to avoid over utilisation. Naturally, times have changed since the treaty was initially conceived, and there are many instances where antiquated systems have failed any kind of conservation agenda. A recently published article by experts in sustainable use delves into these weaknesses and cautions against changing a species’ CITES listing without carefully considering the complicated set of conservation implications.
CITES listings determine where a species fits into one of three appendices of increasing regulation and restriction. The trade in species on Appendix I is all but banned except under exceptional circumstances, and more stringent restrictions apply to species in Appendix II than Appendix III. (For a more detailed explanation, see What exactly is CITES and how does it work?) However, under the treaty, the decision to list is based on a simplistic set of biological and trade criteria that relate little to the potential impact of such a decision.
The one-dimensional assumption of the treaty is that more stringent trade regulations automatically result in conservation benefits. However, the authors argue that this is not always supported by evidence or experience.
So, when should a species be considered for an Appendix I listing? The article argues that this is relatively uncomplicated where international trade is a significant threat to an endangered species; the species is threatened across its range; international trade plays no positive role; and where a realistic, achievable strategy for conservation is established.
However, there are other scenarios where a listing on Appendix I may fail to improve or even hinder conservation efforts, such as:
When a species is threatened by drivers other than international trade – for example, by climate change. The restriction of trade income to local communities could reduce cooperation in conservation efforts and see increased human-wildlife conflict.
The conservation status of an animal varies considerably across its range. Though split-listings are possible under CITES (where a species receives different listings in different countries), this has been discouraged.
Unsustainable trade will persist despite its illegality. According to the authors, where a thriving illegal trade exists, an Appendix I listing will only be effective if accompanied by well-funded and robust management interventions. The trade in rhino horn is an example of how a powerful and established illegal trade, facilitated by corrupt governments may make an Appendix I listing more of a token gesture.
Here, the authors’ argument is not against the listing of a species on Appendix I but rather that the consequences are often unpredictable. Real-world complexities are seldom considered when making a decision. An untested assumption forms the listing basis, but the outcome is often continued illegal and unsustainable trade devoid of any monitoring or management tools.
The article also suggests that Appendix II, which allows for regulated trade, is not utilised to its full potential, given the flexibility to tailor management options to local contexts. As in the case of Appendix I, increased trade restrictions may help conservation, but they may also come at no advantage and high cost. The example used by the authors is the recent listing of the giraffe in Appendix II. Legal international trade does not pose a significant threat to the species, but habitat loss, civil unrest and illegal bushmeat hunting are key drivers in population declines. The authors question how CITES trade controls will benefit the conservation status of giraffe, even though the public widely hailed this as a conservation success.
Thus, the article proposes three critical changes to the CITES listing decision process:
The development of a formal mechanism for consideration by parties of the likely consequences of the decision. This would entail careful consideration of the practical effects of the decision, rather than reliance on the baseline assumption. The listing criteria and process would need to be overhauled but would mean that listing decisions are not made as futile gestures of conservation concern.
Broadening the range of criteria used to make listing decisions and basing these on the best available information. This would include the use of conservation-based, scientific information and socio-economic sciences.
The implication of the input of local communities living alongside wildlife. Given that local people disproportionately bear the socio-economic costs of trade decisions, they need to be included in the decision-making process. This is a moral issue, but it is also a pragmatic one – effective decision-making requires insight and information from every stakeholder, particularly those with a field-level perspective.
Wildlife trade is not a one-dimensional process taking place in a vacuum – it involves a complex overlap of social, economic, cultural, and ecological elements. No doubt CITES has failed to evolve as needed in the past 50 years, but, equally, the State Parties have failed to drive the necessary change for CITES listing. Instead, they have fallen back on oversimplified assumptions that do not accurately reflect realities on the ground.
The article concludes that a failure to reform the treaty “risks CITES being stuck in a 1970s conception of conservation that ignores complexity, fails to achieve its objectives, and satisfies only a set of constituencies with little responsibility or impact on field-level conservation. The question is not if these modernisations will happen, but when and how. This is a matter of strategic vision that needs to be addressed with urgency and commitment if CITES is to avoid senescence, and mature into a potent and effective conservation regime, well-equipped to address contemporary conservation challenges.”
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I find myself confused and at odds with what I understood about the possible origins of Covid-19 after reading this well-constructed article. I am no scientist and cannot fully grasp the many layers of technical analysis, but I can follow an argument, and I do have a good bullsh1t radar. I never bought the conspiracy theories about the intentional release of a human-made virus, and I do/did favour the theory that this horrible pandemic originated in the wildlife markets of Wuhan, China via a natural zoonotic process. But now I realise that there is at least another potential causal theory on the table.
Was Covid-19 unleashed on us by human error – a mistake by scientists who have been mandated to engineer a virus that could potentially wipe out humanity (to protect us from that exact risk)? The ramifications of this option are chilling, to say the least. The author Nicholas Wade is a gifted science writer, but he is not an expert virologist, and what he is saying is being refuted in parts by expert virologists. But then the theory of a natural zoonotic virus from the Wuhan wildlife markets has also been refuted by certain scientists. At the very least it’s good to consider all possible explanations until we find the answers.
Whatever the truth, it’s unlikely that Africa’s wildlife industries (including tourism) will recover fully for several years – if not longer. What are the chances, do you think, that the powers that be will deflect some of the enormous financial resources that they spend daily on weapons, natural resource extraction and space travel into healing our home planet?
Your thoughts? Please read the link before commenting below (if you are reading this on our website) or in a private discussion with me on ceo@africageographic.com.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
African safari….the idea conjures all sorts of images: Denys and Karen flying over the Mara in a Gypsy Moth; a lion roaring atop a rock as he surveys his singing, dancing prey at dawn; a gargantuan tusker framed by the snow-topped peaks of Mount Kilimanjaro. It is to the last of these iconic imaginings that we turn our attention this week. In our first story below, you can stimulate your post-Covid wanderlust with the wonders of Amboseli National Park (and the greater Amboseli region).
Our second story below is good news. Amboseli, like most conservation areas in the world, is not safe. Some pillock decided that growing avocados there would be a fantastic idea. Yes…avocados. In a semi-arid region that attracts thousands of tourists intent on seeing the wilderness and supports thousands of local pastoralists. Well, the local Maasai herders (who live in relative peace with the Amboseli wildlife) and some conservationists decided that this avo farming malarky wouldn’t fly. They banded together, and, for now, the avo people must go and ply their trade elsewhere.
Our third story below is important. So many people on both sides of the trophy hunting debate spend their days yelling moth-eaten arguments at each other across an ideological chasm. While numerous human beings are allergic to actual science, those who seek real data will have a hard time finding it. Many of the arguments by both sides of the hunting war are usually not supported by hard data, often because the relevant research has not been completed.
Now you can relax and enjoy the start of your weekend with a delightful view of Africa at her most spectacular in this week’s Photographer of the Year selection (enter here) there are only two weeks to go. I would suggest you enjoy it with a calming piece of music, a late lunch and the rest of the afternoon off.
While you are wondering what to do with the afternoon I’ve granted you, check out our video of the week. It’s a Google Earth timelapse from 1984 until now of anywhere on earth you care to look – see how we are changing our home.
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
There is ineffable magic about spending time in the company of elephants. Nothing else in the world compares to the ethereal emotions felt in their presence – a complex awareness of ancient wisdom and profound intelligence. Of all creatures, elephants perhaps best epitomise a wild sense of the divine. Nevermore is this the case than in Amboseli National Park, where these imposing animals stand against the backdrop of ice-capped Mount Kilimanjaro – one of the most iconic images of Africa.
The Park and the broader ecosystem
Formerly Maasai Amboseli Game Reserve, Amboseli National Park covers just 392 square km (39,206 hectares) in Kajiado County, Kenya. However, the park is a core part of the much larger Greater Amboseli ecosystem (also termed the Amboseli-Tsavo-Kilimanjaro ecosystem or various iterations thereof). This massive area of some 8000 square km encompasses Amboseli, Chyulu Hills, Tsavo East and West, Mount Kilimanjaro National Park, and everything in between. Africa’s tallest mountain, Mount Kilimanjaro, is just 50 km to the southeast in neighbouring Tanzania and its looming form dominates the Amboseli skyline on clear mornings.
Apart from its contribution to the scenery, Mount Kilimanjaro has shaped Amboseli’s habitat and wildlife in more fundamental ways. The constant supply of melting water from the mountain’s glaciers flows off the slopes and sinks below ground before rising through the porous soils in Amboseli to create freshwater springs. The result is that while Amboseli itself is relatively arid with low rainfall averages, some of the park is dominated by species-rich marshes, with Enkongo Narok, Ol Tukai, and Olokeya the three largest.
The western section of the park also encompasses part of a dry, Pleistocene lake basin. Within this basin, Lake Amboseli is typically dry except during heavy rainy seasons, when it fills with shallow, alkaline water accompanied by a pink flush of opportunistic flamingos. Away from the lakes and marshes, the park is characterised by sparse vegetation and dusty volcanic soils. The name Amboseli is a corruption of the Maa word ‘Empusel’, which translates roughly as “salty, dusty place”.
On the outskirts of Amboseli, there are several conservancies dedicated to conservation and tourism. These increase the available protected land considerably while offering the discerning traveller a more exclusive experience. The conservancies are supported by the Amboseli Ecosystem Trust, which was established to maintain the larger ecosystem and reduce human-wildlife conflict as wild animals move along ancient migratory paths between the various formally protected parks.
Elephants everywhere
Thanks to the combination of sparse, arid vegetation and the readily available water in the swamps, Amboseli offers spectacular wildlife viewing despite its relatively small size. However, the park’s most celebrated residents are the elephants, present in high densities and sporting some of the largest body and tusk sizes in Africa. Elephants are everywhere in Amboseli, revelling in the waters of the marshes, treading dusty pathways led by a trusted matriarch or, occasionally, posing against the backdrop of Kilimanjaro for awe-struck, camera-wielding tourists.
This alone is sufficient to send visitors home elated, having garnered a new appreciation for Africa’s largest land animal, but the elephants of Amboseli have a further claim to fame. Many of these herds and bulls have been the subjects of the longest-running study of elephant behaviour in the wild. The Amboseli Elephant Research Project, initiated by Cynthia Moss and Harvey Croze and operated by the Amboseli Trust for Elephants, has centred around researching and monitoring the elephants of Amboseli for five decades. The life histories of individual herds have been painstakingly documented across generations, contributing immeasurably to our understanding of elephant behaviour and the bonds within and between herds.
The story of Echo, the matriarch who led her family for over forty years before her death in 2008, captivated people worldwide and changed perceptions around elephants’ complex emotional lives. Her family are still the subjects of ongoing research and remain permanent fixtures around the park’s centre. Tim, a bull elephant who died last year of natural causes, had a penchant for trouble. He also gained considerable fame as a ‘super tusker’ – as has Craig, another gentle giant. Amboseli and Tsavo’s elephant populations are some of the last genetic repositories of Africa’s great tuskers.
More than elephants
While elephants may well be the main event, the park’s other creatures never fail to provide a stirring, supporting performance. Lumbering hippos wallow in the shallows of the marshes and lakes during the day, emerging to mow their way through the park as the heat dissipates. Herds of zebras and wildebeest dominate the plains, while shy gerenuks nibble their way around the legs of towering giraffes.
In the past, Amboseli’s predator populations, particularly lions, have born the brunt of human-wildlife conflict and resentment born of the park’s complex history. Fortunately, comprehensive conservation programmes and work with local communities are showing results. While throughout Africa, lion populations have plummeted, the lion numbers in Amboseli have grown consistently over the past decade. Visitors are now regularly treated to sightings of Africa’s largest cat.
Amboseli’s unique blend of semi-arid savanna and marshlands attracts various birds, and over 420 different species (including, miraculously, once, a shoebill) have been recorded in the region. Time spent around the marshes could well reward a keen-eyed birder with the pale flash of the endangered Malagasy pond heron in between the leggy egrets, herons, and grey-crowned cranes. Away from the water, the grasslands obscure the vocal Pangani longclaws, and the vachellia woodlands hide dry country species like the steel-blue whydahs and Von der Decken’s hornbills.
The Amboseli experience
Want to go on a safari to Amboseli? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
Given the extraordinary wildlife sightings on offer and the best views of Kilimanjaro in Kenya, it is unsurprising that Amboseli is Kenya’s most popular safari destination after the Maasai Mara. The high tourist time coincides with the dry season and arguably the best wildlife viewing as the animals congregate around available water. However, this does mean contending with higher costs and visitor densities. The two rainy seasons – the short rains from November to December and the long rains from March to May – can make traversing the park and spotting wildlife tricky. That said, the scenery is arguably at its most spectacular with the dampening of the dust.
Weather-wise, Amboseli is typically hot and dry, and the park’s proximity to the Equator ensures relatively consistent temperatures. Naturally, sun protection is a must, as are malaria preventative measures.
As a national park, Amboseli is subject to certain restrictions necessary to safeguard its ecological integrity. Normatior (also known as Observation Hill) is one of the few places where tourists can exit their vehicles and soak in the park’s atmosphere. Rough-hewn stairs lead to the top of Amboseli’s highest point, which offers astonishing views of the surrounding marshes and lakes, and, on clear days, Kilimanjaro. However, for more intrepid travellers, neighbouring conservancies are not subject to the same constraints (due largely to their more exclusive nature). Here visitors can explore through guided night drives, on foot or even on horseback. Naturally, this comes at a cost. A stay in one of the private conservancies is typically more expensive (and luxurious) than the national park’s more budget options.
The polarised debate between anti- and pro-trophy hunting advocates is almost invariably incendiary and centred around far-reaching claims and emotional responses, from whether or not recreational hunting benefits specific species to its impact on local economies. The debate is seldom informed by available research, at least in the public sphere. Now a new study analyses half a century’s worth of scientific literature on recreational hunting. It concludes that little is directed at answering the most critical questions in the hunting debate despite the extensive existing research.
Historical research
The authors of the new study set about analysing over 1000 peer-reviewed papers focused primarily on the recreational and trophy-hunting of large mammals between 1953 and 2020. The majority of historical research had been conducted in North America, Europe, and Africa. [Editorial note: the research includes trophy hunting as a category of recreational hunting]. The study identifies seven dominant topics commonly discussed in recreational hunting literature, including:
Ecological, evolutionary, and population consequences of selective harvesting;
Population dynamics in response to hunting, including assessments of survival rates, reproductive rates, and population trends;
Hunting as a source of and management tool for invasive alien or conflict species;
Health and toxicological dimensions of hunting;
Social dimensions of hunting, including hunter attitudes, identities, and preferences;
Economic, social, cultural, political, and ethical dimensions of hunting
The authors show that there is a significant bias towards mammal species over birds in previous research, and eleven of the twelve most commonly studied species are large mammals. In an African context, the lion was the fifth most popular subject of such research, while the leopard claimed the eighth spot.
The impact on species populations in Africa
For around a third of the species studied, the conclusions on the impact of trophy hunting on the population numbers of specific species were highly variable. This was likely due to the diversity of studied locations and times. Trophy hunting was linked to population declines of lions in certain regions (such as Zambia, before the trophy hunting ban) and shown not to have caused population declines in others (in Mozambique’s Niassa, for example). The same disparities applied to leopards and elephants.
However, there was no evidence of any negative impacts of recreational hunting on population abundance for the remaining species. The authors warn that due to the limited amount of available research and the fact that so many studies returned inconclusive results, this should not be interpreted as evidence of sustainability. According to the authors, while many studies focussed on the impact of hunting on the ecology and evolution of target species, fewer assessed the effects on animal population numbers.
The impact on ecosystems, local economies, and livelihoods
One of the most common arguments in support of recreational hunting is that it protects wild ecosystems over alternative, less eco-friendly land uses such as agriculture or mining. In addition, the revenue can theoretically aid conservation initiatives, support human livelihoods, and be fed back into local communities. This is a matter of considerable debate.
Historical research seems to indicate that in much of Southern Africa, in particular, the loss of recreational hunting would negatively affect both conservation initiatives and local livelihoods. However, hunting operations in West and Central Africa have been less successful in this regard, and the cost of establishing, maintaining, and protecting hunting areas seems to be prohibitively high.
Notably, the authors emphasise that even though these are some of the most pressing academic and societal questions, there is surprisingly little research or evidence to inform the argument either way. While there is a considerable body of research quantifying the revenue drawn from hunting, few studies followed through by documenting the benefits (or lack thereof) to conservation and local communities.
For the future
The new study provides important insight into how previous research on the impact of recreational hunting has been conducted and directed. Naturally, given that it was drawn from over 1,000 different studies conducted across the globe, the conclusions are extensive. However, the essence of the study boils down to the fact that we urgently need further research to understand the effects of hunting and address the unknowns that define the current debate.
To this end, the authors put forward several suggestions for future research, including:
Assessments of the impact on species’ populations in diverse contexts;
The interactions between recreational hunting and other anthropogenic threats such as habitat loss;
Investigation of the impact on less charismatic species, including non-targeted species (for example, the effects of hunting large carnivores on prey dynamics);
Empirical evidence on whether or not hunting increases the quantity and quality of ecosystem conservation;
Investigating the links between hunting revenue and conservation initiatives/support of local communities;
Assessment of the moral complexity of recreational hunting and its impact/benefits for people living alongside wildlife. In particular, whether hunting creates sufficient benefits to incentivise conservation in local communities.
A dearth of empirical evidence will only perpetuate the circular arguments prevalent in public discussions on recreational hunting. The urgent need for focussed research to address the current unknowns is patently clear, especially in the face of increasing opposition to the practice on ethical grounds. Whatever the future holds for recreational hunting, it needs to be based on a solid understanding of the ‘influence of local social-ecological dynamics on hunting outcomes, and the voices of the people co-existing with wildlife’.
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My heartful thanks to Minister Creecy for issuing a firm commitment to rid this wonderful country of the SCOURGE of the captive lion breeding industry (our second story below refers). The insidious tentacles of this rotten crime against lions permeate deep into our wildlife industry, and this will be no easy process – but at least she has now got the ball rolling.
THAT SAID, I have the following observations:
1. Expect the evil ones to find LOOPHOLES that will allow them to continue after cosmetic changes;
2. Others will simply operate illegally and increase the MAFIA-style methods to avoid jail time (rhino horn and lion bone combo?);
3. Some will MOVE their operations to other countries;
4. The existing caged lion populations in South Africa will likely be DESTROYED – although the most likely process will be agonising deaths as they are abandoned by an industry that operates on zero compassion. Or maybe many will be moved to accredited sanctuaries – time for the animal rights movement to DIG DEEP to fund this lengthy process?;
5. This government strategy of cleaning up this obviously rancid aspect of the wildlife industry is most likely building blocks for plans to expand the HUNTING industry as a contributor to a sustainable conservation future. This quote from the report refers: “‘The development of a national approach for increasing the opportunity, quantity and quality of hunting the five iconic species in wild areas of South Africa…”. Watch that space.
Lastly, a SHOUT-OUT from team AG to Craig Foster and the crew of ‘My Octopus Teacher’ for winning the Oscar!
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
‘…the vuvuzela has been used to mitigate lion conflict…’ When I read that for the first time, the coffee I was drinking emerged from my nose. I imagined the King of Beasts’ horrified, incredulous visage as an enraged rural villager charged, blasting on the world’s most tuneless instrument. On the Chobe River, the human-lion conflict continues. However, there is hope, and, as our first story below explains, some good people are coming up with innovative solutions (including plastic trumpets) to help humans and lions live in peace.
This week is a lot about lions – which is good, after all, we need more lions. Believe it or not, Panthera leo used to be the most widely distributed mammal on the planet. In our second story below, the South African government has taken the first steps to ending the national disgrace that is captive lion breeding. Once you’ve read the AG story, perhaps peruse the full report (600 pages). If your life is too short to wade through the whole thing, I can recommend the goals and recommendations that start on page 278.
And that’s a neat segue into our third story below – a remarkable, horrifying and, if you’re a South African, embarrassing expose of the lion bone trade. The story and accompanying trailer will show you, sometimes in ghastly detail, just how imperative it is that our government does something to end captive lion farming and the bone trade. Kudos to the brave filmmakers for the risks they took to expose the cruelty in South Africa and the markets in Southeast Asia.
After all that heaviness, it’s time to take a deep sigh, relax with a tipple and peruse this week’s selection for our Photographer of the Year. It’s a beautiful tribute to our magnificent continent. Not much time left to enter if you’d like a chance to win 10 000USD and a glorious safari to Botswana.
For your second Friday aperitif, our video of the week showcases the Kalahari Desert in the rainy season – a thousand shades of incongruous green with gobsmacking wildlife to match.
An agribusiness planning to operate an avocado farm in the Amboseli region – a water-stressed landscape of southern Kenya famous for its elephants – has lost its license after local Maasai and conservationists joined forces to protest the plans.
Kenya’s National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) revoked the license it gave to KiliAvo Fresh Ltd after questions about how the developer assessed the environmental impact its farm would have on the local ecosystem.
NEMA said concerns included: the proposed farm was in a wildlife corridor; that it violated official plans that zone the area for livestock and wildlife, not cultivation; and that the developers failed to consult widely enough on their plans.
Conservationists and communities stand together
Conservationists, including Big Life Foundation and Dr Paula Kahumbu, CEO of Wildlife Direct, worked alongside the Amboseli Land Owners Conservancies Association (ALOCA) to campaign against the farm.
“Big Life commends NEMA for following to the letter the relevant processes drawn up to balance development with environmental protection in circumstances such as these,” said Benson Leiyan, Chief Operating Officer for Big Life.
“The decision to reject KiliAvo’s insistence that it be allowed to continue operations sends a very clear message to anyone considering commercial farming in this area of Amboseli: only sustainable enterprises that fit with local land use plans and that conserve the environment for people and wildlife are welcome.”
The farm sits in a buffer zone of wildlife habitat and Maasai grazing land just east of Amboseli National Park, a magnet for Kenya’s wildlife tourism famed for its herds of elephants grazing with the backdrop of Mt Kilimanjaro.
Tourism threatened
In 2019 close to 200,000 people visited the national park, generating millions of dollars for the Kenya Wildlife Service. KWS does not release exact figures.
But the park itself is small – at less than 400 square kilometres. To thrive, the multiple endangered animal species and the population of 2,000 elephants that live there need to be able to disperse and migrate through neighbouring, locally-owned rangelands.
Significant threats pressure this pocket of remaining wilderness in East Africa – habitat loss, agriculture and climate change are the principal ones.
Privatisation of communal land
After this previously communal land was subdivided into a patchwork of private titles, conservationists worked with the majority of the new landowners to group their plots into a series of community-owned conservancies.
Members pledged not to fence or farm their land, and in return, gain access to open rangeland to graze their cattle. Conservation and tourism operators pay regular fees for the protection of this crucial wildlife habitat.
However, there are a number of locals who chose not to group their land into the conservancies. Some have sold their land to people from outside the landscape, including speculators and brokers who, in turn, sold plots on to investors.
KiliAvo Fresh Ltd acquired their three plots of 60 acres each in this way, buying from a third party who bought them from the original Maasai landowners. There are no restrictions on buying or selling such plots.
There are, however, restrictions on land use plans agreed by the Maasai landowners’ association, ALOCA, for the immediate area and in the Amboseli Ecosystem Management Plan, for the wider landscape.
The ultimate land planning authority, the local county council, is overhauling its Spatial Plan but currently designates the area for “agriculture”. Initially, this was understood to mean cultivation but the chief lands officer from the council later clarified it was for “livestock grazing”.
This confusion, in part, led to NEMA issuing KiliAvo Fresh Ltd a license in August 2020 to develop 180 acres for growing avocados and other fruits and vegetables. This followed an earlier rejection of the same proposal, prompting critics led by ALOCA and the Kenya Wildlife Service immediately to cry foul when the new application was approved.
Samuel Ole Kaanki, chairman of ALOCA, said: “The majority of us are united against this farm because it could threaten water supply in this semi-arid place, block where we can graze our livestock, and deter tourism investors who pay us to bring visitors to see wildlife. These concerns were not addressed in the EIA, and we were very surprised to learn KiliAvo had been given a license.”
They complained that the license was issued without enough consultation with local people and environmental experts who would have objected, they said, because the farm stands squarely in an area zoned only for livestock and wildlife tourism.
Setting a precedent
Farm operations that encroach on wildlife land disrupt the natural balance of the ecosystem. Boreholes need to be dug for water-thirsty crops like avocados. These wells impact the water table, robbing surface water sources for wildlife and putting severe pressure on the groundwater resources and springs that support tens of thousands of people.
Faced with what it termed “new information and issues” that had come to its attention, NEMA ordered the farm to stop and threatened to revoke its license. The farm appealed that order at Kenya’s National Environment Tribunal (NET). After seven months of hearings, on April 26 the Tribunal dismissed KiliAvo’s appeal citing a lack of evidence or witnesses. The next day NEMA finally revoked the license.
The farm’s owners said their 180 acres would have a negligible impact on the 38,000 acres of habitat in the Kimana Wildlife Corridor. Even if that were true – and it is unlikely – the key issue was that this case would have set a precedent and many other farms could follow, fragmenting the landscape and devouring essential resources like water needed by wildlife, farmers and livestock downstream.
Revoking KiliAvo’s license has been seen as a positive sign that Kenya is listening and seriously considering the health of an ecosystem and the concerns of local communities when dealing with the negative consequences of corporate-led agribusiness.
However, KiliAvo is expected to appeal these rulings. Conservation organisations including Big Life, KWS, the Conservation Alliance of Kenya, the Amboseli Trust for Elephants, Wildlife Direct, ALOCA, and tourism investors will remain vigilant in opposing KiliAvo’s plans for the farm and any other farming development that encroaches on wildlife corridors and pastoralist land use.
“This is not yet the end, we will continue until this farm has gone, and we are sure no others can follow it,” said ALOCA’s Ole Kaanki.
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
By: Johannes van Jaarsveld, biologist and Chobe resident
Introduction
The Chobe River lions face an uncertain future with various barriers hampering recruitment, dispersal and immigration. To the north, hostile farmers in the Zambezi region of Namibia are intolerant of apex predators on their farms. In every other direction, fragmented protected areas and human settlements impede lion movement.
Background to the Chobe Riverfront
The Chobe River stretches from Lake Liambezi (Namibia) in the west to Kazangula in the east, where it flows into the Zambezi. The western section of the river is populated by cattle, goat and small-scale crop farmers. The Botswana-Namibia border, which is the Chobe River, cuts the floodplain, with the majority falling on the Namibian side (Zambezi Region).
The Chobe National Park protects the lions on the Botswana side where they tend to hunt along the river or on the floodplains. They seldom stray too far into the sandveld teak forests south of the river because of the limited prey.
Pride history
In 2017, there were approximately 20 lions on the riverfront: ten cubs, two old males (at least ten years old), a subadult female, and six adult lionesses. In early 2018, the pride swam across the Chobe River to the Namibian side. It was a fatal day. Five of the six lionesses were shot by Namibian farmers. A Chobe guide with his guests watched in horror as a Namibian farmer cut off the lions’ paws and waved them at the tourists. Over the next month, all the cubs died from starvation.
The subadults survived and the remaining adult lioness (called Broken Tail) settled in a small territory of her own around the Serondela picnic site. In October 2020, she birthed three cubs. The two subadults, possibly siblings, were gradually joined by four lionesses from the south. The young male disappeared and was not seen after July 2018. Possibly not coincidentally, about that time, two new males arrived – Caller and Tom-Tom. Scarface, one of the older males, had his leg broken in a skirmish with the new males and the Department of Wildlife and National Parks euthanised him when he took refuge at Chobe Game Lodge. The other old male died in the territory not long after.
The current pride
Two of the lionesses soon fell pregnant. One, Snips, had five cubs in December 2019, and the other, Teddy Bear, had two cubs in February 2020. One cub, called Lost and Found, wandered into the village of Kasane and was rescued by some tourists, who put him at the edge of the park away from people and traffic. His mother found him eventually, and he was safely back with the pride as of November 2020. Another lioness, Small Girl, mated with one of the new males in early 2021.
The two males roam from west to east all along the river, seldom staying with the pride for long. They are very attached and every greeting after separation is marked with joyous, cub-like playing. They have enjoyed an unchallenged three-year run.
Lone lioness – Broken Tail
Broken Tail, the lioness which returned from Namibia after the massacre, remains alone and produced three cubs (most likely sired by Tom-Tom) in November 2020. She occupies a territory opposite Serondela Lodge on the Botswana side of the river. During the green season from late November to mid-April, the vegetation is very thick and she hunts smaller game. In the dry months, she targets buffalo calves when the herds come onto the floodplains.
The northern Chobe Lions are not troubled by hyenas, of which there are very few. Other predators such as wild dog are sporadically distributed but seem to avoid any area that the lions occupy.
Threats
The lack of new males indicates a dearth of immigration. Researchers have noted lions at Ngotsaa in Chobe National Park, about 50 km south of the Chobe River. This is the next pride to the south. There are lions in the Kachikau area, 76 km west as the crow flies, but this is a village region. It is apparently not a big pride and is likely struggling to survive given the farming activities and villages.
The Chobe west of Kabulabula sometimes dries up and lions can easily cross to Namibia. North of the border, the Namibian farmers allow their cattle to graze right up to the border and sometimes over it at Ngoma. It is an irresistible temptation to lions and they quickly learn what soft targets the cattle are. The discovery probably encourages hunting forays north over the border in search of cattle.
Once the lions are in Namibia, the laws become murky – Botswana cannot protect them. The Namibian farmers can legally kill lions if their livestock is threatened. The lions, therefore, depend on the goodwill of the farmers – difficult to muster if they have just lost cattle to border-hopping predators.
Conflict mitigation
Chobe is part of the Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA) which aims to secure the sustainable use of natural resources for both wildlife and local people in a cooperative effort by Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, Angola and Zimbabwe.
In Chobe and the Enclave (comprising the villages of Mabele, Kavimba and Kachicau), WildCRU (a conservation research unit) has been running several human-predator conflict mitigation programmes. Communities are encouraged to kraal their cattle at night in predator-resistant kraals. These kraals are funded and built mostly by WildCRU. Owners must make a small contribution to the total costs and help to erect the structures. WildCRU also employs community guardians from each village who investigate any reports of lion conflict. To date, WildCRU has built 26 predator-resistant kraals in the Enclave. They hope to build a further 20 during 2021.
WildCRU, through Dr Jess Isden, has also introduced a lion chasing programme. By using vuvuzelas and running towards lions, the lions disperse. Astounding and insane as this sounds, the vuvuzela has been used to mitigate lion conflict with some success in parts of Zimbabwe.
Some of the lodges in the area, such as Chobe Game Lodge and Serondela Lodge, have established a compensation scheme for farmers who have lost cattle to lions. Farmers are also rewarded if they can prove they have chased lions back into the park.
In the Zambezi Region of Namibia, east of Ihaha, where the pride spends most of its time, farmers don’t have the same tolerance. There seems to be an unsustainable number of cattle feeding on the floodplain, many of which do not belong to the herders but to owners who send their animals to the area for grazing. There are more than 300 000 cattle feeding on the floodplain between Sedudu and Ngoma. Game is naturally scarce due to human and livestock pressure. Recently, another NGO in Namibia, the Kwando Carnivore Project, has started conflict mitigation work in the area and this will hopefully help protect the lions and other predators.
Conclusion
Lions are a major attraction for tourists and their absence will drastically, negatively affect tourism along the Chobe River.
All the tourism enterprises on both the Namibian and the Botswana sides would like to see better protection for wildlife and cooperation between Namibia and Botswana. Tourism could have long-term benefits for the area. Not only does it create jobs, but it trains people who can form their own tourism-related businesses. Rural communities need to see the potential in tourism without necessarily giving up their farming practices.
Negotiations with various stakeholders in Namibia continue and seem to be bearing fruit. A lion group has been created with several Namibian officials and a few cross-border meetings have seen some commitment from both sides. There are already several lodges on the Namibian side, thanks to the vaunted community conservancy model. The future for the Chobe River lions is uncertain but hopeful.
What is the link between trophy hunting, deadly infectious diseases and traditional Chinese medicine? The not so obvious answer is lions. Paradoxically, these apex predators are now farmed on an increasingly industrial scale in South Africa (note that a recent announcement by the SA government may change this). The estimated number of farmed lions in the country is already four to five times larger than that of wild lions. And there is another paradox – in 2019, the South African government amended legislation to reclassify lions and 32 other wild species as farm animals. Lions, Bones & Bullets (see video link below) tells the astonishing story of how the lion farming industry adapted to survive losing two-thirds of their trophy hunting clients following Cecil the lion’s shooting and the US boycott that followed.
If trophy hunting was dying out, then what was stimulating the boom in lion farming? Penguin Random House author Richard Peirce and the Jagged Peak Films team went in search of the answer. They discovered that while canned hunting had decreased, a parallel increase in demand for lion bones from Southeast Asia was fuelling demand, leading the South African government to establish an annual quota for lion skeleton exports. Richard followed the lion bone trail from farms in South Africa to street dealers in Vietnam and Laos.
Following the wildlife trafficking trail led to dangerous situations, but the team persisted in their quest for the truth. An undercover informant in Southeast Asia confirmed that lion bones were being imported and passed off as tiger to be used in tiger cake, tiger wine, and various other ‘tiger’ products consumed in traditional Chinese medicine. The filmmakers exposed how easy it is to buy ‘tiger’ or ‘lion’ products, which are supposed to be illegal by international trade laws. Between the South African skeleton sale value and the end consumer price, they discovered a 60-fold increase. These huge profit margins and the fact that it’s cheaper to import a farmed lion skeleton and pretend it’s a tiger than to rear an actual tiger, drive the South African lion bone trade.
This timely and groundbreaking film is much more than a straightforward exposé. The threats lion farming and the lion bone trade pose to conservation are tremendous. Richard, the author of several books on wildlife, explains: ‘Lion farming and the increasing sale of lion bones to Asia involve exploitation, cruelty, injustice, misconception, fraud and corruption. They are a threat to wild lion populations. It is mind-blowing in terms of the huge negativity involved and has no redeeming aspects. Lions are a flagship species; what happens to lion populations will be a major factor in determining the future of wild animals in Africa.’
The threats to global public health are even more significant. The world is paralysed by a pandemic that came to humans via wild animals. Lions, Bones & Bullets reveals how shockingly easy it is to legally develop an expanding wildlife farming industry and then transport products that could be infected with tuberculosis, the ‘world’s deadliest infectious disease’. The disease is still South Africa’s leading cause of death.
The world festival premiere of Lions, Bones & Bullets is being hosted by the 60th Monte-Carlo Television Festival in June. The Prince Albert II of Monaco Foundation, competition partners to the festival, is dedicated to environmental protection and sustainable development globally. Olivier Wenden, Vice-President and CEO, notes: ‘Lions, Bones & Bullets sends a clear and vital wake-up call to the world, inviting us to open our eyes and rethink our relationship with nature and wildlife.’
The team behind Lions, Bones & Bullets includes Kiwi director and executive producer Anton Leach, who has filmed in more than 20 countries, including war zones in Iraq, Syria and Gaza. Also from New Zealand is the film’s producer, writer and editor, Jasmine Duthie. Her work focuses on character-driven wildlife stories. Lions, Bones & Bullets is narrated by leading British actor and campaigner Peter Egan (Harry Potter, Downtown Abbey, Chariots of Fire).
Minister Creecy of the Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment (DFFE) today announced that the Government of South Africa will act on the High-Level Panel’s recommendations to bring an end to the commercial captive lion industry in South Africa.
Her announcement accompanied the release of the 600-page High-Level Panel Report, which identified that South Africa’s captive lion industry:
Poses risks to the sustainability of wild lion conservation resulting from the negative impact on ecotourism which funds lion conservation and conservation more broadly;
Does not contribute to the conservation of wild lions;
Carries significant zoonotic risks associated with intensive breeding and keeping of lions;
Does not represent ecologically sustainable use;
Threatens South Africa’s reputation as a leader in the conservation of wildlife;
Provides very little economic activity benefiting relatively few;
Negatively impacts the authentic wild hunting industry;
Risks stimulating poaching and illegal trade.
The majority of the Panel Members recommended that the Minister put in place a process to halt and reverse the domestication of lions due to captive lion keeping, breeding, and commercial use. They also recommended that policy decisions should be made for an immediate halt of the sale of captive lion derivatives, the hunting of captive lions and tourist interactions with captive lions.
“I have requested the department to action this accordingly and ensure that the necessary consultation in implementation is conducted”, said Minister Creecy. “In adopting the recommendations, it is important to indicate that the key outcomes for the country will include… the ending of certain inhumane and irresponsible practices that greatly harm the reputation of South Africa and the position of South Africa as a leader in conservation”.
She did not, however, address the Report’s recommendation that the DFFE establish an independent committee to formulate a process for the ethical and humane euthanasia of the lions currently in captivity, in consultation with captive lion breeders and keepers, and other stakeholders.
The Minister’s announcement also references the Panel’s recommendations regarding the safeguarding of rhinos in South Africa in the future. Her announcement acknowledges that South Africa protects the largest component of the global rhino population. As such, the country should play a global leadership role in their conservation. As such, the Government will make no further proposals to CITES for trade in rhino horn until certain conditions are met, including developing a global consensus on the legal international trade in rhino horn.
The High-Level Panel was established on the 10th of October 2019 after the then Portfolio Committee on Environmental Affairs requested the DFFE to initiate a policy and legislative review to put an end to captive lion breeding. The Panel comprised 25 individual members, including experienced conservationists, ecologists, hunting industry representatives, wildlife ranching experts, animal welfare scientists, traditional leaders, and a representative of the captive predator industry. They were tasked to “review policies, legislation and practices on matters related to the management, breeding, hunting, trade and handling of elephant, lion, leopard and rhinoceros”.
The Panel’s goals and recommendations are based on a vision of “secured, restored and rewilded natural landscapes with thriving populations of elephant, lion, rhino, and leopard, as indicators for a vibrant, responsible, inclusive, transformed and sustainable wildlife sector”.
The Report also expresses concerns over the listing of wildlife under the Animal Improvement Act. It warns that the potential intensification of management practices poses significant welfare risks that will exacerbate the current challenges being experienced. While the Minister makes no reference to this in her announcement, she states that South Africa will be adopting a One Welfare approach to wildlife welfare. (The ‘One Welfare’ approach highlights the interconnections between animal welfare, human well-being, and the environment.)
In a joint media statement, Blood Lions and World Animal Protection, two organisations at the front of the fight against the captive lion industry, “congratulate the Minister on these bold steps and offer their full support in developing and implementing a responsible phase-out plan in order to ensure that the commercial predator breeding industry is successfully closed down in South Africa, once and for all.”
The comprehensive 600-page report, including the minority opinions on captive lion breeding and rhino management, can be accessed here. The relevant recommendations regarding the captive lion industry can be found on page 328.
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Last week we published an incredible gallery by Kenyan guide and Photographer of the Year entrant James Nampaso – of lions targeting a mom giraffe and her tiny calf. Like many of you, I suspect, images like this toy with my emotions – although of course I respect the necessity of this brutal process playing itself out in countless ways in the natural world. After seeing the above gallery, Barbara Westbrook from Australia sent us an enthralling video clip of a similar encounter of a few years back – in the same area. Again, such a brave giraffe mom and calf. This time though, the outcome was different – watch the video featured after our stories below.
Speaking of 2021 Photographer of the Year, May is the final month of entries, before we start the judging process in June. Some epic images already submitted are competing for the title, which comes with US$10,000 in prize money and a Botswana safari for the winner and two runners-up + their partners. Please get your entries in now to avoid the usual last-minute rush.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
‘When is the best time to go to Africa?’ The safari guide’s eyes roll heavenward. He forces a smile and answers with something like, ‘You do realise that Africa straddles the equator, covers six time zones, is a vast area more than three times the size of the US of profoundly different vegetation, climate, topography, wildlife and home to over a billion souls of unimaginably diverse looks, languages and cultures. Which bit of Africa were you referring to exactly?’. Luckily for our jaded safari guide, we at AG have come to the rescue with a series of four stories about the best times to visit the many fascinating parts of Africa. In our first story below, we cover the most popular safari season of June to August.
A few years ago, I was shooting a short documentary on the Maasai people who graze their livestock (legally) in the Mara Triangle during the quiet season. Even a blind moron with a faulty pinhole camera could have captured gorgeous images of the scene: backdrop of the Mara at sunrise, the Maasai’s colourful clothing and the odd elephant wandering past the cattle. What struck me most, however, was the fact that the herders, contrary to their cliched portrayal in popular media, are not relics of a bygone era. They were chatting on their smartphones and doing banking transactions dressed in shukas and car-tire sandals while whistling at their cattle. These were modern, 21st-century Maasai. In our second story below, Benoît Feron and Anne-Françoise Tasnier travelled to South Sudan to spend some time with the Mundari people; to learn about their cattle culture and photograph their interaction with the 21st century.
Our third story below is exciting. New research by the big hitters of African elephant conservation lead by Jake Wall with support from doyen Iain Douglas-Hamilton and many others, asserts that elephants occupy just 17% of their potential range. Whether we, as a species, can learn to share this land with them is another matter – but there is hope, and there is more space than we thought.
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
The Mundari tribe is a small ethnic group from the Republic of South Sudan, numbering between 70,000 and 100,000 people. South Sudan, the world’s youngest country, gained independence from the Republic of the Sudan in 2011 after a 21-year civil war. During the war, Mundari militias organised themselves into commando units under the leadership of the present governor of the Central Equatoria State. They fought in Eastern Equatoria, Eastern Sudan, and Darfur.
The Mundari are one of the ethnic groups indigenous to the Nile valley (Nilotic). Their main homeland is approximately 75 kilometres north of Juba, the capital of South Sudan. Their lands are bounded on the east by the White Nile, an important source of water for livestock.
The Mundari follow a mixture of Christian and animistic beliefs, with symbols playing an important role. As for many people in the area, the Mundari culture is transmitted orally in songs, dance, poems and other body expressions that reflect good, generosity, and other core values. Ritual scarification is an important part of cultural identity. Men must undergo initiation rites where initiates live together in nature and spend three months with a village elder, away from the community. The rite of passage to adulthood is completed with V scars cut into the forehead.
Friendly and peaceful by nature, the Mundari are nevertheless armed, like most tribes in South Sudan. Decades of war have made guns ubiquitous and easy to obtain. That said, the Mudari seem to have no interest in warfare – weapons are used to protect their herds from cattle rustlers. Mundari men take up wrestling as a serious hobby from a very young age. They regularly organise wrestling competitions, and the best proponents keep going until they are too old to compete.
Cattle Culture
The Mundari are agro-pastoralists with an economy centred on agriculture and herding livestock. Their famous, massive-horned Ankole-Watusi cattle are considered the ‘kings of the cattle’. They are part of the Sanga family of African cattle breeds which originated over 2,000 years ago from a combination of the Egyptian longhorn cattle of Africa and Zebu longhorns originally from India. Sanga cattle spread throughout eastern Africa, and many different breeds developed. Some studies suggest that the big horns of the Ankole-Watusi are an adaptation to hot climates, facilitating the dispersal of excess body heat.
While elders (from 38 years old) and maternal relatives settle villages with beautiful huts, the youngest (young men and women, teens and children) go to cattle camps to tend livestock, moving according to the rhythm of rainy seasons. This part of South Sudan is extremely vulnerable to drought with low rainfall and high temperatures. Sometimes the herds can number as many as 850 animals, and finding enough forage for such large herds in arid areas necessitates constant movement. At the end of the dry season, camps are pitched around the Nile, the only place still sufficiently green to accommodate the appetite of their livestock.
In Mundari culture, like for many tribes of the region, cattle play an important role in religion, birth and marriage. They are symbols of wealth and power. Every life event includes a reference to cows, the lives of which can be sometimes deemed more important than those of humans. A person’s position in society is established through the ownership of cattle – the size and shape of the horns being the most important features. Traditionally, Ankole-Watusi cows are considered sacred, with an owner’s wealth counted in live animals. Unfortunately, cattle are also the main source of conflict. Clashes seldom arise over common resources such as land but rather over animals and their ownership.
Before the civil war, each Ankole-Watusi was worth as much as $500. This was the reference value used to calculate the bride price paid to a woman’s family. Following the end of the war, the number of middle-aged men in search of wives dramatically increased. This had a direct impact as it doubled the bride price from an average of 20 cows per bride to 40. This inflation has made cattle even more precious and has also increased the frequency of lethal cattle raids.
Cattle camps
In a cattle camp, everyone plays their role. The men lead the cows into the fields during the day and regroup them in the camp before sunset. The women clean and prepare food for everyone. The children clean the ground of the camp every morning by collecting the dung and burning it at sunset. The smoke drives away mosquitoes and also creates a unique atmosphere for photographers.
Ashes are then used as a natural antiseptic to protect the skin of the people and cows from insects and the sun. The Mundari also use ash as talcum to massage their cattle twice a day and as toothpaste for themselves.
Cattle urine is used to wash hands, faces, teeth and bleach hair. The Mundari also drink it in the belief that cow urine infuses purity. They also combine urine with ashes to polish the magnificent horns of the cattle.
At night, music played on horns floats through the camp. The people sing close to the heat of fires until they fall asleep under the stars with the cattle just a few feet away. Sleep is not always easy, and the herders must often protect their livestock from jackals, hyenas and even painted wolves (African wild dogs). The main threat to livestock, however, is from raiders. Indeed, cattle rustling is a common cultural practice among many pastoral communities in East Africa – the Nuer, Dinka and Murle often participate in cyclical raiding.
The future
The Mundari’s apparently sustainable way of life is no doubt changing. Today, young Mundari dream of another life, and it is somewhat incongruous to observe young people looking at the outside world on Chinese smartphones while looking after the cattle. The modern world is on its way, and China is financing and building a highway that will link Juba to Terekeka, the county where Mundari live. This highway is part of the Chinese oil exploitation program in South Sudan, which started even before its independence in 2011. This war-ravaged region boasts 3.5 billion barrels’ worth of crude oil in proven reserves, and petroleum geologists will likely find more in the two-thirds of South Sudan they have yet to explore. Despite the challenges of working in a war zone, China dominates what analysts have assessed to be the third-largest oil reserve in Africa.
The Mundari way of life faces an uncertain future. We believe, however, it will still take years for the traditions we’ve described to change. They remain the basis for the whole social structure of the tribe – despite cell phones and a few other modern conveniences. Cattle and not cash remains the foundation of society in two main ways.
Firstly, cattle is a financial asset – a kind of “mobile bank account”. Most Mundari people keep cattle and sell them to pay for their essential needs, like food or school fees and – possibly most importantly – the bride price. Secondly, cows produce food. Although very seldom killed for meat, their milk and blood are hugely important parts of the Mundari diet.
With the COVID-19 pandemic, world aid for development in South Sudan has slowed. The majority of humanitarian workers are stuck at home. As in other African countries, South Sudan has immense tourism potential, but it will take years to develop the necessary infrastructure. The official political mentality is still much influenced by long years of war.
We believe that traditional Mundari’ society will remain relatively unchanged for many years to come. Perhaps we might ask whether their relatively sustainable way of life has lessons more widely applicable – lessons we need to absorb before the tide of modernisation changes the Mundari way of life forever.
It goes without saying that humans have significantly reduced the habitat available to elephants across Africa (as is the case for almost every wild species). Though greatly accelerated over the last century, this has been an incremental process and unpicking the strands of our influence to quantify historical and potential animal ranges is a tricky process. Newly published research from leading elephant conservation organisations clarifies the extent of human impact on elephants: Africa’s giants now occupy just 17% of their possible range.
The new paper details how multiple elephant research and conservation organisations pooled over 15 years’ worth of data on the ranges of 229 individual elephants across the continent. The work was coordinated by Save the Elephants and included researchers from the Mara Elephant Project, the University of British Columbia, Oxford University, Colorado State University, the Wildlife Conservation Society, the University of Stirling, and Elephants Alive. It goes to the heart of why long-term research and in-depth understanding of elephant movements are pivotal to elephants’ conservation. “Consistent data recorded over a number of years plays a vital role in our understanding of how elephants adapt to shrinking ranges and variable climatic effects” explains Dr Michelle Henley, CEO of Elephants Alive.
The data were collected at 19 sites across the four major biomes of Africa: Sahel (the border region of the Sahara Desert in the western section of the continent), forest (central), savannah (east), and bushveld (south). When analysing the data, the new study lays out three questions:
How do elephant home ranges vary in size across sexes, species, and biome?
How influential are the following factors on range size?
a. Individual (sex and species)
b. Biotic (vegetation and tree cover)
c. Abiotic (temperature, rainfall, water, slope/gradient)
d. Anthropogenic (human influence and protected area use) factors
How much suitable elephant habitat remains across Africa, and how much of this suitable habitat is currently occupied?
The study demonstrates that elephant range size is affected by multiple factors, including species (forest elephants utilised smaller home ranges than savannah elephants), sex (bulls occupied more extensive ranges than cows in the long term), and resource availability. The elephants were also influenced by tree cover, temperature, rainfall, and the slope/gradient of the area. Most importantly, elephant movements and range usage were impacted by human factors. From the tracking data, elephants in protected areas occupied smaller ranges. The researchers believe that this is part of a human avoidance strategy – the elephants do not feel safe roaming into areas of human habitation. However, some 57% of the current elephant range falls outside these protected areas (as per the IUCN).
The researchers then used this data to inform an elephant habitat suitability model (HSM) across the entire continent. The HSM predicts that elephants could occupy a range of over 18 million square kilometres – 62% of the whole continent. “We looked at every square kilometre of the continent,” says lead author Jake Wall of the Mara Elephant Project in Kenya. “We found that 62% of those 29.2 million square kilometres is suitable habitat.” As adaptable and generalist megaherbivores, elephants would only be precluded from occupying extreme habitats in the Sahara, Danakil, and Kalahari deserts, as well as high mountain tops and, of course, urban centres.
Iain Douglas-Hamilton, founder of Save the Elephants, explains that through the model, “we used the movements of living elephants to tell us where the dead once roamed. This gave us a new line of evidence to suggest how much range has been lost in the last 2000 years”.
In essence, the study confirms that elephants would once have roamed almost the entire African continent – a conclusion supported by both historical, anecdotal evidence and recent genetic studies. The researchers detail how accounts from navigators and explorers from over 500 years ago record the presence of elephants on the Atlantic coast of North Africa and the mountainous and thickly wooded parts of present-day Tunisia. The HSM indicates that the same stretch of North Africa where elephants once roamed remains suitable habitat to this day. An analysis of ivory recovered from a Namibian shipwreck recently showed a massive reduction of elephant genetic diversity in the last five centuries.
The vast amount of data and extensive analysis demonstrates that elephants could spread back to parts of their former range if given a chance. Their habitats have been severely fragmented by fences, agriculture, infrastructure and human habitation and conflict. However, since their potential range is enormous, there is likely still room within parts of this range for peaceful coexistence between people and elephants. In particular, the authors identify swathes of land within the Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of Congo, whose forests once held hundreds of thousands of elephants, now reduced to fewer than 10,000 remaining individuals. Naturally, the researchers also acknowledge that there are also parts of this identified range where conflict with people would make the return of elephants unrealistic.
Unfortunately, while the elephant range could expand, current trends are moving in the opposite direction. With the human population expected to grow over 25% from 2019 to 2050 (along with the associated increase in human footprint), there is an urgent need for development scenarios that take wildlife (and human) needs into account to secure the long-term survival of elephants. The researchers hope to refine the current model to aid in quantifying human densities and human-elephant coexistence and exploring the connectivity of potential habitats. The study concludes with the following sentiments:
“In the face of increasing human pressures, proactive landscape planning at the local, national, and continental scales are critical, as well as fostering an ethic of human-elephant coexistence if the future of elephants is to be secured. Is that too much to ask, to protect and conserve this signature animal even in a world where human well-being is paramount?”
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Last week was ugly. We published a story where scientists estimate the Namibian elephant population to be several times higher than the go-to estimate by several loud keyboard experts. The data and results were peer-reviewed by the IUCN African Elephant Specialist Group. The story unleashed some pretty unfortunate backlash from those whose narrative demands far lower numbers. The backstory is that the Namibian government, like many African governments, supports trophy hunting as a wildlife conservation tool. Now you know that I am no fan of trophy hunting, and I have the scars to prove it. BUT I also believe, as do my team, that science is the framework for effective conservation and that our layman opinions, while being essential tools for dialogue and problem-solving, are ultimately subject to scientific reality.
One hysterical Namibian activist took to social media to drum up echo chamber support from his adoring fans with hurtful fabrications about the veteran conservation journalist. He also laid into AG – and demanded that he be given the raw elephant population data to come up with his own statistics. He of zero relevant qualifications, experience or training. His premise is that observations from his occasional journeying through elephant territory are a more reliable yardstick for Namibian elephant numbers than what peer-reviewed science estimates, and that we (scientists, AG and those who support science) are in cahoots with the Namibian government to kill more elephants.
It is what it is.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
When I started guiding, too many years ago than I care to admit, showing my guests a kill was the ultimate goal. I’m not sure why – perhaps it was because so many nature documentaries climaxed with a takedown. The first time I saw the light leaving the eyes of a terrified impala ram with a leopardess’s jaws clamped around his trachea, I wasn’t sure I wished to see it again. In our first story below, Kenyan guide James Nampaso, treats us to a terrific photo gallery of nature’s sometimes heartrending reality.
In our second story below, we look at new research investigating the use of African grey parrots in traditional west African medicine. The Marché des Fétiches in Lomé, Togo has an astonishing array of wild animal parts for sale, including primate heads, antelope and predator skins, crocodile skulls, dried snakes, domestic dog heads and, of course, birds. A brief google image search will net you a gallery of horrors. Next step is to engage with the sellers and users to come up with sustainable alternatives.
Our third story below is more cheerful. When I was at university, I remember walking past kilometres of shelving full of masters and PhD dissertations thinking, ‘what a waste, no one is ever going to read this stuff.’ While most theses can look forward to long centuries of gathering dust unobserved, one, by an Australian ecologist called Ken Tinley, completed in 1977, resurfaced in the early 2000s. It became the blueprint for the restoration of Gorongosa National Park in Mozambique – it’s a wonderfully unlikely story.
Our Photographer of the Year gallery for this week is another marvel of African nature and human creativity. We are nearing the end of the competition, so either head into the wild and take some snaps or trawl your archives – you might like to win 10 000USD and a luxury safari to Botswana. You can enter here.
Finally, have a look at our video of the week. The Last Horns of Africa is a scary look at what it means to be on the frontline of defending rhino in South Africa – when rangers have to find the courage to become soldiers.
Story 1 https://africageographic.com/stories/giraffes-vs-lions/
LIONS VS GIRAFFES
This exceptional photo gallery by Kenyan guide and Photographer of the Year entrant James Nampaso showcases wild Africa at her most brutal
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
The following is the foreword by Greg Carr to a recently re-published thesis by Dr Ken Tinley who developed an ecological model for Gorongosa National Park in Mozambique. The magnificent thesis was completed in 1977 and remains relevant to this day.
Introduction
I saw Gorongosa National Park for the first time from a helicopter on March 30, 2004. It looked magnificent from above. There were multiple forest and woodland types, grasslands, rivers, a lake, and fascinating geological formations. When we landed, however, it was clear we had trouble. The historic Chitengo Camp lay in ruins—former buildings were rubble. Where tourists once wandered, burned-out vehicles lay amongst grass that was higher than my head. That year, the Mozambican government asked me to help restore Gorongosa, once one of the most popular wildlife parks in all of Africa.
Process and response
In the 1960s, scientists said that Gorongosa had the densest abundance of wildlife of any natural area on the continent. This was no longer true. On our visit in 2004, we could drive an entire day and see perhaps one warthog or one baboon. Whatever other wildlife there was hidden in dense forests and had every reason to fear vehicles. Approximately 95% of the large animals were killed during and in the aftermath of one generation of war. How could we possibly restore a landscape of 400,000 hectares (one million acres)?
If we were going to help the Government of Mozambique re-wild this ecosystem, we needed to understand it. We needed to create a Park Management Plan.
My very small team and I searched the literature. We found popular accounts of Gorongosa in newspapers and even in the prestigious National Geographic Magazine, dating back to the early 1960s. However, we also needed scientific data. A Harvard University friend found a reference to a doctoral thesis called Framework of the Gorongosa Ecosystem published in 1977 by a Kenneth Lochner Tinley, but not the actual thesis. At the time, Google was a ‘child’, just six years old, and one did not find nearly every imaginable piece of information online. We learned that a physical copy of the thesis existed at the University of Pretoria, South Africa. We used ‘interlibrary loan’ to get that actual document (not a facsimile) sent by the postal service to Harvard and then to us. Helping me was Sydney Kwiram—a brilliant young woman and recent Harvard graduate.
The manuscript’s abstract included this paragraph: “The chapter titled ‘Process and Response’ is the central pivot of the thesis containing the kinetic aspects of geomorphological landscape changes with coevolutionary sequences of biotic communities which change (expand, contract and recombine) kaleidoscopically in space and time, in appearance and content.”
Wow. I am not a biologist. I wondered if I should return to the friendly, popular newspaper articles about Gorongosa! However, the Tinley masterpiece is written by an incredible hand. It is the kind of literature that a layperson can follow if one reads carefully, even as an expert will gather much more from the same page. Sydney and I devoured this tome. The thesis had chapters on landscape setting, geology, soils, hydrology, climate, wildlife—covering an area in central Mozambique larger than the Park boundaries themselves—under the labels of “Gorongosa Mountain Summit”, “Gorongosa Mountain Slopes”, “Midlands”, “Rift Valley”, “Coast Plateau”, and “Land-sea Junction”. There were graphs of data and hand-drawn maps by Dr Tinley. He did all of this prior to the existence of the personal computer, GPS, digital photography, drones and the Internet. He with his spouse, Lynne Tinley, and their two small children lived in Chitengo (the place where I had landed in March 2004) from 1968 to 1973.
Where on earth is Dr Tinley?
We had the document, but what about Ken Tinley? Was he still alive? Did he live in South Africa? We would not find those answers in 2004.
Meanwhile, our team of scientists used insights from the Tinley thesis as we wrote a proposal to the Government of Mozambique to co-manage and restore Gorongosa. Among many critical observations, Ken Tinley—speaking through his thesis—told us that, in order to save the ecosystem over the long term, Mount Gorongosa needed to be added to the Park. Mount Gorongosa holds one of only two true rainforests in Central Mozambique, full of endemic and near-endemic species. The mountain is the critical source of most of the Park’s surface water during the dry season. At this time, it did not have protected status.
We continued our studies, our visits to Gorongosa, and our talks with the Government of Mozambique. I expanded our team. In 2005, on one of the luckiest days of my life, I met Vasco Galante. Vasco became the Director of Communications for the non-profit ‘Gorongosa Restoration Project’. He is a human connector: he makes friends, then he becomes friends with their friends. He remembers everyone, every encounter, every event. We call him ‘Vascopedia’. Vasco’s records tell me that we found Ken Tinley in 2005. I sent him an email (which, of course, Vasco saved) on November 28, 2005, that says: “We are in communication with Dr Tinley (who now lives in Australia), and we have his thesis, which you will enjoy. I’ll ask Bridget to send you a copy.”
“In communication with Dr Tinley” actually meant that we had found an email address for his spouse Lynne (from someone who knew someone) and contacted her. Lynne is equally brilliant and is Ken’s lifelong teammate. She is an artist of Nature. She wrote Drawn from the Plains, a book about living in Chitengo Camp, Gorongosa Park’s headquarters, for five years. The book includes her original artwork. We located a copy.
I remember reading my first email reply from Lynne. I now felt that the legendary Gorongosa of the 1960s was no longer just a storybook place to read about in articles. I was talking to someone who had lived there, seen it, smelled it, heard it, and breathed it. Soon, I started receiving messages on Lynne’s email account written by Ken. I was finally talking to the person who had written Framework of the Gorongosa Ecosystem when I was still in middle school.
We corresponded with Ken steadily from 2005 on, sharing ideas and receiving welcome advice. Ecologist Dr Marc Stalmans was a consultant to us and later became Director of Science for Gorongosa National Park. He helped us plan the restoration. “Ken was truly ahead of his time,” Dr Stalmans explains, “applying a landscape ecological perspective well before this approach gained popularity in the 1980s-1990s. Ken manually applied GIS principles before the electronic tool was available. Whereas many studies conventionally only provide a snapshot in time, Ken’s work takes a long term, geomorphic and geo-ecological view of the Park in terms of the formation, evolution and long-term outcome of its ecosystems and constituting components. That’s why the work is still hugely relevant one half-century later. Even more astonishing is that this magnum opus resulted from Ken spending only five years in the Gorongosa ecosystem.”
On top of that, Dr Tinley still found time to sketch landscape perspectives of Banhine National Park in Mozambique and an area next to the Kruger National Park in South Africa that would later become part of the Limpopo National Park. Thirty years later, in the early 2000s, these perspectives became the foundation for the first landscape maps for both parks, which now form part of the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area.
In 1990, well after his five years living in Gorongosa Park, Ken worked with landscape architects in Pretoria. They agreed that the existence of a large number of national parks and nature reserves along the frontier between Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Swaziland opened the possibility for multi-national transfrontier resource areas (referenced by Dr Stalmans above).
It was exciting to think that existing protected areas could be linked by some of the little populated areas in between—to create one of the largest conservation zones in the world. Rural communities living within the resource areas, as well as the governments of the various countries, would benefit. Ken was one of the originators of the idea that became known as ‘Peace Parks’. President Nelson Mandela, a founder of the Peace Parks Foundation, believed national parks could link nations or regions that had previously seen conflict. His theory: The connected ecosystems would be good not only for wildlife but deliver benefits and peaceful relations to people as well.
We completed the first draft of our Park Management Plan and finalised our co-management contract with the Government of Mozambique. In January of 2008, I signed a 20-year agreement with the Government to co-manage and restore the Gorongosa ecosystem and to bring human development services to the communities that live adjacent to the Park. (That agreement has now been extended to 35 years, until 2043.)
In 2008 we revitalised the ranger team. The team began removing wildlife traps and snares from the Park; some left over from the war. We started a health care programme in nearby communities. We began our first attempts at tourism.
Meeting Ken Tinley
Yet, I had still not met Ken Tinley. I invited him to come and see what we were doing. In October 2010, Ken spent five days with us in Gorongosa.
On the last day of his visit, Ken shared a poignant story with us. This trip was not the first time he had been to Gorongosa since 1973. In 1994, after the war ended, Ken and a man named Paul Dutton, along with José Tello (ex-warden of Gorongosa), were contracted by the IUCN to survey the condition of the National Park. Like Ken, Paul had begun his career as a Game Ranger in the Zululand Provincial Game Reserves and later continued his education to earn a graduate degree in Ecology. They became lifelong friends. In his own small Piper Cub airplane, Paul helped Ken and José perform the first aerial surveys of the vast herds of large ungulates during the first year of Ken’s research in Gorongosa. In 1994, they found what I saw a decade later: no wildlife and destroyed infrastructure.
The Future
The Gorongosa Restoration Team has made great progress from 2010 to 2019. Our rangers removed over 27,000 traps and snares. We reintroduced some species that we obtained from other national parks, such as buffalo and wildebeest from Kruger. But mostly, in a safer environment, the remaining small populations of wildlife were able to increase on their own. In 2018 we conducted an aerial wildlife survey and counted more than 100,000 large animals. (This represented just the fifteen largest species we could count from the air, not the innumerable smaller species that are also thriving.) The press has been kind to us. National Geographic refers to us as perhaps Africa’s greatest wildlife restoration story.
We also made headway on our human development programme in the traditional communities that share the greater ecosystem with the Park. Our after-school Girls’ Clubs keep teenage girls in school and out of child marriage. We help small farmers get better yields on their land. We’re restoring the rainforest on Mount Gorongosa by planting shade-grown coffee. We provide healthcare to more than 100,000 people per year.
This idea that national parks should benefit the local people was one of Ken Tinley’s early insights and it forms the core of our philosophy at Gorongosa Park. But not only that, we also believe that local people should lead the management of these protected areas. They have knowledge and expertise about the healthy functioning of these ecosystems that they have inhabited since time immemorial. and they can combine that wisdom with 21st Century ecological science.
During the Colonial era, most Mozambicans were not allowed to go to school beyond the fourth grade. It is a painful and unpleasant fact, but one we should remember. At the Gorongosa Project, our goal is to empower the next generation of Mozambican scientists who will lead this ecosystem to the 22nd Century. They face of a new set of challenges, perhaps even greater than the wars of the 20th Century – climate change, pollution, invasive species, habitat loss and over-harvesting. Thus, we created a Master’s in Conservation Biology, a two-year program located in the park. It is the only master’s programme in the world taught entirely within a national park. We’ve already graduated our first cadre of twelve Mozambican women and men. The second group will finish at the end of 2021.
We also help Mozambicans continue their education to earn PhDs. Dominique Goncalves, a Mozambican woman who grew up near Gorongosa, is completing her PhD in Wildlife Ecology at the University of Kent in the UK. She also is the Manager of Elephant Ecology at Gorongosa Park. In October of 2018, I travelled with Dominique to Perth, Australia, to meet Ken and Lynne Tinley in their home. The walls of their apartment were covered with Lynne’s original artwork, some paintings of Gorongosa. Ken and Dominique talked for two days. He gave her unpublished notes from his research as the two of them exchanged ideas, passing the torch of Gorongosa science to the next generation.
Greg Carr
April 14th, 2021.
Ken Tinley’s thesis is available for purchase at 150 USD plus shipping. If interested, please email Megan Carolla at megancarolla@gmail.com.
The African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) is one of the most heavily-traded bird species globally, prized for its attractive looks, intelligence and propensity for mimicry. While most trade supplies the exotic pet trade, a new study confirms that grey parrots are also being sold in traditional medicine markets and consumed for belief-based use in some West African countries. Feathers, whole parrot remains, and parrot heads are traded for various medicinal and spiritual uses.
According to the study and previous research, over 1.2 million wild-sourced African grey parrots have been traded internationally since the 1970s. The unsustainable trapping and trading of wild parrots, along with habitat loss, has resulted in dramatic population declines across the ranges of both African grey parrots and Timneh parrots (P. timneh). In some countries, populations have declined by as much as 90% over the past 25 years. Though there has been little research into the use of grey parrots in traditional medicine, researchers have now made inroads into understanding the dimensions of this established trade.
Researchers interviewed five vendors at the ‘fetish’ market – Marché des Fétiches – in Togo, West Africa to investigate the purpose and socio-economic drivers of belief-based use. The market is the largest of its kind for belief-based medicine in West Africa, and here wildlife trade is conducted openly, even when certain species are protected by national legislation. The vendors were selected on the basis that they had been previously observed trading parrot parts. The questions asked of the vendors focused on the body parts sold, the purpose and price, the source country, and the species availability.
Their findings suggest that approximately 900 grey parrots were traded over the past ten years in the marketplace. The majority of parrot heads were sold for improving memory and spiritual ‘protection from witchcraft’ and ‘good luck’. Feathers are purchased for spiritual use, ‘attracting clients’, ‘love’, and ‘help with divorce’. According to the vendors, parrot heads were the most valuable parts, fetching several times the value of parrot feathers. Concerningly, the majority of the vendors reported a decrease in the availability of grey parrot parts.
This use of African grey parrots for belief-based practices is not a new phenomenon, and the vendors reported that all purchases over the past decade had involved regular customers. This, in turn, indicates a local demand for the trade in parrot parts beyond the international trade in live parrots. However, the researchers emphasise that further research is needed to understand the relationship between the two different trades, as evidence suggests a degree of connectivity. It is likely that some of the parrot remains in the markets were sourced from parrots that died during the trapping/transport process for the pet trade. (The trapping and trading of wild parrots raise serious welfare concerns and is estimated to have a 40-60% mortality rate.)
Related to the relationship between the two types of trade is whether the increase in scarcity of parrots reflects the collapse of local wild populations or the recent reduction in international trade (precipitated by increased international legal restrictions). The vendors all stated that Benin and Togo were the main source countries for parrot derivatives. Yet, experts believe that wild populations of grey parrots in these countries are negligible or even extinct. The grey parrots in neighbouring countries such as Ghana have also shown a precipitous population decline. If there are small remaining populations, even low exploitation levels would be disastrous and could result in further local extinctions.
As is the case with any wildlife species, it is challenging to assess the impact of belief-based use. As the study acknowledges, aspects of the trade (such as the trade in feathers) may prove sustainable. The authors also emphasise that the study’s intention was not to determine the extent of the trade – the information provided by the vendors may have been either exaggerated or underestimated. Instead, the interviews were conducted to inform further research and direct future conservation efforts. Immediate intervention initiatives could include education initiatives and the provision of herbal alternatives.
The conservation efforts directed at saving the surviving African grey parrot populations are intricate and multi-faceted, involving everything from international trade policy to dangerous anti-poaching and sting operations. While the study identifies the need for further in-depth research into this threat to grey parrots, it is only through understanding the patterns and drivers of the trade that effective strategies can be developed to mitigate its effects.
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I watched this trailer for an African-themed movie and was not sure whether to laugh out loud or vomit in the back of my mouth. If you can get past the horrendous type-casting of African people and gobsmackingly misinformed portrayals of predators waiting around every corner to eat you alive – then you are a better person than I. Apparently, there are rhinos in Amboseli (which attack and flip vehicles), and the hyenas there whoop like gibbons when hunting humans. Breathe deeply Simon, move on …
Back to reality, and after a really good wet summer here in the Greater Kruger region, the seasons have turned, and our autumnal grass and woodlands are rapidly turning golden brown as we prepare for a long dry winter. We are heading into the best wildlife-viewing time, and intrepid travellers are taking advantage of Covid-impacted low prices and few tourists. Need I say more?
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
This week is much about the elephants – one a good news, if rather technical, story and the other, another blight on humanity’s appalling environmental report card. In the first one below, veteran Namibian conservationist Gail Thomson describes exactly how the Namibian government arrived at their population figure of 24 000 elephants. Despite what naysayers might argue, it would seem that Namibia’s elephant population is thriving and increasing. Long may that last.
Our second story below leaves me bemused. Quite how it has taken the IUCN so long to recognise the species status of the forest elephant despite science having known about it for almost 20 years, is beyond me. What on earth have they been doing? With the speed of frozen treacle oozing uphill, the politicians, lawyers and scientists have finally made it official and the news is not good – the forest elephant is critically endangered.
After all that, our third story below should be much more fun and encouraging. Mix yourself a pina colada (yes, I know you’re at work but that might make it taste even better). I’ve always had a fascination with remote ocean islands. This story of Mauritian conservation – pristine beaches, coral reefs, tropical fishes, lush forests, endemic animals and cascading waterfalls – had me yearning to feel the sand between my toes, hearing the drum of the ocean and the primordial sound of the island jungle.
Finally, our Photographer of the Year is heading into the final stages. Please send this link to anyone you know who takes good shots of Africa – they might like to win 10 000USD and a luxury safari to Botswana. Mix another pina colada and enjoy the 14th celebration of our magical continent!
Kenyan guide James Nampaso entered a few startling images of giraffes and lions for our 2021 Photographer of the Year. See his submitted images in this weekly selection. We were interested to know more about what happened, and James submitted the following images and story:
“The event took place in the Maasai Mara ( Olare Motorogi Conservancy) in Kenya. During a morning game drive I saw two female lionesses watching a female giraffe and her calf from the cover of a croton bush. Soon the lions started stalking the giraffes and I told my guests to get their cameras ready. The lions managed to jump onto the calf, but the mother giraffe chased them away. Once the rest of the pride arrived they surrounded the giraffes, and after about half an hour, a lioness managed to jump onto the mother giraffe’s back and so distract her. During that separation, the lions killed the baby while the mother giraffe managed to escape.” James Nampaso
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
With over 160km of talcum-powder sand beaches, turquoise lagoons, luxury resorts and protected on all sides by an encircling coral reef, Mauritius is an island paradise. That said, there is so much more to Mauritius than just the beach. Away from sunbathing, water sports and busy beaches, the island is a world biodiversity hotspot, a land of volcanic mountains dotted with pockets of ancient forest. It is home to an incredible diversity of wildlife, including some of the world’s most threatened animals and plants. Mauritius is increasingly focusing on ecotourism and, together with several forward-thinking operators, the island has its eye on becoming a world leader in green tourism.
When you live on a small island in the Indian Ocean, you are sensitive to every tiny environmental change that happens around you. As awareness of the importance of maintaining the island’s ecosystem grows, Mauritius is working hard towards its goal of conservation and sustainable tourism. It is this side of Mauritius that I had come to experience on my travels there.
I had been invited to the opening of the Kestrel Valley Nature Reserve, a 200-hectare private nature reserve located in an indigenous Mauritian forest. Previously a deer hunting farm, Kestrel Valley is now under new management and has switched focus to conservation and the protection of endangered species. It serves as the base from which eco-volunteers participate in a variety of conservation programmes. Though the project is primarily targeted at gap-year students and conservation enthusiasts of a generally younger age group than myself (I was, in fact, old enough to be the mother of some of the other participants), I was fortunate enough to experience their hands-on approach to conservation.
The valley is also home to the Mauritian kestrel (Falco punctatus), once one of the most endangered birds in the world but which has since been brought back from the brink of extinction by the concerted efforts of conservationists and scientists. My fellow volunteers and I spent our first few days monitoring and carrying out census counts of the kestrels as well as the endangered Mauritian fruit bats (Pteropus niger – which also roost in the valley). We also took part in alien plant eradication, quite literally weeding in the forest by hand. This particular project, which turned out to be surprisingly rewarding, saw us pulling up and carting out armfuls of invasive plant life to make way for the indigenous plants.
Like most of the Indian Ocean, Mauritius has seen a sharp decrease in its coral reef, primarily due to climate change and aggressive fishing methods. When we had time out from our dry land projects, the volunteers and I got involved with some reef and lagoon conservation projects. We spent a couple of days underwater, gaining hands-on experience in saving the island’s marine environment. Donning masks and snorkels we set off, looking for signs of coral bleaching and invasive species, as well as monitoring some of the island’s critically endangered hawksbill sea turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata).
As we swam through the lagoon, we saw the devastation of previous coral bleaching incidents, times when a sudden rise in water temperatures kills off the coral, leaving it white, desolate, and somewhat depressing.
The following day, we took part in a coral farming project that aims to grow corals and replenish these damaged areas of the island’s reefs. As part of the project, we started the day collecting small fragments of coral from a healthy section of the reef, later transporting them to the ‘farm’. A lot like an underwater garden, the coral farm consists of submerged ‘tables’ that the coral fragments we’d collected were attached to. This attachment process was a bit harder than I had anticipated, and the strong currents tossed me about as I tried repeatedly to get the job done. Eventually, I got the small coral pieces firmly anchored down and hoped they would all flourish!
On a day off from active conservation, we were given a guided tour of the tiny rocky wildlife sanctuary of Ile aux Aigrettes. Resident scientists offered a series of talks and guided walks around the islet and introduced us to some of its more endangered inhabitants, including the pink pigeon which has been brought back from the brink of extinction, along with the Mauritian kestrel and the echo parakeet (Eretmochelys imbricata). We also saw the rare olive white-eyes (Zosterops chloronothos), the brightly coloured Mauritian fody (Foudia rubra), and numerous startlingly vibrant Mauritian ornate day geckos (Phelsuma ornata) as well as the island’s extensive nursery for indigenous and native plants. The passion of the scientists here was contagious, and we left at the end of the day with a new appreciation of the dedication that goes into conservation, habitat restoration and the saving of species.
It was time to move on and see what is being done for conservation elsewhere on the island. After a week of ‘work’ at Kestrel Valley, I was invited to Vallée de Ferney to see their impressive plant and animal restoration project. With less than 2% of the indigenous forest ecosystems of Mauritius remaining, Ferney is one of the last nature reserves on the island – a biodiversity sanctuary where some of the rarest plant and animal species on the island are found.
The valley is another old hunting concession that has been turned over in large part to conservation. There is a stunningly beautiful lodge here and, with only four rooms, you have the feeling of having the place to yourself. Sitting by the pool that night, with our feet dangling in the water, we felt like we were in a lost valley, nestled between the mountains with fruit bats flying overhead as the stars twinkled in the night sky.
A highway was scheduled to be constructed through Vallée de Ferney. Fortunately, before work could commence, surveys of the area led to the discovery of several plant species that were either new to science or were thought to have been extinct. Most exciting of all was the discovery of a handful of specimens of the critically endangered Bois Clou tree (Eugenia bojeri). Local protests saw the highway project scrapped, and in 2006, a 200-hectare nature reserve was established in partnership with Mauritian Wildlife Foundation (MWF) to conserve and restore the indigenous forest in the valley.
The Ferney team have already achieved some remarkable progress. Invasive plants have been removed by hand from 10 hectares of the forest so far, and over 30,000 endemic trees have already been planted, with plans to plant an additional 4,000 indigenous trees in the valley by the end of the year. Another rare tree, Le Manglier Vert (also known as the “manglier rouge” – Sideroxylon puberulum), was also discovered to be growing in the valley and is now under protection. There is also a nursery with a stock of over 11,000 native plants, many of which are rare or critically endangered.
Plants are not the only focus at Ferney. 150 endemic birds have been released into the valley, including endangered echo parakeets, pink pigeons (Nesoenas mayeri – which have bred there successfully) and Mascarene paradise flycatchers (Terpsiphone bourbonnensis). There are also 14 or 15 pairs of Mauritian kestrels in the reserve.
Of course, no trip to Mauritius would be complete without a trip to the beach. But even on a beach holiday, more and more travellers are now looking for a commitment to sustainable development and responsible tourism from their intended destination. Lagoon Attitude, a 182-roomed hotel that overlooks one of the largest lagoons in Mauritius on the northern side of the island, has stepped up to answer these needs. Without doing away with all the glamour of a tropical beachside resort, Lagoon Attitude has introduced a swathe of innovations to keep even the most eco-minded guest happy.
In removing all single-use plastics from the resort, the hotel estimates they have eliminated 690,000 items of plastic litter per annum. The introduction of eco-workshops in upcycling ocean waste and a ‘blue net bag’ collection programme encourages guests to collect litter from the ocean. Switching the cleaning products used on their boats to eco-friendly products prevents further reef degradation, as does providing guests with 100% natural, non-polluting, and locally made sunscreen. By providing reusable water bottles, solar water heating and much more, the hotel has embraced the idea of green tourism. Plans are underway to roll out these changes in all eight other hotels in the Attitude group, making an enormous positive impact on the local environment.
In addition, a Marine Discovery Centre within the hotel grounds houses a marine laboratory employing two full-time scientists who work with a consultant marine biologist. The lab is a base for marine research, coral reef monitoring, a coastal mangrove rehabilitation project. It regularly hosts school visits so that local children can learn about and appreciate how unique their island is.
The United Nations General Assembly declared the 2011 – 2020 the Decade of Biodiversity, aiming to promote the benefits of biodiversity, conservation, sustainability, and a vision of living in harmony with nature. As the decade draws to a close, it is initiatives like the eco-focused places I visited in Mauritius, that demonstrate that you can enjoy paradise without destroying it.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR, SARAH KINGDOM
Travel writer, mountain guide and mother, Sarah Kingdom was born and brought up in Sydney, Australia. Coming to Africa at 21, she fell in love with the continent and stayed. Sarah guides on Kilimanjaro several times a year, and has lost count of how many times she has stood on the roof of Africa. She has climbed and guided throughout the Himalayas and now spends most of her time visiting remote places in Africa. When she is not travelling, she runs a cattle ranch in Zambia with her husband.
Counting elephants is not easy. It takes experience, skill and funding. The good news: elephants are thriving in Namibia. Gail Thomson, veteran journalist and conservationist, delves into the incredibly complex process of elephant censuses.
Based on interviews with Kenneth /Uiseb, Debbie Gibson and Colin Craig
The African savannah elephant was recently classified as Endangered[1] by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), citing a decline throughout Africa of 60% over the past 50 years. Yet in Namibia elephant numbers are increasing and their range is expanding; a testament to sound long-term conservation policies. But how do we know that they are increasing? How do you assess the status of an animal that ranges over thousands of square kilometres with any degree of confidence? I spoke to the experts to find out.
The small four-seater Cessna aircraft is full. The pilot is flying slowly in a dead straight line, maintaining an altitude of 300 feet above ground level. Behind him, two passengers stare intently out the windows; searching the ground between two black rods fixed to the plane’s wing struts. One passenger suddenly calls out: “left, elephant bulls, two,” followed shortly by the other: “right, elephant cows, ten in, five out.” The fourth person in the plane, sitting next to the pilot, decodes their cryptic messages and jots them down on a datasheet.
Once they have reached the end of this straight line (known as a transect) on their GPS, the pilot will turn the plane around, find the next parallel transect line and fly back along it – keeping flying speed and height as constant as possible. They keep it up until they have flown a planned number of transects for the morning, at which point they will return to base for a much-deserved rest. Every day for the next few weeks they will fly many transects each morning and afternoon until they have covered the target landscape sufficiently to estimate that population of elephants.
How do aerial surveys for elephants work?
There is a lot more to aerial surveys than flying around looking for big grey shapes in the savannah. Debbie Gibson, a key team member who plans and co-supervises aerial surveys in Namibia explains, “Before we even start flying, we use our knowledge of the area to identify and map strata that are sub-blocks of the whole area that we can cover in a day or two.” Strata in areas with higher elephant densities are covered with more tightly spaced transects (e.g. 2.5 km apart) than those with lower elephant densities (e.g. 5 km apart). This increases precision in areas with high densities without introducing bias into the overall count.
“Once we get out to the survey area, we run several calibration flights over the airstrip to measure exactly how much of the ground we are seeing from the air,” Debbie continues, “and to ensure that the observers are searching similar widths of ground on either side of the plane using the rods fixed to the wing struts as guidelines.” Besides allowing for calculations of the ground covered, these rods set realistic limits for searching. Although observers can see all the way to the horizon from an airplane, they are highly unlikely to see all of the elephants in that huge, undefined area. Instead, they focus their search on the known area covered between the rods, where they are less likely to miss any distinctive grey shapes.
If the sharp-eyed observers happen to see elephants outside of the defined search area, then they are recorded as “out” elephants – i.e. beyond the measured sample area. These sightings are mapped and their numbers reported, but only the “in” elephants are used in the statistical analyses to generate a population estimate. Surveys are also done in the dry season when the vegetation is less dense and visibility is high to reduce the chances of missing elephants.
Debbie further emphasises the importance of highly experienced observers – “Our regular observers, Ngoni Chitemamuswe and Fungai Muroki, have counted elephants and other wildlife on aerial surveys since the 1990s and have worked with us in Namibia, Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Finding such experienced, reliable observers can be difficult for those doing aerial surveys for the first time in other countries.”
Biologists and conservation managers are rarely able to count all of the animals in their area of interest with 100% accuracy, so the more realistic option is to count the animals in a sample of the area and use statistical methods to estimate population size for the whole area. These estimates also give us an idea of how precise they are, which is expressed as our “confidence” in the estimate. In simplified terms, an estimate of 20,000 ± 4,000, for example, tells us that we are 95% confident that the actual number lies between 16,000 and 24,000.
Even with all the detailed planning, experience and analyses in the world, one aerial survey is not particularly useful on its own. Scientific wildlife monitoring of all kinds (by road, air, or even remotely using camera traps) only becomes useful when surveys are repeated many times using the same or very similar methods. While trying to get extremely precise numbers of elephants ranging over huge areas in northern Namibia is nearly impossible, repeat surveys can be used to show a trend over time. Trends are especially important in conservation because they tell us if the population is healthy and growing, or under severe threat and declining.
Namibia’s Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism (MEFT) has conducted aerial transect surveys since 1979. The earliest surveys, however, were not as refined as they are today and important variables (e.g. height above ground level) were not kept constant. Colin Craig has been involved in standardising aerial surveys in Namibia since 1994, having learned these survey techniques while working for Zimbabwe National Parks (the techniques were originally developed in East Africa). “Although our equipment has improved and we have refined our survey design over the years,” he points out, “the surveys done in Etosha and the northeastern parts using the same methods since 1994 are all comparable. The MEFT, therefore, has a fairly good handle on the trends in elephant numbers over time for each of the major subpopulations in the country.”
Aerial survey techniques have thus been developed and refined specifically for counting elephants in Africa’s savannahs over several decades by many different scientists (it is far more difficult to count their forest cousins, which are now Critically Endangered[2]). Colin compiled the best practices generated from scientists’ accumulated experience in 2012[3] for the IUCN’s Monitoring of the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) project. The Great Elephant Census (GEC)[4] in 2014-15 used these techniques for the first standardised survey of elephants completed in multiple African nations at the same time[5].
Namibia and the Great Elephant Census (GEC)
This is where the story of counting elephants in Namibia becomes strangely controversial. Thinking that Namibia’s official estimates are too good to be true, some commentators have guessed that the number of elephants in the country is much lower than official estimates (e.g. “probably closer to 5,600[6]” – less than a quarter of the official estimate). These guesses are often accompanied with the accusation that Namibia refused to take part in the GEC because they wanted to inflate the elephant numbers for nefarious reasons[7].
In reality, Namibia’s aerial surveys were done at the same time as the GEC in other countries (in both 2014 and 2015) and were coordinated with the GEC’s Botswana survey of 2014 and Zambian survey of 2015. Most of the surveys in Namibia and the 18 countries that were part of the GEC were done using the transect sample method described here (sometimes local conditions favour other methods). Not only were the data collected the same way, but all of this information was sent to the centralised African Elephant Database[8] managed by the IUCN’s African Elephant Specialist Group[9]. A team of independent experts from this Specialist Group reviewed all of the results (including Namibia’s) and collated them for the 2016 African Elephant Status Report (publicly available here,[10] pp. 169-174 covers Namibia).
Since there is a huge variation among African countries in terms of the resources they devote to monitoring and conserving wildlife, the Status Report includes an objective assessment of the quality of the data produced and the status of elephants in each country. Having trawled through the raw data and examined the methods used by aerial survey teams through the years, the expert review panel concluded that for southern Africa: “There is reliable information available for Botswana, Namibia, Swaziland, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe.” And further: “In Namibia the elephant population has increased, notably in the north-east Kavango and Zambezi Regions.” The actual estimate given for the Namibian population in this 2016 report was 22,754 ± 4,305.
Considering the above, why was Namibia not included in the GEC’s results, which were published separately from the Status Report? Kenneth /Uiseb, Deputy Director of Wildlife, Monitoring and Research at the MEFT, shed some light on this matter. “Vulcan Inc. [established by Microsoft billionaire Paul Allen] funded the GEC[11] aerial surveys in the other countries on condition that their raw data would be provided to the GEC team for analysis.” He explains further, “but we had our own budget within the MEFT for the 2014-15 surveys, and we trusted our usual team of surveyors to maintain high standards for collecting the data and doing the analyses.”
For many countries that do not have the resources to fund their own surveys, Vulcan’s support was gratefully received and the conditions were accepted. Yet as Mr /Uiseb indicates: “We had no need for external funding and consequently saw no reason to send our raw data to the GEC team for analyses that we could do ourselves. As a member of the IUCN, however, we willingly contributed our data to the African Elephant Database.” Interestingly, the Database itself received support from Vulcan at the time that the 2016 Status Report was published.
The latest elephant numbers and trends
The MEFT commissioned Colin and Debbie to do another aerial survey in the northeastern part of the country in 2019 to update the information on the elephant population in this crucial area. They also completed a survey in the northwest during 2016[12] to update the numbers for this relatively small but important elephant population. Elephant numbers for Etosha National Park are still based on a 2015 survey (published in the Status Report), but long-term trends reveal that this is the slowest-growing population in the country.
The 2019 survey produced two reports covering the western and eastern sections of the northeast, respectively. The western section[13] covers Khaudum National Park, nearly all of Nyae Nyae Conservancy and some parts of other neighbouring communal conservancies (hereafter referred to as the Khaudum survey). The eastern section[14] covers the entire Zambezi Region, including the Bwabwata, Mudumu and Nkasa Rupara National Parks, the State Forest and 15 communal conservancies (hereafter the Zambezi survey).
The 2019 estimate for the Khaudum survey was 7,999 ± 3,028 and the estimate for Zambezi was 12,008 ± 2,598. The 2015 estimate from Etosha was 2,911 ± 697, while the 2016 northwest estimate was 1,173 ± 681. If we assume that elephant numbers have not changed in these latter populations between 2015 and 2019 (it is more likely that they have grown slightly), we can conservatively estimate the whole Namibian elephant population at 24,091 ± 4,107 in 2019. The claims that there are only 5,600 elephants in the whole country are easily debunked from the observers’ datasheets produced during these surveys. If one includes elephant sightings both “in” and “out” of the sample area, the observers actually saw 10,051 elephants in just a fraction of the total area for which the national estimate was generated.
Since the survey methods were standardised in 1994, the Khaudum survey has been completed six times, Etosha seven times and Zambezi nine times using the transect sample counts described here. Repeat surveys are the gold standard for wildlife monitoring and provide the all-important population trends, which tell us how successful (or not) local conservation efforts have been.
Counting elephants in the northwest is far more challenging than in the northeast, as there are relatively few elephants in a huge area and the mountainous terrain makes flying at a set level above the ground all but impossible. Consequently, counting methods have changed much more in this region than the others, as scientists are still refining their methods to balance cost-effectiveness with accuracy. The most recent count in 2016 employed three different methods that were allocated to different parts of the region based on the ruggedness of the terrain and knowledge of the elephant population. Even though this is the best count thus far for the northwest, it is still the least precise estimate of all the subpopulations. This population makes up only about 4% of Namibia’s elephants, however, so the lack of precision here has little influence on the national total.
Aerial surveys were completed in the four key elephant areas in 1995, 1998, 2004-05, 2011 and 2015-16, thus providing nationwide estimates for each of these points in time. When these estimates are plotted on a graph, we find that the overall trend for the Namibian elephant population during 1995-2016 is increasing. The slope of the trendline that runs through the estimates is then used to calculate an annual growth rate of 5.36%. This is biologically realistic, as elephant population growth rates can be as high as 7% under ideal conditions[15] that are rarely met by free-ranging elephants.
Under-counting elephants and transboundary movements
The national elephant estimate of about 24,000 was calculated only for those populations that have been surveyed repeatedly from the air and is therefore likely to be an underestimate. Mr /Uiseb clarifies: “Based on farmer reports[16] to us of conflict with elephants, we know that elephants are expanding their range in Namibia; they are moving into areas that have not been regularly surveyed. National population numbers also exclude elephants in private game reserves.”
Another concern that is frequently voiced is that elephants in the eastern Zambezi Region move freely between Botswana and Namibia. We therefore cannot be certain if the growth recorded for this large population is due to births or immigration, or an unknown combination of the two. Nonetheless, the aerial surveys are always done in the late dry season (September/October), which tells us that the part of the elephant population that usually spends the dry season in Namibia is increasing. Doing surveys in different seasons would only show short-term elephant movements and tell us little or nothing about long-term population health (reduced visibility in the wet season would also introduce counting errors).
Under high poaching pressure, one would expect the elephants to spend less time in Namibia and those that do come over would experience high levels of mortality, which would together result in decreasing numbers. In terms of Namibian elephant conservation efforts, which are especially focused on reducing poaching in this part of the country, the increasing elephant population is good news. This is confirmed by recent poaching statistics, which show that only 11 elephants were killed illegally in 2020[17], down from a high of 78 in 2014.
Since conservation policies differ from one country to another, it is important to find out how elephants are faring in each country that contributes to the Kavango-Zambezi (KAZA) Trans-frontier Conservation Area. Nevertheless, a multi-country aerial survey of elephants in KAZA with several experienced survey teams flying simultaneously in their respective countries is high on every elephant conservationist’s wish list.
Conclusion
Elephants are highly valued within African cultures and economies, perform irreplaceable ecological functions, and are loved and revered around the world. Monitoring them to inform conservation action is therefore a weighty responsibility that the Namibian government takes extremely seriously. This is why they commission professional teams of dedicated people who plan meticulously, search carefully for thousands of hours from cramped little aircraft, and finally analyse and report their results with careful attention to detail. This work is an important contribution to our knowledge of elephants, and Namibia’s successful conservation efforts for this endangered species are an example for the rest of the world.
The forests of West and Central Africa are vibrant, impenetrable worlds of their own: breathing ecosystems bursting with life at every turn yet defined by a pervasive sense of mystery. Enfolded by towering trunks, creeping vines and lush ferns, the forests’ enigmatic creatures flutter through the canopies and wander ancient paths in an increasingly dangerous world at the mercy of human impact. Their largest residents, African forest elephants, are close to the brink of disappearing entirely.
As of March 2021, the forest elephant is officially listed as ‘Critically Endangered’ by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
The world’s smallest elephant is elusive and poorly understood while centuries of persecution have made them understandably mistrustful of humans. Our belated recognition of their species status and desperate plight has left scientists and conservationists scrabbling in a race against time to learn more about these grey forest ghosts.
Quick introduction
The African forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis) is one of two African elephant species, mainly confined to West and Central Africa’s forests from Cameroon to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Roughly 72% of the remaining populations are found in Gabon and the Republic of the Congo. Forest elephants are smaller than their savanna cousins (Loxodonta africana – also referred to as the African bush elephant) cousins. Forest bulls rarely exceed three metres at the shoulder and seldom weigh more than three tonnes. (This compared to a big savanna elephant which may reach close to four metres and weigh over six tonnes.)
Forest elephants consume an enormous variety of plants and are recognised as essential seed-dispersers in forest ecosystems. Scientists have labelled them “megagardeners” of the forests. Their movements seem to be guided by the ripening of fruits, which occurs at different times in different parts of the forest. They seek out minerals to supplement their diets and are attracted in large numbers to the salty waters of the forest baïs. As a result, much of what we know about forest elephant behaviour comes from observations at these large forest clearings.
For now, our understanding of forest elephants is primarily extrapolated from the extensive behavioural research of savanna elephants, though scientists are now more focused on learning about forest elephant peculiarities. By all accounts, their social structure is similar to that of savanna elephants, with the females living in small family herds, which display “fission-fusion” patterns of behaviour. (That is, they are not territorial and will form temporary associations with other herds or individuals for a while.)
The differences (a summary)
The ears of forest elephants are more oval than those of the savanna variety (hence the specific name cyclotis). The tusks are most distinctive, however, growing relatively straight and usually pointing straight down rather than out. The differences are subtle to the inexpert eye and manifest more as a sense of “something different” when images of the two species are viewed side-by-side. A quick way to distinguish between the two is to count the number of toenails: forest elephants have five on their front feet and four on the hind feet, while savanna elephants only have four on the front feet (occasionally five) and three on the back foot. This method is, of course, contingent on being able to see the feet.
One central behavioural and physiological difference is the breeding age and breeding rate. Savanna elephants usually start breeding at around 12 years old and, under optimum conditions, will have a calf roughly every 3-4 years. In contrast, forest elephants only have their first calves at an average age of 23 and have a birthing interval of up to six years. The estimated population doubling time is roughly triple that of savanna elephants. This intensely slow population growth rate means that it would take approximately a century to recover to their pre-2002 numbers (without continued human impact).
Disappearing ghosts
This is a distressing thought, given our current understanding of how forest elephant numbers have declined over the last few decades. There are, at present, no reliable estimates of the overall number of forest elephants throughout their range. Researchers believe that their numbers have crashed by over 86% in the past 31 years. One study revealed that populations had declined by 62% in just nine years, between 2002 and 2011. Before then, centuries of massacres to supply the ivory trade would have resulted in the demise of untold numbers.
In recent years, much of the damage has been caused by a significant rise in poaching, often fuelled by civil unrest in certain countries. According to the IUCN, this remains the single greatest threat to forest elephants. Naturally, most of the poaching is motivated by the ivory trade, and there is a preference in specific markets for forest elephant ivory due to its higher density than that of savanna elephants. In addition, the bushmeat trade likely includes sizeable volumes of elephant meat.
Habitat loss has also been labelled a “silent killer” of forest elephants. The direct loss and fragmentation of their remaining habitats to agriculture, roads and fences are projected to increase in the coming years. Recent research also indicates that climate change may be having unforeseen effects on the physical health of the elephants.
Considering precipitous population declines and irreversible habitat loss, the IUCN’s first official assessment of African forest elephants concluded that they are now critically endangered. (The IUCN also announced the change in the savanna elephant’s conservation status from vulnerable to endangered.)
The third elephant
Given their precarious position, it seems almost bizarre that IUCN recognition of the forest elephant’s status as a separate species took so long. Especially given that genetic scientists had reached that conclusion as early as 2001. Not only are there two different species of African elephant, say recent studies, but they likely diverged between two and five million years ago (depending on the study). This would have occurred around the same time as Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and woolly mammoths began to diverge. Some researchers argue that the two elephant species may be further removed from each other than lions and tigers and that the split goes back as far as the divergence of humans and chimpanzees.
However, the idea that the forest elephant is not a subspecies of the savanna elephant was far from universally accepted or straightforward, not least because there are known hybrids. Tracing any animal’s evolutionary process through existing genetics is no small task. Hybridisation and gene flow between diverging species are common complications. (Classifications of the African golden wolf and domestic cats/wild cats have faced similar challenges). The matter was finally concluded through a series of genetic studies over the last decade and a decisive report on the limited extent of hybridisation.
The elephant in the room
So, what practical impact, if any, does the forest elephant’s new-found IUCN status have? Especially given that most ground-level research and conservation efforts were essentially treating this fact as a given already? The short-term answer is probably that little will change, apart from temporarily catapulting forest elephants onto media pages across the globe. It also begs the question of how many smaller, less iconic species we lose before they are even recognised as separate species.
However, far from being irrelevant, the forest elephant classification is one of the most high-profile examples of how science, international law, and politics all play a role in the conservation of a species. The classification should allow for more nuanced conservation policies, particularly at an international level, and a complete estimate of remaining population numbers is also likely to be forthcoming. Moreover, it changes how savanna elephant populations are measured since forest elephants were included in past counts and probably accounted for around a quarter of previous estimates.
Given that the IUCN informs CITES’ decision-making (which governs international trade in animals), a distinction between the two species should see increased restrictions to make it harder to launder illegal ivory on the legal market.
Hope for the future?
Most importantly, conservationists hope that this new classification will aid in efforts to protect African forest elephants – long overdue though it may be. It is a frightening thought that upon the official recognition of a new elephant species in 2021, it was immediately classified as critically endangered.
Fortunately, there are protected areas where forest elephant populations are stable, if not growing. Though our acknowledgement of their predicament has probably come too late to ever rectify the damage entirely, perhaps their new ‘Critically Endangered’ label will serve to galvanise the international community into action. These magnificent and unique elephants have paid the price for human greed and conflict, and their value has been undermined by the grindingly slow bureaucracy of international conservation politics. If nothing else, this should serve as a very steep learning curve for the future.
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I spent much of last week with a talented and wacky group of photographers in the Greater Kruger area. Our 2020 Photographer of the Year WINNERS and their plus-ones finally got to enjoy the Covid-delayed safari prize – with my soulmate and me along for the ride. Watching them work their cameras was an education in itself, and the fantastic wildlife encounters and fun-filled moments made for an epic safari :-). More later, when we publish a portfolio of their awesome images.
Our video below is really worth watching – is this plan to mine the Okavango region just another hyped-up ‘pump-and-dump’ investor SCAM? Time will tell. Another issue to watch is the threat to open-cast mine the scenically stunning and sensitive Selati Game Reserve. Read this and weep.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
The biological travesty that is the Lion King (yes, I know it’s a good story) has created a world of pain for safari guides. Before actual animal behaviour can be discussed, the hapless guide must dissuade his guests of notions like East African dwelling suricates and birds that clean crocodile’s teeth. Let’s not start on the implications of incest that came with Nala and Simba’s nuptials. Possibly the most bizarre addition to the film was Rafiki – a mandrill who had apparently defied science in innumerable ways by coming out of the forests of Gabon to preside over the spiritual well-being of an East African lion pride and its subjects. In our first story below, we set the record straight regarding the fascinating mandrill – a primate who has achieved rudimentary tool use but not discernable contact with the spirit world.
The second story below is not quite so cheerful. It is an op-ed on the Botswanan government’s recent decision to grant 287 licenses to hunt elephants. Part of the reasoning is to mitigate human-elephant conflict, which does not seem logical. We’d be interested to know what you think.
Finally, as the week draws to a close, your escape into the wilderness (albeit digitally) in the 13th week of our Photographer of the Year. Sit back, turn on some tunes and enjoy a brief respite from work – also let it inspire your next trip to the wild! There are only two months left to win that 10 000 USD and luxury safari to Botswana. Here’s how to enter.
Story 1 https://africageographic.com/stories/mandrill/
MAKEUP MONKEY
The mandrill is a colourful, tool-using, socially complex monkey that lives in groups called hordes in the forests of western Central Africa
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
One relatively inauspicious day in May 2005, the alpha male mandrill at the “Monkey Islands” exhibit in the Chester Zoo in England stunned the researchers who had been filming his movements for a behavioural study. JC, a 12-year-old Czech-native (or at least, born at Usti Zoo in the Czech Republic), was observed breaking twigs, bark, sticks and wood chips and then using the splinters to clean his toenails. Unbeknownst to him, his primate pedicure was to make headlines the world over: JC had just demonstrated the necessary cognitive ability to create and manipulate a tool for a specific purpose.
Thus, the mandrill joined the elite ranks of non-human primates known to use tools alongside chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, and a couple of other monkey species. JC’s pursuit of good hygiene proved that the world’s largest monkey species is more than just a pretty face (in a somewhat flamboyant outfit).
Introduction
The mandrill (Mandrillus sphinx) is a large, almost tailless monkey confined to the tropical rainforests of southern Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, and the Republic of the Congo. Their morphology is superficially similar to that of baboons, so both mandrill and drills (Mandrillus leucophaeus) were once considered to be part of the Papio genus. They have since been reclassified as the only two species belonging to the Mandrillus genus, and researchers have confirmed that they are more closely related to the much smaller mangabey species.
Chacma baboons and mandrills are similar in size – the chacma baboon is fractionally taller and longer, but mandrills are heavier, more compact, and muscular. Mandrills display considerable sexual dimorphism, with the males being almost triple the mass of the females. The ferocious-looking males weigh an average of 32.3kg, with some massive individuals recorded at over 54kg. Like baboons, the mature males sport enormous canines of around 6cm (longer than those of a leopard). These they use to intimidate aspiring rivals and deter potential predators.
Mandrills are omnivorous and feed on over a hundred different plant species, with a particular preference for fruits where available. They also consume various invertebrates, eggs, birds, and reptiles and are known to hunt small antelope and rodents. They spend most of their days foraging on the ground but are equally comfortable in forest canopies, leaping from tree to tree with an agility that defies their considerable bulk.
Multicoloured monkeys
Not only are the males larger than the females, but they are also more lavishly adorned in a spectrum of vivid colours. A strip of crimson runs down the middle of their elongated muzzles and extends over their lips, flanked by a pair of electric blue ridges. A bright yellow goatee spreads down across their chests and up over their shoulders as they mature, blending with tufts of white into an impressive mane. One would think that this alone would be sufficiently eye-catching, but both ends of the male mandrill are equally flashy. Their rainbow rumps are coloured red, pink, blue and purple in what has to be one of the least subtle examples of sexual signalling in the animal kingdom.
Such gaudy displays of colour, while prevalent in many bird species, are uncommon in mammals. Primates are one exception to this rule, and many different monkey species have colourful genitals. However, the mandrills’ colouration is so over-the-top that even Charles Darwin noted that “no other member in the whole class of mammals is coloured in so extraordinary a manner.”
A male mandrill’s ensemble is directly related to his testosterone levels and dominance within a strict social hierarchy. If a male successfully challenges an alpha, his testosterone levels will rise, and the red colours will become more vibrant. His genitals will increase in size, and a gland on the sternum will secrete an odour designed to tempt females. These dominate males are known as “fatted” males. Conversely, a fall from grace will mean the opposite for an unfortunate male as he gradually becomes “nonfatted” once again.
Scintillating sociability
One theory behind the males’ excessive colouration is that it evolved to compensate for exceptionally high competition between males – essentially a method of conflict avoidance in the gloomy rainforest habitat. A group of mandrills is referred to as a ‘horde’ – a large and stable troop consisting of females, offspring, and young males. Research from Lopé National Park in Gabon calculated an average horde size of 620 individuals, with some hordes numbering up to 845 mandrills. One group of researchers counted 1,300 mandrills in one group, making it the single largest non-human primate aggregation ever recorded.
Mandrills are usually found in challenging habitats for bipedal researchers. This, combined with their natural shyness, has made it difficult for scientists to observe mandrill behaviour in the wild consistently. As a result, surprisingly little is known about their social structure. Most monkey troops demonstrate a strict social hierarchy, even between females. Fascinatingly, mandrill experts have yet to discern a consistent pattern of leadership, though it is clear that they have dynamic social networks and that certain females are central to the cohesion of the horde.
The females remain in their natal groups throughout their lives, while the males disperse once they reach maturity at around six years of age. Rather than forming bachelor groups, the males tend to live somewhat solitary lives outside of the breeding season. From June to October, when the females are in oestrus, the males join the hordes and follow their own strict, linear hierarchy. DNA analysis of one horde indicated that the alpha males of hordes had sired 80-100% of the offspring over five years. Disputes between males are usually resolved through posturing and threat displays, but the rare fights between equally matched males are brutal and, occasionally, fatal.
As with other monkey species, grooming plays a vital role in reinforcing the bonds between horde members and winning favours from the alpha males. Both males and females are highly vocal, expressing themselves through various sounds from mighty roars to expressive grunts and screams. Naturally, the bright colouration also serves to emphasise body language cues and facial expressions. The famed “silent bared-teeth face” is just one of their many varied communication methods, with most researchers agreeing that despite appearances, this is not an aggressive body language cue.
Protected primates?
In the wild, leopards are the mandrill’s main predator, though the likelihood of predation decreases as individuals mature. A large male mandrill is more than a match for most leopards, and males exposed to models of leopards were observed to pace back and forth, baring their impressive teeth in a threat display. Birds of prey, notably crowned eagles, and snakes also pose a threat to incautious youngsters. Interestingly, when presented with a potential threat, these otherwise noisy primates seem to follow a silent cue and noiselessly melt away into the forest canopy.
Despite limited natural predators, the mandrills are listed as ‘Vulnerable’ on the IUCN Red List. While there are no current population estimates available, researchers believed that their numbers might have decreased by more than 30% over the past 24 years. This is partly due to wide-scale habitat destruction across most of their natural range but has been compounded by the more immediate threat of subsistence hunting. Mandrills, particularly large males, are a prime target in the bushmeat trade. They are a long-lived species (with a lifespan of over 30 years in captivity) and are slow to mature, so sustained hunting pressure has had a pronounced effect on their populations.
For the same reasons, the mandrill’s close cousin, the drill, is under even more pressure, and they are now one of the most threatened of all mainland Africa’s primate species. There are believed to be fewer than 4,000 left, scattered in fragmented populations in Nigeria, Cameroon, and Equatorial Guinea. Even though the mandrills and drills are listed under Appendix I of CITES and protected by national legislation across their range, these spectacular monkeys face an uncertain future.
Like gorillas, the mandrill’s best hope of survival lies in their tourism value. Fortunately, the largest populations of mandrills are still flourishing in Gabon’s protected forests. At present, there is only one habituated horde of wild mandrills in southern Gabon. There are plans in place to collar and habituate more hordes as part of a larger move towards improving ecotourism opportunities in Gabon. These last remaining sanctuaries offer eager tourists the best opportunities to meet with one of Africa’s most intelligent, colourful, and fascinating monkeys.
Conclusion
We still have much to learn about mandrills, and unravelling the complexities of their social lives promises to be a fascinating process. As intelligent primates living in enormous social groups, their individual relationships, kin bonds, and hierarchies must be dynamic and complicated. As JC and his clean(ish) toenails demonstrated, mandrills still have the capacity to surprise us and probably will for a long time to come.
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What’s in a name? Whenever we refer to ‘painted wolf’ in our stories for what many refer to as ‘wild dog’, we come under heavy artillery fire from a few members of our tribe – even experienced safari-goers and bushveld citizens. Of course, strictly speaking, Lycaon pictus is neither dog nor wolf. Our choice of ‘painted wolf’ is because the name itself is beautiful and conjures up a positive image – whereas for many people, ‘wild dog’ symbolises feral domestic dogs that rummage through city garbage dumps. Read more about this fascinating topic here.
However you refer to these totally fascinating creatures is up to you – so long as you respect them for what they are – apex predators.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
In our first story below, some science (albeit from a small sample) shows that relocating cats that come into conflict with human beings is not particularly successful. That said, you’ll be able to find studies that show relocations can be successful. The results are not necessarily conflicting but show how important it is to understand the myriad, nuanced factors that apply to each situation.
Our second story below delves into the fascinating lives of Africa’s 11 species most closely related to man’s best friend. Interestingly, no African canid has ever been domesticated. No doubt that there are some cretinous individuals who’d love to have a fennec fox peeping out of their handbags or a painted wolf jogging with them on the beach. Let’s all make sure that Africa’s wild canids remain just that – wild, forever.
This week’s gallery showcasing the 12th week of our Photographer of the Year is a delight for the senses. It’s a perfect way for those who dream of wild places to escape their urban domesticity for a little while. One of the ways to take yourself into the wilderness is to enter – you could win 10 000 USD and a six-day safari to Khwai in Botswana. Here’s how to take part.
Botswana has granted permission for 287 elephants to be hunted as it gears up for its first trophy elephant hunting season since the ban was controversially lifted two years ago.
With Covid-19 restrictions disrupting last year’s hunting season, 187 existing elephant licences have been tagged onto this year’s 100 licences. The licences were auctioned for up to US$43,000 each.
A variety of other species are also allowed to be shot between April and September, including leopard.
In the face of a global outcry, president Mokgweetsi Masisi reopened trophy hunting in 2019 after former Botswanan president, Ian Khama, banned it in 2014 to conserve the country’s wildlife. Masisi’s government cites that the sport provides a solution to growing human-elephant conflict and provides income for local communities.
“Human-driven habitat loss is fast becoming the ‘silent killer’, almost as big a threat as poaching is to elephants,” says Adrienne West of Political Animal Lobby (PAL). “We are losing Africa’s elephants at a rapid rate, and it is outrageous that one of their most important range states would choose to put their lives up for sale.”
Conservationists and ecological experts dispute hunting as an effective measure against human-wildlife conflict.
“Shooting these elephants will do nothing to reduce the incidence of crop-raiding in farming areas, as most of the killing would take place in trophy hunting blocks that are some distance away,” says Dr Keith Lindsay of the Amboseli Trust for Elephants.
“In fact, shooting elephants could increase tensions between farmers and elephants – they can communicate over many kilometres, and when elephants are killed in one area, the alarm and disturbance would be felt some distance away.”
Elephants are a keystone species, and scientists say there is no ecological reason to reduce their numbers by killing them as they play an important role in ecosystem health and diversity.
Over the past decade, Africa has lost more than 30% of its elephants to ongoing ivory poaching, which is having devasting effects on populations across the continent.
Figures on the CITES international trade database reveal that Botswana’s trophy hunting ban of seven years saved more than 2,000 elephants and 140 leopards from being shot.
Botswana holds the world’s largest population of approximately 130 000 elephants, which share transboundary migrations routes with neighbouring countries, including Namibia and Zimbabwe. During the hunting ban, reports of increased numbers in Botswana suggested that migrating elephants sought refuge in the safety of the then hunt-free country.
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
Over four years, Kalahari Research and Conservation has monitored the fates of 13 lions known to have killed livestock in rural Botswana. The lions were translocated into protected areas by the Botswana Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) as part of a management strategy to reduce human-lion conflict. A short communication recently published in the African Journal of Wildlife Research analyses the success of this approach: of the 13 lions, ten died less than a year after release. This research adds to a growing body of evidence that suggests translocating lions does not often reduce conflict and the relocation of “problem” animals is not always a practical solution.
Human-wildlife conflict is undeniably one of the greatest threats facing the remaining wildlife across the planet, particularly in Africa. It is an intensely complicated issue, and conservationists and philanthropic organisations alike are eternally searching for ways to mitigate the collision between potentially dangerous animals and the people who live on the fringes of protected areas. One such potential solution is the relocation of the escaped wild animal to a place where it is less likely to come into contact with people or livestock. Unfortunately, while this may seem an ideal answer, such efforts seem to have limited success.
DWNP captured 13 lions from areas around the Central Kalahari Game Reserve and the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. Both parks are surrounded by Wildlife Management Areas and community lands used for livestock grazing. Before their release into new areas (120km or more from the original point of capture), researchers fitted the lions with satellite telemetry collars to monitor their movements.
Of the 13 lions, ten had died an average of 275 days after release. Six of these died outside of the protected areas, five killed by farmers. The cause of death of the other five was not established. The collars initially provided four locations per day, but scientists increased this to 13 in situations where the lion showed signs of returning to livestock areas. Six of the translocated lions continued to kill livestock and were recaptured and released back into the protected areas. One lion required a third translocation.
A more thorough analysis of the lions’ movements and activities after their release suggests that targeting groups of adult females could potentially yield higher success rates for translocating lions. However, this could prove problematic in practice and relocating only some pride members may reduce the chances of survival for both the translocated lionesses and those that remain behind. Furthermore, the soft release of predators (that is, the translocated animals are kept in an enclosure for a period of adjustment before release) could also increase the chances of success.
The researchers conclude that their results are in line with similar studies involving the relocation of “problem” animals such as lions, leopards, and cheetahs, mainly where the animals concerned are repeat livestock raiders. These translocations are associated with a high mortality rate and also come with high financial costs. Previous studies involving the relocation of cheetahs indicate a cost of between $5,000 and $7,330 per cheetah translocation. Though the cost was not analysed in this instance, it is likely to be significantly higher for lion translocation, given the substantial size difference between the two cats.
In addition to high mortalities and costs, there is a shortage of suitable areas for translocating lions. Ideally, lions should be translocated to areas with sufficient prey, low lion densities and low poaching levels. Yet, most of the protected areas within Southern Africa have already reached their carrying capacity (itself a testament to the success of conservation efforts in these areas). In addition, translocating lions ideally requires adequate information about the lion demographics within the intended release site, which are not always available to researchers and managing bodies. The effects on the established territories and demographics of the resident lions and the potential spread of the disease are also potential concerns.
Based on these results, the authors argue that translocation/relocation is not an effective solution for addressing human-wildlife conflict. Instead, they suggest that limited available resources should be used to improve livestock husbandry, strengthen livestock kraals, and promote livelihoods beyond farming. Seizing a problem animal and putting it somewhere else may seem convenient and immediate, but overwhelming evidence indicates that it is simply not a practical approach.
Today, 11 African canids, from excitable African painted wolves and shrewd jackals to the tiny fox species, hunt the continent’s desert, alpine grassland, savanna and woodland.
Some 40 million years ago, the first identifiable canid (dog) species, Prohesperocyon wilsoni, arose in what is now Texas. The fossilised remains were classified as Canid partially because of the absent, upper third molars and an enlarged bulla (a hollow structure in the ear). As canids diversified across North America, evolution favoured them with several cursorial adaptations including long limbs and lightweight bodies. They were built to run from the start – a family trait that served them well and has survived in most species. When cooling climates exposed the Bering land bridge, canid ancestors raced, trotted, and slunk across to spread through Asia, Europe and eventually Africa.
African painted wolf (Lycaon pictus)
The most well-known African canid, African painted wolves (wild dogs), are the third-largest extant canid in the world and the largest in Africa. They are coursing, cooperative hunters, with lithe, athletic bodies built for speed and stamina. Their frenetic hunting style exploits panic and confusion, creating fast-paced, exhilarating sightings for those fortunate enough to encounter a pack on the move.
African painted wolves live in tight-knit packs, and there is little so heart-warming as watching pack members affectionately reaffirming their bonds. In social situations, the intimate relationships are expressed in joyful greeting ceremonies and play sessions, accompanied by an endearing array of squeaks, yips and whines. The alpha pair typically monopolises breeding, while the rest of the pack devote their attentions to feeding and caring for both the mother and her pups during the denning period.
They are the only member of the Lycaon genus and the only canid to have four toes on the front foot (they lack a dewclaw). Human persecution, habitat loss and fragmentation, and disease have all played a role in devastating African painted wolf populations. They are currently listed as “Endangered” on the IUCN Red List. Further reading: What’s in a name?
Black-backed and side-striped jackals (Canis mesomelas and Canis adustus)
It is bewildering that the average safari-goer dismisses jackals, intent rather on chasing down traditionally iconic creatures. This is unfortunate because jackals are attractive and adventurous little predators in their own right. Both species are consummate survivors with an indiscriminate palate and a boldness that belies their slender physiques. Jackals are opportunistic omnivores that can quickly and efficiently dispatch invertebrates, birds, reptiles, or even small antelope, but will also readily wolf down fallen fruit or seeds. Furthermore, any animal that dares to snatch the scraps out from beneath a hungry lion’s nose should be entitled to automatic respect.
Jackals are monogamous and territorial, though they may gather in larger numbers when there is a more substantial carcass. Grown offspring from the previous year’s litter occasionally stay and help their parents with subsequent pups – before dispersing. Interestingly, though the black-backed jackal is the smaller of the two, where black-backed and side-striped jackals do occur in the same place, the black-backed tends to dominate interactions.
African golden wolf (Canis lupaster)
The African golden wolf is notable mainly for the insights it has provided researchers of African canid evolution. Until recently, it was classified as an African variant of the golden jackal, which is widespread throughout the Middle East and Asia. Though scientists had long argued for a distinction between the two species, it was only in 2015 that a series of genetic studies revealed that the golden wolf is more closely related to grey wolves, Ethiopian wolves, and coyotes than it is to Asian golden jackals.
Slightly larger than the two jackal species, African golden wolves can catch and kill prey nearly three times their own mass. This is unusual however, and golden wolves tend to confine themselves to smaller prey species such as rodents, birds, lizards, snakes, and insects.
The wolf-like ancient Egyptian deities such as Anubis (the god of death) may have been based on African golden wolves.
Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis)
The Ethiopian wolf has the lamentable honour of being the most endangered carnivore in Africa. Fewer than 500 individuals remain, though this is an optimistic estimate. An IUCN estimate made in 2011 suggested a declining population of just 197 mature individuals.
They are endemic to the Ethiopian Highlands and found at altitudes over 3,000m above sea level, with more than half found in the Bale Mountains. The remaining five populations are isolated and fragmented; threatened by habitat degradation, conflict with humans and diseases carried by feral domestic dogs.
While most canid species are fairly generalist feeders, these beautiful, russet-coated Simien wolves are particularly adept at hunting Afroalpine rodents, especially big-headed mole-rats. The wolves wait patiently until a rodent emerges from its underground burrow before pouncing and digging frantically at the entrance. Interestingly, some wolves form temporary associations with geladas, and research indicates that their hunting efforts are more successful when they associate with these foraging troops. The wolves do not attempt to hunt the geladas, and the primates appear unconcerned by the canids’ presence.
While Ethiopian wolves tend to be solitary hunters, they live in small packs with an established hierarchy and one breeding female, who, when she dies, is usually replaced by one of her daughters.
Bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis)
These little canids are the only insectivorous canid species in the world and, despite their common name, are not true foxes (genus Vulpes). Instead, they are the only Otocyon member, set apart by their unusual dentition adapted for demolishing invertebrates. They have up to 50 teeth (most canids have around 42), with reduced shearing surfaces on the molars and unique morphological adaptations which allow for extremely rapid chewing. The majority of their prey consists of harvester termites.
Bat-eared foxes are highly social and live in mated pairs or small family groups that forage, play and rest together. Somewhat unusually, the males take on the majority of caretaking activities where the young are concerned.
They are easily identified by their enormous ears (second only to the fennec fox below), and their scientific name refers specifically to this characteristic: “mega” meaning large and “otus” meaning ear.
Cape fox (Vulpes chama)
The only true fox species in sub-Saharan Africa, the delicate Cape fox prefers semi-arid and arid habitats. In true fox fashion, they are omnivores with a taste for everything from small mammals to seeds and fruit. Though common throughout most of Southern Africa, Cape foxes are nocturnal and seldom seen except in certain reserves where they have become habituated to people.
Though they appear to form monogamous bonds, Cape foxes prefer to forage alone, and the male and female usually only associate during the breeding season. When the kits are born in underground burrows, the male will care for and defend both the mother and young for the first few weeks.
Fennec fox (Vulpes zerda)
The fennec fox is the smallest canid species on the planet, weighing less than 2kg. They are perfectly adapted for the aridity and blistering temperatures of their Sahara Desert habitat. Most noticeably, their enormous ears, proportionately the largest of any canid species in the world, help dissipate heat – not unlike the ears of an elephant. Their tiny paws are covered in dense fur to protect against extreme heat and maintain traction on the desert sands. Fennec foxes’ most astonishing achievement is the ability to pant at 690 breaths per minute (over ten breaths per second!) without the expected adverse effects of hyperventilation.
They forage for insects, reptiles, small mammals and birds at night. Plants supplement the diet and aid with hydration.
The fennec fox’s Disney-like appearance has made it a popular exotic pet, even though it is ill-suited to a domestic existence away from its natural desert habitat. Though they are highly social, little is known about the intricacies of their societies, and most behavioural observations have been gleaned from captive individuals.
Pale fox (Vulpes pallida)
Pale foxes are the least studied of all African canids, and little is known about their day-to-day lives or individual numbers. They inhabit the Sahel region of the African continent (the transition zone between the Sahara Desert and savannahs further south). They are distinguished from the Rüppell’s fox (see below) by the black tip on their tails. Just a fraction smaller than the Cape fox, pale foxes are omnivorous and predominantly nocturnal.
Rüppell’s fox (Vulpes ruepelli)
The Rüppell’s fox is confined to the continent’s northernmost reaches and is distinguished by a white-tipped tail and black markings under the eye. Like all desert-dwelling foxes, they have enormous ears, though not quite to the same degree as the fennec fox. Though the species is widely distributed, there is little available information on Rüppell’s foxes.
Red fox (Vulpes vulpes)
Typically associated with the countryside and alleys of European cities, few people realise that red foxes also occur in Africa’s northern fringes. This species is largest of the true foxes, though the southern grey desert subspecies is significantly smaller and less brightly coloured than its European counterparts. These animals are not as well adapted to truly arid areas as other desert foxes and tend to be more common around rivers and oases where there is better access to water.
Barking up the family tree
As the canid ancestors loped their way across Asia and into Africa, they faced competition from the two other hyper-carnivorous predator families: the Felidae (cats) and the Hyaenidae (hyenas). For all predators, the competitive landscape was changing as prey species evolved to run faster through increasingly open habitats. This evolutionary arms race was to shape all three families. The felids came to rely almost exclusively on stealth and ambush, while the dog-like hyenas (distinct from their bone-crunching relatives) all but disappeared (with one exception).
And the canids of Africa? They took on the various forms described above – most are lightweight and fleet of foot and all are bright-eyed, intelligent, and adaptable.
[Editorial note: Blanford’s fox (Vulpes cana) has been recorded on the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt. There is only one record of an individual collected west of the Suez Canal. While it is possible there are resident populations in the African portions of Egypt, this is unconfirmed, and we have thus omitted this animal from our list.]
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If social media is an accurate measure of how we communicate as a species, then humankind now ranks virtue-signalling above coalface reality, and we trash distinguished track-records and careers overnight if enough cloistered people feel offended.
In the African conservation context, what does this mean for Africa’s ground zero conservation workers, who don’t have the time or inclination to participate in this race to algorithmic dominance? And what about the Internet-bereft rural people who live amongst Africa’s wild animals and carry the cost of doing so – are they considered by the machine to be irrelevant? Just asking
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
For many people, bats are not creatures that conjure emotions of warmth, joy or affection. Let’s face it, few of us have willingly cuddled a bat or expressed the desire to do so. Those that have touched one have normally done so while flapping and screaming in an undignified manner while the terrified little chiropterid tried to untangle itself from hair, mosquito net or shirt. Well, cast those irrational fears aside as you read our first story below – a story of the world’s largest mammal migration in the gorgeous Kasanka National Park of Zambia.
Fairies, strictly speaking, are not of African origin. Yes, there are many other sprite-like or magical semi-humans littering African folklore – but no fairies. So it was always unlikely that a European hobgoblin would ultimately be found responsible for the strange, vegetation-free circles that litter parts of the Namib and Kalahari deserts. Well, science has come to the rescue – not fairies but Euphorbias. Our second story below is a fascinating explanation of the strange circles.
Finally, the 11th week of Our Photographer of the Year which carries a prize of 10 000 USD and a six-day safari to Khwai in Botswana. This week’s edition has everything from tiny, sparkling spiders to endless African landscapes – best enjoyed on a large screen with inspiring music in the background. Here’s how to enter.
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
It’s the end of November, and there are at least 8 million straw-coloured fruit bats (Eidolon helvum) filling the skies at eye level as we perch in our tree-top hide. The annual Kasanka bat migration – the planet’s largest mammal migration – has arrived. It is one of the natural world’s best-kept secrets, and for years this startling sight remained virtually unseen by African travel enthusiasts. It is an animal carnival to astound the senses.
At 3:45am I emerged from my room, rubbing sleep from my eyes, coming face to face with a tiny lesser bushbaby, who stared at me, unblinking with surprise, gripping the spindly branch of a small tree overhanging the deck in front of our room. I’m not sure who was more startled. The bushbaby was simply doing what bushbabies do in the early hours of the morning. I, on the other hand, instead of being tucked up in bed, was off to see millions of fruit bats returning to roost after a night of foraging.
Between October and December each year, the bats descend into a tiny patch of evergreen swamp forest inside Kasanka National Park, northern Zambia. The African straw-coloured fruit bat is the second-largest fruit bat on the continent, can have a wingspan up to a metre, and the adults weigh up to 350g. They come to feast on the pod mahogany, musuku, mufinsa, milkwood1 and other wild fruit that appears with the first rains. Scientists are not entirely sure where these bats spend the rest of the year, though they do know that for some of them, it is somewhere deep in the rainforests of the Congo. The bats in Kasanka are at all different stages of the breeding cycle, with some mating, some in various stages of pregnancy, and some with young. It’s known from observation of individual colonies around Africa that these bats are seasonal and synchronise their breeding within the colony, so the diversity seen in Kasanka implies that they are coming from various areas.
Eidolon helvum are predominantly recorded around the edges of equatorial rainforests, but no-one knows as yet if large colonies live deep inside the rainforest. The ecological implications of 3,500 tons of flying mammals arriving over a three month period are profound. Researchers from the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behaviour, who visited in 2019, say they are yet to fully explain the sheer scale of the Kasanka bat migration. Researchers indicate that the number of bats is far greater than the sum of individuals in all known colonies within several thousand kilometres. So it would seem that Kasanka’s special significance to straw-coloured fruit bats is a question that science is not yet able to answer. Hopefully, ongoing satellite tracking research will yield further information on both their migration routes and the species as a whole. While this incredible spectacle is not typically at the top of the traditional safari traveller’s bucket list’, it is a unique experience.
We arrived at Kasanka the previous evening and almost immediately headed to one of the park’s bat hides. We held tightly to the 13m of wooden handrails that wrapped around the trunk supporting the wooden viewing platform. Thirteen metres is not really that high, but it certainly gave a spectacular perspective of the area. Three white-backed vultures perched in a nearby tree. Catching sight of them, my husband, who is not fond of heights, commented that they looked like they were waiting (in vain) for us to plunge to our deaths! A beer for him and a G&T for me restored our equilibrium. We waited and watched as the sun sank.
As the sky turned orange and lightning streaked the sky in the far distance, in a hectare of forest below, the tree silhouettes began to tremble – the bats hanging from their branches started to wake. The branches were so tightly packed with bats that some of them, unable to grasp the branches, were left clinging to their neighbours.
As dusk fell, they fluttered off in search of wild fruits, their large, leathery wings filling the air with loud rustling and heavy flapping. As the flock took to the sky, the drooping branches of the bat forest lifted back into place. The bolder bats took to the air first, followed in fits and starts by the rest of the colony. Some headed out, then, appearing to change their minds, turned back, only to try again a few minutes later. The sky was soon filled with chatter as the bats darted in and out of the trees, in a cloud-like mass resembling a giant swarm of overgrown bees.
We waited in our treetop eyrie until it was almost too dark to see the ladder down. By then, the sky was empty; the bats had vanished. The sound of thunder drew closer as we felt our way back down the ladder and, by the light of torches, made our way back to the vehicle. Fat drops of rain began to fall as we drove back to camp.
When morning came, it was only me, the bush baby and my guide Ruston, who seemed to be awake. My husband snored contentedly from under his bed covers. After hot tea and biscuits, I climbed onto the back of the vehicle, wrapped myself snugly in a blanket, and we set off for the tree hide in the bat forest. It was still dark as we walked through the forest with torches in hand, the bats fluttering and feasting in the waterberries above our heads – last-minute snacks before sunrise. As day broke, the bats returned to roost. It was like watching a film of the previous night’s action in reverse but even more breathtaking. Vivid splashes of scarlet, tangerine and gold lit the sky, silhouetting the bats like prehistoric pterodactyls as they flocked, in droves, back to the colony.
They tumbled into the trees pushing, shoving and clambering noisily over one other to find a space to sleep during the day. The area became so overcrowded that I could hear the occasional snap of a branch and then squeaks as a few fruit-bloated Eidolon helvum plummeted, ungracefully, to the ground. Finally, one by one, they settled, and silence descended over the bat forest again. We headed back to camp for breakfast.
Researchers have found that most of the females in the colony are either pregnant or nursing pups during their migration to Kasanka. The abundant fruit helps support the increased energy they require. They gorge themselves on seasonal fruit, one study finding that they eat up to twice their body weight in a night. By the time they depart Kasanka, the bats will have consumed over a billion fruits! All this provides them with the reserves needed for their long migrations across Africa. No wonder the branches strain and crack under their combined weight, and why, at the end of the bat season, the forest they leave behind looks rather dilapidated.
Even now, scientists don’t really know exactly where the participants in the Kasanka bat migration come from and where they go. At roughly 39 000ha, Kasanka is one of Zambia’s smallest national parks, yet it is home to the world’s largest mammal migration. A small park with a massive treasure.
FUN FRUIT BAT FACTS
– The Kasanka bat migration plays a leading role in the regeneration of forests. The bats’ role as pollinators and seed dispersers is significant, and their ability to travel great distances helps them maintain genetic diversity and connect plant populations across fragmented landscapes.
– According to GPS tagging studies by the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior in Germany, straw-coloured fruit bats have the furthest migration routes of all mammals, including other bats, in Africa, travelling thousands of kilometres annually – a distance unheard of in any other fruit bat species.
– Each individual of this species has its own unique scent and call. This allows mothers to find their young in large colonies of millions
– Research by the Kasanka Trust has found that the bats fly on average 50 km from their roost every night to feed in the surrounding forests, covering an area of more than 500,000 hectares!
WHEN TO GO
The bats start arriving in Zambia’s Kasanka National Park towards the end of October. Their numbers steadily increase over the next few weeks. Mid-October to mid-December is the best time for the bats. By the end of December / beginning of January, the forest is bat free.
It’s not just the bats you will see at this time of the year. The rains bring green grass, bright flowers and plenty of migratory birds. Although Kasanka isn’t a place for the ‘Big Five’, you are almost guaranteed to see the rare and special sitatunga.
WHERE TO STAY
Wasa Lodge, located on the shores of a lovely lake, is the closest lodge accommodation for the Kasanka bat migration. There is also a seasonal fly camp, Kapabi, which is well situated. Kasanka also has several self-catering campsites.
Want to see the Kasanka bat migration? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
Across the deserts of Namibia and the Northern Cape in South Africa, certain areas are dotted with barren sand patches where nothing seems to grow. These peculiar ‘fairy circles’ have captured the imaginations of scientists and tourists with everything, from termites to UFOs, being mooted as potential causes. A new study from the University of Pretoria, South Africa and ITMO University in Russia indicates that dead Euphorbia plants are the culprits for the famous circles. Or, more accurately, the long-term effects of these toxic succulents on soil properties and chemistry.
The multidisciplinary study began six years ago with researchers investigating the impact of Euphorbia species on the circles’ soil properties. They examined the effects on soil chemistry, germination inhibition and antimicrobial activity on rhizosphere bacteria (which many plants need to ‘fix’ nitrogen in a usable form). The researchers then compared the spatial patterns of the fairy circles with the current growth patterns of Euphorbia species, including E. damarana, E. gummifera and even E. gregaria. All of these roundish succulents contain a highly poisonous, latex-like sap.
The scientists propose that the Euphorbia species colonised the sandy soils when climatic conditions were more favourable. Research indicates that Namibia has experienced periods of significant temperature increase over the past few centuries. In the last three decades, temperatures have increased roughly three times more than the global mean. These high temperatures and increasingly arid conditions would have seen the Euphorbias competing for access to water and nutrients, particularly in soils with a low water-holding capacity. As a result, many would have died.
However, the researchers theorise that while the plants may have died off, their legacies remained deep within the soils. As the dead plants decomposed, the sticky, toxic latex would have soaked into the soils and changed its chemical properties, making it more hydrophobic (repelling water). Other compounds capable of inhibiting plant growth and microbial activity would have entered the soil, trapped around soil particles as the latex solidified. This is an example of allelopathy – where organisms produce biochemicals that inhibit the growth of other organisms.
Their theory was supported by soil analysis which revealed that soil from the fairy circles and soil taken from beneath decomposing Euphorbia plants had very similar phytochemistry (chemicals produced by plants.)
The idea that dead Euphorbias may be behind the formation of the ‘fairy circles’ has been around since the 1970s, when botanists observed the co-occurrence of the plants and fairy circles. Researchers marked dead and decaying E. damarana plants in 1978, and these circles were not covered by grasses when rechecked in 2016. By integrating rainfall, altitude and landcover into a sophisticated suitability model, the researchers in this study were also able to predict where fairy circles would be expected to occur. This model largely overlapped with the distribution of the three Euphorbia species and also resulted in the discovery of more fairy circles in the South African section of the Kalahari Desert.
However, this ‘fairy circle’ explanation has proved contentious, and there are still several scientific theories as to their origins. Sand termites (Psammotermes allocerus) were previously shown to be present in 100% of newly formed fairy circles, leading researchers to theorise that they were responsible. A recent research paper proposed that the circles are natural vegetation patterns that arose due to competition between different grass species.
For a hypothesis on the cause and maintenance of one of nature’s most mysterious phenomena to be accepted, it would have to explain all of the most important properties of the ‘fairy circles’ themselves. These include the mostly circular shape, their unusually high densities, their size and their changing diameter at different latitudes. The new study proposes an explanation of all of these characteristics, particularly given the almost circular shapes of the Euphorbia species.
If this hypothesis is correct, it also means that there is an astounding historical ‘footprint’ of hundreds of thousands of succulent Euphorbias, stretching from Angola in the north to South Africa in the south. It also explains the life-expectancy of the ‘fairy circles’ themselves. As rainfall gradually washes away the hardened latex from the soil particles, the toxins break down and allow for the natural plant succession process.
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In this instance, I will leave most of the talking to my phenomenally capable colleague James. Just this: today some 20,075 sunrises ago, my mother gave birth to me. I don’t celebrate human dates, but I do worship the ground that my mom walks on. Peace out.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
I would suggest that before you delve into the meat of our main stories, you pour a cup of tea/ coffee/ malt whisky, don a pair of headphones and push play on our video of the week (scroll down). It’s an inspirational tribute to Namibia by some tremendously talented Namibians and will kindle your wanderlust for wilderness.
Our first story below is not quite as inspirational as the video. The Okavango has lost all its rhino in the past, and it looks like the ignominy of another local extinction is on the cards if the government doesn’t acknowledge the upsurge in poaching.
For our second story below, you might want to pour your second tea/ coffee/ malt whisky before marvelling at the magic of Laikipia – a spectacularly beautiful collection of conservancies in central Kenya. It must be one of the most progressive attempts to incorporate the needs of human beings and wildlife in one protected space; a mosaic of commercial farms, rangelands and wildlife conservancies with huge biodiversity and endless choices for travellers of every bent.
In our third story below, some extremely dedicated souls from Elephants Alive have developed a coding system for identifying individual elephants based on their ages, tusks and ear features. The system has some hugely important applications for elephant monitoring and management.
Finally, the tenth week of Our Photographer of the Year carries a prize of 10 000 USD and a six-day safari to Khwai in Botswana. It’s an eclectic collection of Africa’s exuberant life from desert to ocean. Here’s how to enter. If you’ve captured an image that makes you smile or ponder, send it in – it might just do the same for everyone else!
Story 2 https://africageographic.com/stories/laikipia/
SAFARI MECA
Laikipia in Kenya – a land of staggering beauty & biodiversity – a mosaic of wildlife conservancies, ranchlands & commercial farms
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
Laikipia – “It was not just the beauty and wildness of the landscape. It was not just the smells, intense of dust and elephant, of jasmine and moonflower, nor the incredible concert of birds singing with liquid voices in the golden afternoons. It was not just the profile of the hills and the short purple sunsets, nor the vivid colours of the hibiscus and of the sky and of the yellow grass, nor the emotions of a sudden rustle of leaves of a scared francolin while I was walking alone in the bush, nor the surprise of the leopard, still as a statue in the full moon.”
As Kuki Gallman so vividly describes in her iconic novel, I Dreamed of Africa, Laikipia is a land of staggering natural beauty and biodiversity, enriched by complex cultural strands of human history and influence. The plateau is a mosaic of wildlife conservancies, ranchlands, rangelands and commercial farms that bridge the gap between East Africa’s savannas to the south and the arid lands of the Horn of Africa to the north. Here, endangered species often roam alongside Boran cattle and camels across a conservation landscape unlike any other in Africa.
The basics
Laikipia (‘treeless plain’ in Maa) is one of Kenya’s 47 counties, covering an area of 9,500km2 (9.5 million hectares) and part of the much broader Ewaso ecosystem. The Ewaso Ng’iro River flows north-east through the county, fed by tributaries flowing off Mount Kenya’s glaciers. For the most part, the entire region is open to wildlife and fences are limited to the wetter southern areas where farming is more prevalent, and human-wildlife conflict is a common occurence.
The landscape is dominated by ancient gneisses, which form rocky outcrops and hills, while the western lava sheets bear testament to the tumultuous history of the Great Rift Valley. The Aberdare Mountains run along Laikipia’s southwestern boundary, while Mount Kenya’s shadow looms large to the southeast. Most of the county lies at altitudes over 1,500m, so, despite lying across the Equator, the climate is relatively cool and temperate, becoming increasingly dry towards the central and northern regions.
A different kind of wild space
Apart from Mukogodo and Rumuruti Forest Reserves, none of Laikipia’s various wildlife areas has formal protected status (that is, none of them is a game reserve or national park). Instead, the guardianship of the wilderness is based on the Kenyan conservancy model. Here, the lines between wild spaces and humanity are blurred. Many of the properties involved in wildlife conservation and tourism combine these efforts with raising livestock. Several group ranches are run by community-owned companies, many of which have dedicated their energies to conserving vast swathes of land.
Scattered throughout Laikipia are wildlife conservancies supported by a thriving tourism industry. The Laikipia Conservancies Association consists of 24 member conservancies which cover an area of 3,500km2 (350,000 hectares), including:
Ol Pejeta Conservancy
360km2 (36,000 hectares)
Ol Ari Nyiro (also known as Laikipia Nature Conservancy)
365km2 (36,500 hectares)
Naibunga (a group ranch composed of 9 ranches)
477km2 (47,700 hectares)
Loisaba Conservancy
226km2 (22,600 hectares)
Borana Conservancy (contiguous with Lewa Conservancy)
120km2 (12,000 hectares)
Il Ngwesi (a group ranch)
93km2 (9,300 hectares)
Lekuruki Conservancy
92km2 (9,200 hectares)
Ol Jogi Conservancy
240km2 (24,000 hectares)
Sosian Samburumburu
97km2 (9,700 hectares)
Ol-Lentille
162km2 (16,200 hectares)
The above list of operational conservancies is complemented by several unfenced private ranches, many of which offer their own intimate safari experience. Under the Laikipia Wildlife Foundation’s guidance, this extensive ecosystem is managed as a cohesive ecological entity. It is also open to the renowned Lewa Wildlife Conservancy to the east and attached to the Mount Kenya Forest and National Park to the southeast.
Laikipia’s precious wildlife treasures
The plateau’s gradual transition from intensive livestock farming to wildlife haven is a testament to the success of a progressive and inclusive conservation approach. Laikipia’s heterogeneous landscapes now offer some of the most magnificent wildlife viewing in Kenya, from the standard Big 5 experience to more unusual and elusive creatures. The county is home to the second-largest elephant population in Kenya, and many of these herds now migrate north to Samburu during the two rainy seasons. Naturally, big cat sightings are regular and always exciting, but equally enthralling are the opportunities to spot the sloping back of a striped hyena, the absurdly elongated neck of the peculiar gerenuk and the spear-tipped horns of the Beisa oryx. The exceptionally fortunate may even see one of the melanistic leopards recently confirmed to be lurking in some conservancies.
However, part of Laikipia’s real magic lies in its inordinate concentration of endangered species, particularly rhinos. Perhaps most famously, the Ol Pejeta Conservancy is home to the last two northern white rhinos in the world, vigilantly guarded day and night. Najin and her daughter Fatu were given to the Ol Pejeta Conservancy by the Dvůr Králové Zoo in Czechoslovakia in 2009. Najin’s father – Sudan – was the last surviving male northern white rhino until he died in 2018. At present, scientists are working towards creating embryos using sperm collected. Until this project succeeds, a visit to Laikipia offers the last opportunity to see the northern white rhino.
White rhinos aside, Laikipia is also home to nearly half of Kenya’s black rhinos. Many of the conservancies and ranches have dedicated rhino sanctuaries that have contributed immensely to rhino conservation in East Africa. The county is an important stronghold for the endangered Grévy’s zebra, reticulated giraffe (also known as the Somali giraffe), and Jackson’s hartebeest (regarded as a rare hybrid between the Lelwel and Coke’s hartebeest). African painted wolves (wild dogs) course across the vast woodlands and open plains, their propensity for covering large distances supported by the size of the ecosystem available to them. The Sweetwaters Chimpanzee Sanctuary in Ol Pejeta is also the only place in Kenya where visitors can see chimpanzees, as they do not occur naturally.
Variety and adventure – the Laikipia experience
Want to go on a safari to Laikipia? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
Apart from its remarkable wildlife, the Laikipia experience can be defined by two quintessential principles: exclusivity and freedom. The private conservancies and ranches guarantee that visitors can immerse themselves in the wilderness, free from the almost crushing pressure of tourist numbers in the more renowned national parks and game reserves. This high quality, low-density approach to tourism has opened up unique experiences for visitors, such as accompanying ecological teams in the field to monitor endangered species, track lions or walk with baboon troops. Variety is the order of the day, and tailored adventures are the norm in Laikipia.
Free from the rules and restrictions of national parks, the lodges offer expertly guided walks, night drives and horse safaris. Intrepid visitors can opt to explore the landscape on a mountain bike or quad bike, rolling along paths inaccessible to the average vehicle and discovering hidden nooks and crannies. Those that prefer a more sedate pace can hop on the back of a camel and enjoy the scenery from a novel vantage point, accompanied by the gentle tinkle of camel train bells.
As a general rule, Laikipia does not stint on comfortable accommodation, though there are options available to suit tighter budgets. There are a number of either community-owned or community-operated lodges for conscience-driven travellers. However, it is important to note that access to the vast majority of the conservancies and ranches is restricted to guests, and only Ol Pejeta offers access to day visitors. Like the Maasai Mara, there are two rainy seasons: the ‘short’ rains in October/November and the ‘long’ rains lasting from March until June. Though rainfall levels are not as high as they are in the Mara, high rainfall may affect the activities and the wildlife viewing.
A triumph of conservation
Though Laikipia offers various habitats and experiences for the discerning visitor, these are all underscored by a common theme – authenticity. In Laikipia, the fortunes of people and wildlife are inextricably linked. This is not to say that this process has been without its own challenges, and indeed, Laikipia has seen its fair share of conflict and heartache. However, the inclusive approach that values livelihoods and biodiversity has successfully used tourism to galvanize the creation of one of the largest wilderness areas in Kenya.
The concept of individually- or community-owned conservancies should be considered a Kenyan conservation success story. Tourists that visit these conservancies and ranches play an enormous role in ensuring the future of these protected wilderness areas and supporting a continuous revenue stream for the local communities. With over 65% of Kenyan wildlife existing outside of government-protected wilderness areas, it is easy to see why conservancies will be critical to conservation efforts in the future. The sprawling plateau of Laikipia, home to some of the most endangered species in Africa and steeped in complex history, is the perfect example of this process in action.
To the novice eye, most wild animals of the same species look mostly identical to each other unless marred by a prominent scar or perhaps sporting a different colour variation. However, closer observation reveals that each individual, whether leopard, lion, or elephant, possesses a set of identifying characteristics as unique as human fingerprints. For researchers monitoring these animals, being able to identify individuals is extremely useful for estimating populations and understanding demographics. However, the process is often time-consuming, labour intensive and subject to human bias. For 25 years, the team at Elephants Alive, spearheaded and led by Dr Michelle Henley (last author), have developed their own solution for elephant identification: a System of Elephant Ear-pattern Knowledge (SEEK).
Despite their size, monitoring elephants to estimate populations and demographics comes with its own set of complications. Traditional capture-mark-recapture techniques are expensive, dangerous, and impractical, large-scale aerial surveys are prohibitively expensive, and dung counts vary depending on vegetation type. This has necessitated the use of alternative techniques such as mark-resighting studies which in turn generally rely on photo-identification. The use of photographic records depends mostly on manual matching techniques and human memory, and while automated software models are in use, they still require further development.
The Elephants Alive team monitor elephants across the Associated Private Nature Reserves (APNR) on the western boundary of the Kruger National Park and have been conducting field research since 1996. The team began putting together their own simplified coding system at the start of the period which initially entailed creating detailed drawings of the ear features of individual elephants. The study was officially registered with South African National Parks (SANParks) in 2003 and has continued until the present day.
In 2012, the first comprehensive coding system was developed. The animal was grouped first according to sex and age and then incorporated into a feature and element system. The method was refined over time, to simplify the system and exclude observer bias for more complex shapes.
Today, each elephant assigned to the database has been given a unique code that corresponds to specific aspects of that individual. The first letter of the code will be either B (bull) or C (cow) and the following two numbers place the individual in an age bracket. Following that, the presence or absence of tusks is recorded. From there, features on the left ear have been assigned numbers depending on the position on the ear itself – with the most prominent tear listed first, followed by the most prominent hole, the second most prominent tear and the second most prominent hole (in this exact order). The right ear follows the same pattern. The coding system is completed with reference to the existence of extreme features (applied to ear tears or holes that cover more than 25% of the ear) and any other special features (a missing tail for example).
So, for example, B70T01E808_-403_X00S00 is a bull elephant, born between 1970 and 1979 (B70), with a tusk on his left side but not the right (T01). The most prominent tear and the second most prominent tear are both at the 8 position of his left ear (E808). On his right ear, the most prominent tear is on the 4 position, while the second most prominent tear sits on the 3 position (-403). Neither ear has any prominent holes. He does not have any extreme features nor any special elements (X00S00).
SEEK has been developed to follow the rules of the search function of both Microsoft Excel and Microsoft Word, allowing researchers to rapidly narrow down their search when presented with an image of an elephant they are trying to identify. If all recorded individuals are ruled out, the new elephant is added to the system. The additional Microsoft Office Wildcard function also allows for situations where not all characteristics are observable (if presented with only one side of the individual, for example).
The extensive development of SEEK is a truly extraordinary accomplishment, born of decades worth of research and practical experience. The evolution of this method has been shaped by the pragmatic realities of fieldwork while still allowing for identification accuracy, resulting in a system that can be applied by other such research programmes as well as an extensive historical database of elephant individuals in the Greater Kruger. From behavioural studies to understanding long-term population trends, individual identification is vital in the efforts to conserve one of the most iconic animals in Africa.
Botswana’s recent upsurge in rhino poaching is reaching a crisis point. More than 100 rhinos have been poached in under two years from a population of less than 400. Yet, the government remains resolute in its denial of a growing catastrophe.
Former Botswanan president Ian Khama recently announced on social media that over 120 rhinos have been poached in the past 18 months. The post said that poachers were ‘killing rhinos with or without horns,’ and that ‘after corona (virus) there will be none left for tourists to see.’
Botswana’s Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) has denied the accusation – saying Khama’s announcement is irresponsible and will negatively impact tourism. In a statement, the DWNP claims that wildlife-related crimes are down by 70 per cent since the COVID 19 period from March 2020.
But on the same day as DWNP’s statement release, Bhejane Trust, a Zimbabwean rhino conservation organisation, publicised the massacre of 12 more rhinos in the Okavango Delta in northern Botswana saying, ‘Urgent action is required by the Botswana authorities, and they should bring in expert advice and assistance immediately if any rhino(s) are to survive.’
Conservationists are concerned that Botswana’s rebuttal to its growing poaching crisis is encouraging rhino horn poachers to focus on the remaining rhino in the Okavango Delta area.
‘The current government already has a poor conservation record, and it seems to be following the same policy of denial it used with the elephant poaching over the last few years,’ says Ian Michler, conservationist and specialist wilderness guide. ‘Let’s be clear; the poaching syndicates have seen the weakness and have turned their attention on this country. Without a strong and effective response, Botswana runs the risk of seeing rhino disappear from its parks and reserves for the third time.’
After numbers crashed in the early nineties Botswana engaged in a rhino relocation project in 2001 which spanned over ten years, introducing viable populations of black and white rhinos back into the Okavango Delta.
In June last year, the Botswanan government began removing rhino horns and relocating rhinos away from the Delta in an attempt to reduce the risk of poaching. The official count for poached rhinos was 56 since 2018, marking it the worst onslaught since the country’s black rhino population was wiped out in 1992 and white rhinos dropped to below 30 individuals.
According to Dereck Joubert, who leads the Botswana non-profit Rhinos Without Borders, the relocation of rhinos away from the Delta was essential amid the coronavirus pandemic as poachers were using the absence of safari tourists during lockdown to their advantage. Asian rhino horn traders had also begun to tout rhino horn as a cure for the virus.
At that stage, nearly 50 poached rhinos had been recorded since late 2019.
In August 2020, the poaching crisis was still showing no sign of let-up and the government went back on its decision to reduce the military capability of the arms carried by its wildlife rangers. With 17 poachers shot dead in six months in gunfire exchange with the army, it was decided to re-arm anti-poaching rangers with military weapons.
Is this what it seems to be? An attempt by the government to minimise what is obviously a devastating onslaught on the last few remaining rhinos in Botswana; a repeat of their stance on elephants just two years ago?
In 2019, the newly elected President Mokgweetsi Masisi denied that elephant poaching was at a crisis point when aerial surveys revealed that almost 400 elephants had been poached between 2017 and 2018.
“The question remains: why is the Botswanan government not engaging the international community for help? Other countries are using NGOs and civil society to assist them with wildlife crime,” says Adrienne West of Political Animal Lobby. “Botswana cannot expect to tackle an issue of this magnitude alone.”
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Our safari industry is in tatters as extended travel bans and doubt about fundamental issues continue to plague our core markets. The past few months have seen businesses hit the dirt, and there will be many more casualties as this stalled industry sheds weight and reboots. But this is a passion-led space, and it will rise again, FOR THE BETTER. Of that, I have no doubt. The arrival of the ‘new normal’ will be an exciting time for those of us that are fortunate enough to remain – and for you, the passionate safari-goers. The future is being crafted right now – it will be what we make of it. You can help the safari industry by booking your next safari – even if it is in a year or two from now.
I have recently hinted about new AG plans – and we are deep under the hood with this exciting development that will somewhat shake things up and empower you to play a larger role in Africa. It’s coming …
Now here is an INSPIRING project. One of southern Africa’s most respected birding and walking guides plans to do a world-record 30,000 burpees in 10 days to raise funds for anti-poaching efforts. What an amazing initiative – PLEASE support him – see the video link below.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
Our first story below is a scientific marvel born of potential catastrophe. What a sad state of affairs that it has come to this. Thank goodness for forward-thinking philanthropists prepared to throw money and action at a problem rather than conferences and committees. Hemmersbach Rhino Force has created a cryo-lab (basically an uber fancy freezer and Tupperware combo) for the harvesting of and storage of rhino gametes (swimmers and eggs) for the eventuality that these ancient pachyderms do not survive the poaching onslaught. The Cryovault is a remarkable, commendable and inspiring commitment.
Our second story below, from a wildlife veterinarian with decades of field experience provides strong evidence that fences were highly unlikely to have contributed to the Botswana elephant die-off in 2020 (as reported here). More than this perhaps, the story and its design point out the value of ground-truthing, common-sense and experience. It cautions that not even the peer-review process is infallible.
Photos
Finally, the ninth week of African celebration through your images takes us on a journey through southern Africa, into the world’s oldest desert flying up through central Africa and, unusually, into west Africa. Our Photographer of the Year carries a prize of 10 000 USD and a six-day safari to Khwai in Botswana. Here’s how to enter. We look forward to your evocative, pictorial stories.
Story 1 https://africageographic.com/stories/rhino-cryovault/
JUST IN CASE
Just in case: The rhino Cryovault holds repositories of rhino DNA, gametes, and tissues preserved indefinitely – in case we fail to save our rhino
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
The rhino Cryovault is a biobank that holds the largest genetic repositories of rhino DNA, gametes, and tissues in the world; frozen and preserved indefinitely. What does it mean to save a species? What happens if, in the absolute worst-case scenario, we fail? While Hemmersbach Rhino Force is doing everything in their power to make sure that does not happen, they do have one last ace – the rhino Cryovault.
In every cell of every organism, from the smallest bacterium to the hugest blue whale, four unique, organic molecules (nucleic acids) are arranged in their millions to form a genetic blueprint that dictates the organism’s – shape, potential size, dietary needs, reproductive proclivities, propensity for language, eye structure – the list is nearly endless. Within the DNA double helix, this code holds most of the secrets to the diversity of life as we know it. Every time a rhino is poached, an entirely unique genetic fingerprint is lost.
What is genetic diversity?
The term “biodiversity” has become very popular since first introduced in scientific publications of the 70s. By now, most people understand that the foundation of conservation rests on protecting biodiversity. Biodiversity refers to the variety of species in an ecosystem, their ecological complexes and their interactions within an ecosystem. The third level of biodiversity is a measure of the variety of genetic characteristics within a species – genetic diversity.
It should be relatively self-explanatory why genetic diversity is of fundamental importance to the survival of a species. In the long-term, genetic diversity underpins one of the cornerstones of evolutionary theory. Genetic differences translate to certain traits that allow some organisms to breed more successfully than others – survival of the fittest. Greater genetic diversity within a species enables adaptation to changing environments (think climate change) and confers greater disease resistance to the species as a whole.
Conversely, as individual numbers of a species decrease, inbreeding will result in a loss of genetic diversity, which will decrease a species’ robustness in the face of new challenges (parasites, climatic changes etc). Inbreeding can also cause ‘inbreeding depression’, which is the reduced biological fitness of a population. This can lead to severe genetic defects, reduced fertility and even infertility. In essence, when humans decimate biology (animals, plants, mushrooms etc), we are not only destroying individuals and their potential genetic legacies, but we are also reducing the species’ capacity to recover and overcome adversity.
Hemmersbach Rhino Force
Enter Hemmersbach Rhino Force, a direct action conservation organisation dedicated to safeguarding Africa’s remaining rhinos. Their anti-poaching services are provided free-of-charge and utilise a combination of innovative tactics, cutting-edge technology and old-fashioned boots-on-the-ground to tackle wildlife crime in Southern Africa. Rhino Force is operational in the Greater Kruger region (where some 50% of poaching events in Africa occur). They work with local authorities, private entities and anti-poaching operations on everything from surveillance and intelligence to proactive prevention and forensic work. In addition, their Zambezi Black Rhino Project in Zimbabwe is geared towards restoring a wild haven for the reintroduction of black rhinos, once abundant before poaching devastated their numbers.
Rhino Force’s holistic approach to protecting rhinos includes extensive work with local communities, promoting education and employment and tackling anti-poaching through anti-poverty strategies. Improving living conditions, restoring and equipping schools, litter removal, and supporting community engagement are just some of the initiatives that the Rhino Force has thrown their weight behind.
However, the sheer severity of the rhino poaching crisis prompted the creation of the Hemmersbach Rhino Force Cryovault in 2018, a biobank of vital biomaterial including DNA and viable sperm. As unsettling as it is, we must face the reality that we may not be able to stem the tide of poaching. This proactive approach is intended to create a genetic backup before it is too late.
The Cryovault and Veterinary Unit
The Cryovault team consists of Dr Imke Lüders, a specialist veterinarian from Germany and Dr Janine Meuffels, a veterinarian from South Africa. The team members all have long-standing backgrounds in animal reproduction and wildlife medicine. They are, at present, the most experienced team in Africa at executing large-scale gamete conservation projects. Together, they have successfully collaborated in collecting semen from elephants, giraffes, and rhinos, from both live (intra-vitam) and deceased (post mortem) animals in wild and captive situations.
As with any other Rhino Force projects, the Cyrovault is not a commercial operation. Instead, it provides specialist veterinary wildlife reproduction and biotechnology support services to other scientists, veterinarians and their clients. The laboratories are equipped with the resources necessary to evaluate gametes’ viability and store tissues, gametes, and DNA indefinitely through cryo-preservation.
The ART of reproduction
Assisted reproduction technologies (ART) including artificial insemination, in-vitro fertilisation and embryo transfer are techniques that have been used successfully for years, particularly in the agricultural industry with livestock. There is a perception that because these techniques have been so effectively applied in both humans and livestock, it should be simple to transfer them to wild species. However, this is far from the case. Every species has evolved a unique anatomy and reproductive physiology. Successful ART requires extensive research and the development of species-specific protocols. Unravelling secrets of ART for the African rhino species is the calling of the Cryovault team.
Theriogenology – which concerns the study of veterinary reproductive medicine and surgery – is a field subject to continual refinement. Conservation-minded reproductive specialists are continually searching for ways in which these techniques can be used to balance the odds for threatened species. Viable semen has been collected and cryopreserved, leading to successful artificial insemination (using both fresh and frozen semen) of elephants, giraffes, and southern white and Indian rhinos. However, most advancements in wild species have been made in captive settings where scientists have unrestricted access to the animals.
The Cryovault team continues to offer tremendous contributions to this knowledge base, and in 2020, they collected, processed and cryopreserved free-ranging (wild) black rhino sperm samples – a world first. They have teamed up with Eastern Cape Parks and Tourism Agency (ECPTA) for a three year project to collect and store samples from as many black rhino individuals as possible.
Where rhinos are concerned, the Cryovault team’s approach to gamete collection is largely opportunistic currently. When a live bull rhino is anaesthetised for a routine process such as a dehorning or ear notching, the team applies a low-voltage stimulation to the prostate gland in a process known as electroejaculation. In the case of poached, hunted, or euthanised animals, the testes are harvested in their entirety. Once the samples return to the lab, the viability of the sperm is tested and, if shown to be suitable, it is transferred to sperm straws and frozen using liquid nitrogen. It is even possible to separate the sperm cells according to whether they carry an X or Y chromosome, thus controlling the sex of potential offspring.
The process of ovum (egg) collection from a live female rhino is known as an ovum pick up. This is a highly specialised technique and requires the regulation of several physiological factors. The team can also harvest oocytes from deceased animals, but with only a six-hour window in which to do so. This is logistically complicated – with a low success rate.
Managed wildlife breeding – a conservation tool
What does this science mean for the future of our rhinos? The reality is that there are few self-sustaining wild rhino populations left throughout the world. In South Africa, home to most of Africa’s rhino, roughly a third are privately owned. Most of these populations are already intensively managed. Suppose the captive growth rate, and the poaching rate continue along the same trajectory. This eventuality could quickly shift the proportion of privately-owned rhino to 50%. The onus will be on private owners to protect the remaining rhinos. Intensive breeding management programmes are an inevitable part of a survival plan for a species approaching the brink. Accepting that rhinos are on that list must happen sooner rather than later.
One of the primary objectives is for the Cryovault facility to be the largest of its kind for African rhino genetics. This massive archive will contribute enormously to DNA population genetics research and act as a reference database for the species. Most importantly, it can be applied to both current and future rhino breeding. Expanding our collective knowledge of rhino reproductive physiology, gametes’ parameters and developing protocols for successful, repeatable methods of assisted reproduction that can be applied to rhinos, is of paramount (and urgent) importance.
Back from the brink (again?)
In the past, the call for reproductive specialists to save a species on the brink has generally come far too late, when just a few individuals of the species remain. Developing appropriate techniques and protocols at this stage is impossible, and the rhino Cryovault team is entirely focussed on ensuring that this time, the approach is a proactive one.
While it may be impossible to freeze time, the Cryovault offers the next best thing – a way to ensure that, in the worst-case scenario, we can preserve some of the genetic legacies of our rhinos before they are lost forever.
[Hemmersbach Rhino Force is one of the two direct action projects of the social purpose IT company Hemmersbach, driven by a desire to fight injustice where authorities fail. Hemmersbach does this through Direct Action: their projects and actions are purely self-financing and reliant on the commitment of their team members, without the need for external donations. Hemmersbach is committed to using 20% of the company’s annual profits for these Direct Action projects, directed towards a good cause with the assurance that this revenue is focused where needed.]
We asked Botswana-based wildlife veterinarian Erik Verrynne to shed light on the issue of whether fences prevent elephant migrations and restrict their movements in northern Botswana. This clarification is required after this research paper ‘The 2020 elephant die-off in Botswana’ by van Aarde et al, on 11 January 2021 [1] and our summary . In it, the authors claim that fences are an underlying cause for the elephant mortalities in NG11/12 (Botswana) in 2020.
Wildlife vet Erik Verrynne:
Introduction
The scientists used movement data from 13 collared elephants in the Seronga area between 2003 and 2006 to prove that the elephant population is unable to cross barriers formed by surrounding fences, deep-water channels of the Okavango River and human activity (harassment).
The study concluded that the ‘boxed-in’ effect created by the boundaries prevent elephants from migrating to other areas during times of food pressure, or from regularly reaching the fresh water of the Okavango River.
The elephants are therefore forced to drink the stagnant water of the waterholes which increases stress and the risk of drinking pathogens such as cyanobacteria toxins or infectious agents.
The underlying stress in a growing, boxed-in elephant population is a potential cause of increased disease susceptibility and contributed to the die-offs.
They postulate that the ‘boxed- in’ effect would have enhanced the fast spread of the agent within the population but prevented the spread to other populations outside the Seronga area.
The article places the die-offs and the underlying ecological drivers within the context of the resistance hypothesis and the metapopulation theory by proposing the realignment of veterinary fences to promote dispersal.
Botswana relies on the dispersal of elephants into the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA) to reduce its large elephant population. At the same time, it is trying to prevent cattle contact with potentially disease-spreading cloven-hoofed wildlife species in order to protect beef export markets. More than 20% of the elephant population in Botswana shares land with subsistence beef and crop farmers where fences are used to protect cattle against disease. The Seronga area, with 15 000 elephants, is an area where both elephant crop damage and disease restrictions have socio-economic implications for the communities.
The potential of commodity-based trade is currently being investigated in Seronga as an alternative to veterinary fencing. Additionally, the Government of Botswana (GoB) has been looking into designs of species-specific targeting fences, while NGOs are working hard on programmes such as Ecoexist to promote coexistence between communities and elephants.
Despite all efforts, the dispersal of elephants away from Botswana as a long-term solution remains a challenge. Figures released by GoB indicate that only about 20% of the large KAZA elephant population is dispersing freely between countries, mainly between Botswana and Zimbabwe. The challenges are further illustrated by dispersals deeper into Botswana during the drought of 2017/2018 rather than into neighbouring range states.
What is causing the resistance to dispersal and do fences and channels play a role?
The reasons for the low dispersal levels in many areas seem to vary. Proposed solutions follow a large-scale approach based on general assumptions, often ignoring local factors.
The article suggesting that fences facilitate elephant deaths illustrates the challenges we face. Remote sensing data is used to postulate drivers and causes, and to offer solutions, while local knowledge or fieldwork critical to verify the collected data is ignored.
The fences around the area are the double veterinary border fence between Bwabwata NP in Namibia and the Seronga area of NG11/NG13 in Botswana, and the northern buffalo fence. The latter fence was erected in 1995/96 to prevent the spread of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) that came across from Namibia. CBPP was declared under control in 1998 only after the mass slaughter of 320,000 cattle.
Albertson (1998) reported how the northern buffalo fence cut off migratory patterns of zebra and elephant, causing the death of migratory species and even an elephant cow and calf. The original fences consisted of sturdy 1,2 m – 1.4m high wooden posts and intermediate wooden droppers connected with strands of steel wire and a single strong steel cable to strengthen it against elephant damage. At the time the fences were regularly maintained to prevent the crossing of any cattle or buffalo. After CBPP containment and the subsequent removal of the Setata fence in 2003, seasonal migrations of wildlife across the removed fence resumed. Therefore, in some cases, fences can present effective barriers to elephants.
The authors of the article stated that the fences in question are still being maintained and therefore present impermeable barriers to elephants wanting to disperse. A quick visit would have immediately shown that this is not the case. Even the current condition of the international boundary fence is not capable of blocking the movement of cattle or buffalo in certain places although in general, it appears much sturdier than the northern buffalo fence.
Over the last few years, I have visited different parts of the fences in question with the exception of the western section of the international boundary near Mohembo, and the section of the northern buffalo fence from the Selinda gate to the north through NG13.
The sections of all the fences I visited had gaps where the fence was either on its side, or most steel wire strands and wooden intermediate droppers were missing. In many cases, the connecting steel cable was on the ground, covered by vegetation. Elephants and antelope were crossing the northern buffalo fence at will while I saw tracks of a few solitary elephants crossing the double vet boundary with Bwabwata NP.
The presence of active photographic tourism lodges and sporadic patrols by the Botswana Defence Force may account for the fact that there is reportedly little poaching in NG12. Neither the fences nor the small amount of human activity on the southern boundary are likely to restrict the movement of elephants out of the Seronga area.
Realignment of the current veterinary fences, even removal of the international boundary fence would not, in my opinion, have a significant impact on, or resolve future cases of disease outbreaks in elephants in the area as claimed by the authors.
Elephant reluctance to move across the deep channel at Seronga remains a mystery. Elephants along the Chobe River cross deep water at will. We regularly see bulls and family herds crossing over onto the sinuous islands, wading chest-deep across the deep channels around Kadizora and Xanaxara. The reluctance to cross water may simply be driven by individual behavioural preferences.
If it is not the fences, why are the elephants not moving?
Verifying the movement data to see if the elephants are indeed not moving out of the Seronga area should be the first reaction. Unfortunately, it is difficult to see if the presented data support the statement of a ‘boxed in’- effect.
The authors present data of only 13 elephants within the Seronga and adjacent areas between 2003 and 2010 while reference to 25 more collared elephants was not supported with data and therefore could not be considered. Therefore, the lack of access to raw and other referred movement data, and the historical nature of the data makes it difficult to place the claims in perspective.
However, other collaring data and anecdotal evidence and observations confirm the lack of mass dispersals of elephants in and out of the Seronga area. Local seasonal movements between food and water sources inside the Seronga area by a large part of the population and very localised seasonal movement of small numbers between NG12 and NG16 are regularly-reported occurrences.
Dispersal does not happen spontaneously. It must be driven by a catalyst usually generated by a change in resources, environmental conditions, or threats strong enough to elicit a group response and overcome memories of any previous hindrance. The response must have the potential to correct or improve the situation both to the individual and the population.
Thirst is a major driver for elephant migrations or dispersals. The restricted access to water is acknowledged in the article in supporting the need to disperse. However, the authors failed to consider the opposite situation where sufficient key resources and safety may nullify the sustained pressure to disperse. In short, the elephants may not want to move because the food, water and shelter is enough for most of the year, while the conflict and harassment by people is short-lived and can be mitigated without the need to migrate.
How sustainable are the key resources?
Key resources in the Seronga area are provided by both the seasonal floodplains, long sinuous islands, and the woodlands.
NG12 is the area to the south of the line of fields and villages and is covered by the seasonal floodplains which vary in width from 3 to 10 km. Across the floodplains NG 12 transitions into a series of long sinuous islands. It ends in the sandy Kalahari apple leaf islands and shrub mopanes towards Vumbra Plains (NG22) in the south, the reedbeds of the deeper channels of NG23 to the southwest and mopane belts to the east into NG16. Many circular islands on the seasonal floodplains accommodate a variety of large riverine forest trees, with jackal berries (Diospyros mespiliformis) and water berries (Syzygium cordatum) providing much sought-after fruit in late winter and early spring. The browse potential for elephants on the circular islands is relatively low and during the dry season, some herds cross over the seasonal floodplains onto the long sinuous islands in search of food.
The most important resource on the seasonal floodplains is therefore fresh water during the dry season of May to October, and during droughts. Water in the woodlands is only available at the latest up to July. The river starts flooding the floodplains at Gunistoga in late March or early April, retracting in June but water in large pans and deep channels remains, sustaining the elephants, wildlife, and cattle until thunderstorms provide water in the north again. While the Okavango River is flowing, the channels provide water, and the floodplains remain the most important sustainability factor during drought. The woodlands to the north in NG11/ NG13 and long sinuous islands to the south provide the other key resources.
The major impact zone is the line of fields and villages along the road and banks of the floodplains where 16 000 people live in 13 villages and numerous settlements. Fields for subsistence crop farming stretch up to 15km, but on average about 6km from the villages towards the woodlands in the north.
Once past the 10 to 15km impact zone, the woodland vegetation transitions into a mosaic of deciduous broad-leaved trees in the deep Kalahari sands, alternating with more claylike soils, where a combination of shrub and cathedral mopane dominates. The woodland vegetation is lush and dense during the wet season but most of the trees lose their leaves at the height of the dry season (July, August and September). As result, a part of the elephant population crosses the floodplains to the sinuous islands where they feed on a variety of trees and mopane shrubs.
The largest part of the elephant population switches back to remain in the woodlands almost immediately when the first thunderstorms fill the pans. Only a small part of the population remains close to the impact zone, drinking from the water on the floodplains. They remain invisible most of the time, their tracks crossing the main road at night as they move between the nearby browse and the waterholes on the floodplains past the fields and villages.
Numerous waterholes or pans formed in the clay soils of the mopane woodland fill during the rainy season between November and April and provide water to the wildlife and livestock that move north into the woodlands for the wet season.
It is some of these waterholes that were implicated as sources of the cyanobacteria toxicity in the mortalities amidst much speculation. However, indications are that mortalities had already started in March when it was still raining, while some carcasses were found in flowing water on the floodplains. Both conditions are less favourable for algal blooms. In my opinion, the true cause of mortalities remains unknown and open to speculation.
Overlapping and sustained utilisation by elephants, other wildlife, people, and livestock, have created the high-impact utilisation zone with many trees destroyed and mopane reduced to shrubs. This zone represents high risk and low resource use to the elephants in the dry season because they are forced to cross the zone daily between available resources. Risk is avoided by moving mainly at night and at speed, using elephant highways and the 13 corridors demarcated by Ecoexist as known routes past the field and village lines. By this time, crop harvesting has fortunately finished. By mid-May, most fields are empty. (Crop raiding happens from January to mainly April and seems to involve a small part of the population that remains close to the impact zone.)
Why are they not dispersing during the drought and will elephants eventually move?
Elephants are hindgut fermenters that digest cellulose in their massive colons. This evolutionary adaptation does not need quality feed, but quantity – something the high-biomass mopane and apple leaf areas can provide in abundance. The adaptation also allows them to utilise twigs, branches, and bark in the absence of leaves during the dry season or drought. They can push tree resources beyond normal resilience thresholds to levels of advanced deterioration before it negatively affects the nutritional intake values, provided the elephants have access to enough water. The thermoregulatory needs of such large animals when ambient temperatures are high, also necessitate water. Elephants are able to travel more than 20 km a day between food and water, an ability that mitigates their water dependency during droughts.
Drought, impact from an increasing elephant population, and an increase in human utilisation of resources around village lines in the impact zone, are causing deterioration which is gradually widening the impact zone into the woodlands, onto the floodplains and even onto the fertile long sinuous islands. Eventually, it may reach a threshold where the abilities of the elephants to negotiate the distances to water, and the increased conflict-related harassment will be sufficient to drive dispersal or migration. Only then is it likely that they will consider moving closer to the water resources of the Linyanti, Kwando or Zambezi Rivers.
The dispersal thresholds are unknown, as the resources appear to be more resilient than the tolerance of the villagers. The ensuing conflict may burst the dam wall long before the resources give in. Managing co-existence is a challenge for Botswana
For now, the elephants seem to be staying. Not because of fences or deep-water channels, but simply because the available resources suit them. Alternative key resources may not be close enough, and they may have adapted local strategies to mitigate droughts and human conflict risks. Drivers or memories of good places far away may not be strong enough to justify dispersal despite disease or harassment. Memories of some of the old barriers is still strong enough to remove the immediate need to move to other unknown areas.
The behaviour of the Seronga area elephants raises some questions about our theories on the metapopulations and dispersal within KAZA. Maybe it is time to acknowledge that elephants exert a choice based on the available resources or even memories of what appear to be boundaries. Our expected thresholds on resource utilisation may be wrong and elephant migration preferences may be more localised. Promoting dispersal across KAZA may require stronger drivers than simply removing fences. Elephants may consider our proverbial grass as not always greener on the other side of our fences.
About the author
Erik Verrynne is a veterinarian and agricultural consultant who been working in Botswana since 2003. He is a wildlife and livestock vet with an MPhil in wildlife management.
[1]van Aarde RJ, Pimm SL, Guldemond R, Huang R, Maré C. 2021. The 2020 elephant die-off in Botswana. PeerJ 9:e10686 https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.10686
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Here’s something for us all to think about: One is made of compressed carbon and the other of compressed keratin. And yet, both are highly valued as status symbols because manipulative marketing campaigns have duped humans into believing the fairytale. Both are extracted at massive ecological cost amidst a plague of bloodshed and criminal activity where a few individuals scoop the financial windfall, and others pay the price. Think about that next time you check out that diamond or criticise someone who does the same with rhino horn—mea culpa.
The on-off journey continues! Distressing news is that the green light has now been given for large-scale open-pit mining in Zambia’s Lower Zambezi National Park. This saga has so many twists and turns it’s tough to keep up! Don’t get me started.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
The saga of the Namibian elephant auction continues. The auction is complete but it is unclear who has bought the elephants, how many were sold or where they will go. There has been widespread anger and criticism from various armchairs, keyboards, conservation NGOs and journalists. The Namibian Ministry of Environment Foresty and Tourism, meanwhile, has taken exception to the auction being portrayed as a corruption-driven scam and painted many objections as the hysterical rantings of people utterly bereft of on-the-ground realities. In our first story below, Gail Thomson, an independent Namibian environmentalist, reviews the reasons for the sale.
After that rather heavy yet necessary read, our second story below will have you daydreaming of being suspended in the verdant forest canopy of the Albertine Rift; the ancient cacophony of screeching primates and avian choirs lulling you to peace. Nyungwe National Park in Rwanda is home to bird megaticks, breathtaking vistas, waterfalls, trails and rare primates. There are options for all budgets so sit back and immerse yourself in the mystical magic of the forest.
Finally, the eighth week of celebrating the beauty of Africa through our Photographer of the Year, which carries a prize of 10 000 USD and a six-day safari to Khwai in Botswana. Enter here. Remember you don’t need a boat-load of obscenely expensive kit to take a good pic. You might even be lucky with your phone! Your image needs to tell a story and evoke an emotion.
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
Aptly referred to as the land of a thousand hills, Rwanda is a country that embodies the genuinely remarkable spirit of Africa. Once torn apart by genocide and bloodshed, the Rwandan people have demonstrated a steely determination in both acknowledging their history and refusing to be defined by it. Some call it the Rwandan miracle: the country’s economy has grown by an average of more than 7% per year since 2000, and the poverty rate has fallen by 57% percent. Its people have turned hate and fear into the warmth and generosity of spirit that today epitomises Rwanda.
This forward-thinking, disciplined reconciliatory approach has also bolstered the country’s conservation reputation, supported by a robust tourism industry that continues to go from strength to strength. While gorilla trekking in Volcanoes National Park or a safari-going in Akagera National Park are both extraordinary experiences in their own right, Rwanda is also home to the most extensive protected tracts of montane forest in Africa – Nyungwe National Park.
The Park
Nyungwe National Park covers 1,019km2 (over 100,000 hectares) of forested mountains, burbling streams, sun-starved valleys, and extensive swamps seemingly hiding a myriad of new species waiting to be discovered (or rediscovered). Though historically established as a reserve in 1933, Nyungwe National Park was only designated as a national park in 2004. It is tucked in the south-west corner of the country, towering above Lake Kivu and contiguous with Kibira National Park in Burundi to the south. Nyungwe is a biodiversity hotspot bursting with life. As part of the Albertine Rift and ranging in altitude from 1,600-3,000m, it is home to the largest high-altitude montane forest in East and Central Africa – a vitally important habitat in its own right. The land comprises the watershed between the Congo and Nile Rivers and some believe it is home to the most remote source of the Nile River, a stream that originates on Mount Bigugu.
Walking in the canopy
The vast majority of Nyungwe is covered by ancient forests that engender a truly mystical atmosphere and teem with life of every size and shape. In mature tropical forests like those in Nyungwe, the canopy forms a complex aspect of life in the forest. With limited exceptions, human tourists tend not to display the arboreal skills of the primates that they seek and, as a result, were once restricted to exploring the forest floor. However, in 2010, the Rwanda Development Board found a way to lift the tourist experience to new heights by installing a canopy walkway of nearly 160m long which rises over 75m above the ferns below.
For those unaffected by a fear of heights (and even, perhaps, for those searching for a new and innovative way to overcome them), the three separate bridges offer unparalleled views of one of the most scenic national parks in Africa. This extraordinary vantage point forms part of the Igishigishigi Trail (a word that refers to the tree-ferns below but doubles as a tongue-twister), and the forest below is resplendent, often draped in a blanket of cloud that only adds to a sense of the surreal.
Swinging through the canopy
As a mostly forest-dominated park, it is only natural that one of Nyungwe’s significant drawcards is its extensive primate populations and its treetops are dominated by several species of monkey and troops of chimpanzees. There are two habituated troops of chimpanzees within Nyungwe and chimpanzee trekking is popular with visitors. Given the distances chimps can cover at any one point in time, visitors should prepare for an early morning and a long day spent walking through the forest. However, this will be rewarded by an hour spent in close proximity to our closest relatives.
Chimpanzees aside, the other charismatic primates can be equally beguiling and entertaining. The owl-faced monkey was only recently confirmed to occur in Nyungwe, and this is the only population of this rare monkey species to occur outside of the Democratic Republic of Congo. The forest is also home to the largest mega-troop of Rwenzori pied colobus monkeys in Africa, numbering over 400 of these striking black and white monkeys. This well-habituated mega-troop also attracts the company of a myriad of additional primate species such as the grey-cheeked mangabey, L’Hoest’s, Grivet’s, Syke’s, silver, blue, red-tailed monkeys, and the olive baboon. Chimpanzees are also drawn to the colobus monkeys, though for entirely different reasons: food. They hunt the smaller monkey species and an opportunity to witness a chimpanzee raid is a once-in-a-lifetime experience, as the forest explodes into shrieks of terror and the excited howls of the hunting chimps.
Singing in the canopy
For avid birders, Nyungwe offers the best forest in East Africa for Afro-montane birding. Forest birding is notoriously difficult, which in many ways makes the glimpses of the Albertine Rift endemics even more rewarding (and well worth a slight crick in the neck). As a recognised Important Bird Area, there are over 330 bird species recorded in Nyungwe, including the Albertine owlet, red-collared mountain babbler, and Rockefeller’s sunbird, none of which have been recorded anywhere else on the eastern side of the Albertine Rift. Every year, keen twitchers laden with binoculars, dog-eared bird books and large lenses flock to the park to boost their birding life-lists.
The birding opportunities are spectacular throughout the park. Still, experienced birders confirm that the park’s western section, with higher rainfall levels and richer soils, offers the best of them. While the search for the red-collared mountain babbler may prove challenging and require a degree of patience, visitors can tick off the mountain masked apalis, Ruwenzori turaco, dwarf honeyguide, handsome francolin, and Neumann’s short-tailed warbler along the way. Nowhere else in the Albertine Rift offers such high densities of relaxed birds on the undisturbed trails. For the truly dedicated, there is always the remote chance of joining the ranks of those fortunate enough to have seen a Shelley’s crimsonwing or the Albertine owlet in the wild.
Forest birding is very much dependent on the vocalisations of the various species, which in turn means that a visit to Nyungwe with the intention of bird watching is best timed for when the birds are at their most vocal. This is usually between January and June, with the caveat that certain migratory species will depart around April, which also tends to be the wettest month of the year. Excellent bird guides trained by the Rwandan authorities are at your disposal, including Claver Ntokinyima (author of Wild Rwanda) who resides in, and works for, the park.
Africa Geographic director, and one of Africa’s top birding guides, Christian Boix, returned from Nyungwe with an urge to write Wild Rwanda, the region’s most authoritative “where to find” birds and mammals guide. Its Nyungwe section will be an invaluable tool to set you on the right track to target your most coveted Albertine Rift Endemics and learn as much about this forest gem as possible.
Hidden by the canopy
While the primates and birds tend to take centre stage in Nyungwe, there are in fact over 75 species of mammals wandering the forest paths, climbing the ancient trees, or slinking through the undergrowth. Camera trap studies have revealed that the park is home to an assortment of creatures, from Congo clawless otters to lithe servals and golden cats. Here, even the rodents are fully adapted to arboreal life, and the Lord Derby’s scaly-tailed squirrels glide between trees by extending a membrane between their front and back limbs like true flying squirrels. Recent camera trap studies have also revealed that the rare Central African oyan (related to genets) can be found lurking in the canopy.
The park’s exceptional biodiversity also extends to the oft-overlooked plant life, and there are over 1,000 different recorded plants, of which 250 are endemic to the Albertine Rift. 140 of these plant species are orchids, which add their splashes of colour to the blanket of green and brown around them.
Just a few years ago, Christian was on safari in Nyungwe with AG clients when he noticed an attractive frog hidden in the undergrowth. This particular frog turned out to be the Bururi long-fingered frog (Cardioglossa cyaneospila), a species once thought extinct and only recently rediscovered in Burundi in 2011. It had never before been recorded in NyungweNational Park. (You can read more about Christian’s frog discovery here.) With its dense forests and impenetrable swamps, there is no telling just how many species are still waiting to be discovered in Nyungwe.
Everyone’s cup of tea
Tea is one of Rwanda’s largest exports and several major tea plantations – including Kitabi, Gisoyu and Gisakura – are found along the fringes of Nyungwe National Park. Not only do these plantations provide vital employment for local communities and educational experiences for tourists, but they also serve as buffer zones around the park.
Buffer zones are just one part of the Rwanda Development Board’s extensive efforts to protect areas such a Nyungwe from illegal logging, poaching, and the collection of herbal plants for use in traditional medicine. A set percentage of annual park revenue from Nyungwe, Akagera and Volcanoes national parks is allocated to communities surrounding these protected areas, and a variety of upliftment and educational programmes have been implemented to safeguard their futures.
There are also several beekeeping cooperatives active near the park headquarters. While beekeeping is a traditional practice in the area, the members of the cooperatives are now producing additional products such as candles, as well as honey, which are sold to visiting tourists. Those interested in learning more about the surrounding communities’ traditions can also visit the cultural centres and villages, some of which also offer campsites and other facilities.
The experience
The dense forests and rugged landscapes of Nyungwe necessitate exploration on foot. An extensive network of immaculately maintained trails offers varying physical difficulty levels, each with its unique attractions, including waterfalls, hidden pools, and breathtaking views. For now, any guest wishing to explore one of these trails will need to book ahead and must be accompanied by one of the professional guides.
Find out about Nyungwe for your next African safari. We have ready-made safaris to choose from, or ask us to build one just for you.
As might be expected for an experience that involves hiking in a rainforest, appropriate footwear is an absolute must – preferably waterproof but, most importantly, worn-in and sturdy. The climate in Nyungwe is relatively mild, with temperatures seldom reaching over 30˚C. Still, it receives high rainfall levels (up to 2,000mm annually), so waterproof gear for valuables is essential. Long trousers and sleeves will protect against the forest’s more intrusive insects, and it is worth keeping in mind that the weather can be capricious and high altitudes mean cold temperatures at times.
Accommodation options around the park are varied, and a trip can be tailored to meet every traveller’s requirement, from luxurious lodges boasting spectacular views and outstanding hospitality to budget campsites, and everything in between. Intrepid travellers with their own transport could also choose to stay on the banks of Lake Kivu and travel to and from the park on relatively good roads.
Munazi Eco Lodge (currently under construction and due to open in early 2024) will be a fully-catered camp featuring 10 (ten) ensuite chalets set deep within the forests of Nyungwe National Park – the perfect option for immersing yourself in the forest experience.
DID YOU KNOW that African Parks offers safari camps (lodges and campsites) where 100% of tourism revenue goes to conservation and local communities? Find out more and book your African Parks safari.
Watch this informative video on Nyungwe:
The future of the canopy
The announcement that African Parks has partnered with the Government of Rwanda to manage Nyungwe National Park should see the same success as the partnership in Akagera that has seen tourism flourish over recent years.
The world-famous zoologist and author, Jonathan Kingdon, wrote in his book Island Africa that the mountains of Nyungwe are “Africa’s Galapagos Islands – islands encircled by golden monkeys, gorillas and iridescent sunbirds, by giant Lobelias, everlasting flowers, Ruwenzori turacos and all the questions they raise. They deserve greater recognition, protection and study than they have received so far.”
Some 30 years after these words were written, that is precisely how the Rwandan people have chosen to protect their precious remaining wild spaces and, as a result, the future of one of Africa’s most precious ecosystems – it’s irreplaceable canopies, mysterious valleys and colourful creatures – has been secured.
Research tip:Wild Rwanda by Africa Geographic director and safari guru Christian Boix is essential reading for your next Rwanda safari
The recent decision by the Namibian government to sell 170 elephants has been met with public outcries, media articles full of unsubstantiated accusations and considerable confusion. In order to judge why this decision was taken and what other options could be available for these elephants, we need to consider the historical and current context, rather than simply assume the worst of the accusations to be true.
Towards the end of 2020, the Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism (MEFT) announced their intention to sell a total of 170 elephants[1] from four different locations in Namibia (see map below). The stated reasons for the sale were increased human-elephant conflict[2] in the four areas, which has been exacerbated by the recent drought. In each area, the elephants to be taken were entire family groups (i.e. females and young) plus a few bulls. Those wanting to buy these elephants had to employ qualified Namibian game capture teams and move them to a suitably fenced private reserve in Namibia, or if they wanted to export them to another country, adhere to all CITES export and import requirements.
The important points to note from the tender advert are MEFT’s insistence on taking whole family groups (rather than individuals) and their concern that the buyer and destination abide by national and international law. The requirements set forth here would weed out the unscrupulous buyers who would prefer to take young individual elephants that can be tamed (or broken) for the purposes of human entertainment. The requirements for proper fencing in Namibia are likely to ensure that the elephants do not simply start causing conflict in other areas of the country, or return to the capture location.
There are some details left out of the tender advert that are nonetheless crucial to understanding the thinking behind the decision. I have obtained a draft copy of a document called “An Overview of Elephant Conservation and Management in Namibia” that accompanies the Draft National Elephant Management Plan. This document details all of MEFT’s recent public consultations, past and present elephant research and monitoring, and approaches to reducing human-elephant conflict by MEFT and non-governmental organisations. The information contained in this extensive document (commissioned by MEFT, but prepared by an independent consultant) provides valuable insight into the reasoning behind MEFT’s intention to sell 170 elephants.
Understanding the historical context
The history of elephants in Namibia, as with most things in Africa, is tied up with the history of colonialism, war and land development. Rock art engravings reveal that elephants occurred throughout the country before waves of colonisers eradicated almost all of them in the southern half of the country during the 1800’s. The remaining elephants in the more remote northern regions were killed in high numbers by the South African military, colonisers, and local people in the mid- to late-1900’s. Severe drought in the north-west during the 70’s and 80’s added to the elephants’ woes in this region. Even elephants in Etosha National Park were not safe, and this population was eradicated in 1881, only to return 70 years later.
Around the same time that elephants were pushed out of the central parts of Namibia that are most suitable for agriculture, the land was settled and fenced. Today, these farms are still privately owned (known as freehold land), and the people living on these lands usually farm for commercial purposes with livestock or wildlife. The infrastructure on the livestock farms includes windmills and diesel pumps to provide water for cattle troughs and fences within livestock farms have been erected to manage livestock grazing. The farms that have converted to wildlife are fenced with high game fences to keep valuable wildlife in, and while internal fences have been dropped, water is still pumped for game species to drink (some of these species are particularly expensive, such as sable and roan antelope).
In the communal “homelands” established during apartheid, rural Namibians were dispossessed of their traditional rights to hunt and were branded as “poachers[3]” when they hunted to survive the severe drought of the 70’s and 80’s. Today, nearly 60% of these communal lands have been gazetted as communal conservancies[4], as a means for the people living there to regain their historical rights to using wildlife on their land. This programme has reduced elephant poaching tremendously, particularly by allowing people to benefit from photographic and hunting tourism.
The current situation
All of these historical details are necessary to understand the situation with Namibian elephants today. Elephants have not only recolonised Etosha, but have recovered in the communal conservancies in the north-western and north-eastern parts of Namibia. Until recently (1990’s and 2000’s), however, the freehold farmlands have remained free of elephants. The infrastructure mentioned above has thus been developed without the need to protect it from thirsty and often destructive pachyderms.
Human-elephant conflict is continuously managed in the communal conservancies by their game guards[5] and Event Book[6] monitoring system, and the Human-Wildlife Conflict Self-Reliance Scheme has been set up to assist farmers in communal areas that lose crops to elephants (note that water infrastructure is not covered). Further, the wildlife-based industries in conservancies create a direct link between elephant presence and benefits in the form of conservancy income, tourism jobs and elephant meat. While mitigating conflict will always be part and parcel of the communal conservancy programme, these efforts have generated a fairly high level of tolerance for elephants among conservancy members.
The human-elephant conflict that is addressed in MEFT’s tender for selling 170 elephants is targeted at elephant populations that have moved onto freehold farmlands from neighbouring communal lands and National Parks. Farmers that operate commercially are generally wealthier than their communal counterparts and elephants have been absent for many years on freehold lands. The government’s focus has therefore been to help poor communal farmers living with elephants in conservancies, but the recent drought has brought elephants back to the freehold lands they lived on 50-100 years ago. The elephants that arrived recently have found a land of plenty – water all year round (albeit pumped for livestock) and many large trees that have grown in their absence. More and more elephants have found their way onto these farms in the last few years as the drought has pushed them to search for greener pastures.
The damage to infrastructure by elephants dwarfs the crop damages reported in communal conservancies. During the consultations held for input into the Elephant Management Plan, several freehold farmers calculated losses amounting to N$ 100,000-200,000 (US$ 6,800-13,600) per year. Fixing a single windmill damaged by elephants costs N$ 30,000-50,000 (US$ 2,000-3,400). With an estimated 180 freehold farms affected by elephants, infrastructure damages could come to N$ 9 million (US$ 600,000) using a conservative estimate of N$ 50,000 per farmer per year. By contrast, the payments to offset the cost of crop losses throughout communal conservancies amounts to about N$ 2 million (US$ 140,000) per year.
Given the costs of living with elephants, it is unsurprising that the farmers MEFT consulted were requesting a solution. Urgently. Farmers suggested that MEFT reduce elephant numbers, allow elephant hunting to cover costs incurred, and assist with the costs of infrastructure repair and protection. The resounding cry from the consultations was: HELP!
Short-term options for helping farmers
The situation as it stands is untenable; doing nothing is not an option. Long-term mitigation plans (discussed in the next section) are necessary, but farmers cannot keep haemorrhaging money until these plans come to fruition. Since MEFT does not have the resources to compensate farmers whilst awaiting a more permanent solution, something else must be done in the short-term to help these farmers.
The advert to sell the elephants and translocate them elsewhere reveals MEFT’s first choice of action. Elephants have been sold and successfully moved to private reserves in Namibia in the past (for example, some of the elephants on Erindi Game Reserve[7] are privately owned and others are leased from the government), so this sale seems to be an effort to replicate past success. If elephants can be moved from where they are not wanted to where they can live in peace and generate tourism revenue, we have a win-win situation.
The recent drought and damage to the tourism industry due to the COVID-19 pandemic may, however, undermine this plan. If no Namibian buyers could be found, then perhaps reserves in other countries that have experienced elephant declines would be interested. Angola and Zambia come to mind, as they have habitats similar to parts of Namibia and could be interested in restocking some of their protected areas. The costs involved in moving entire family groups over large distances may prove prohibitive, however.
The simplest and cheapest option would be to cull the elephants currently occurring on freehold farms and sell the meat to recoup the costs. Several farmers suggested this course of action during the public consultations. This is clearly not MEFT’s preferred option (as they would have done it already), but it might become necessary if there are no willing takers for the elephants in the conflict hotspots.
Others have suggested chasing the elephants out of the farmlands, but this is impractical and inhumane. The distances one would have to chase these family herds to get to the nearest protected areas from the conflict farms would cause much more severe stress than culling. There is also no guarantee that the elephants would stay in the protected area – the same drivers that are causing elephants to leave these areas (too many other elephants, need for food and water) would still be present and some parks do not have sufficient fencing to prevent future breakouts.
Long-term options for conflict mitigation
The proposed sale of 170 elephants is meant to take about half of the elephants in each of the populations that are being targeted. So it is clearly a measure to try and limit damages in the short-term whilst searching for longer-term solutions. Building walls around water points[8] have proven to be successful in conservancies, particularly if a solar pump is installed (diesel pumps get expensive when elephants are drinking the water). Adding a strand of live electrical wire around the perimeters of farms where elephants are not wanted may also be feasible in certain areas.
A few of the farms in the Kamanjab area south of Etosha have turned to tourism for their income, but these elephant-tolerant farm owners are surrounded by others that are still farming livestock. Transforming the Kavango Cattle Ranch in the north-eastern conflict hotspot into a game reserve might also work if sufficient funding is available to make the transformation (this Ranch is managed by the Namibia Industrial Development Agency on behalf of the Ministry of Trade and Industry). An elephant-proof fence would then need to be erected around the Ranch to prevent elephant movement onto neighbouring freehold farms. In all four conflict hotspots, however, there are farmers who are not interested in developing their farms for tourism, especially in the wake of COVID-19 that has devastated the tourism industry.
Several farmers suggested that the government supports private elephant ownership, which at the moment is limited to only a handful of farms. This would give farmers greater freedom in terms of managing their elephant populations through hunting, culling, or live sales to other farmers (these actions would all still require permits, as elephants are specially protected in Namibia). Freehold farmers could then access similar elephant-related benefits to communal conservancies, which would help to offset the costs incurred from living with them.
Support rather than criticism
Considering the substantial recovery of elephants since Namibia’s independence, the nature of the current conflict, and MEFT’s efforts to resolve it without culling elephants, one would think that the elephant sale would be met with international interest and support. While previous elephant translocation efforts[9] in other African countries have been heralded as wonderful conservation initiatives, this offer to translocate elephant herds to suitable locations has been met with harsh criticism.
One of the key sore points is the conflict hotspot near the village of Omatjete, as concerned parties assume that the elephants targeted by this action are those roaming west of Omatjete in the Ugab River. These desert-adapted elephants have a high tourism value; the communal conservancies in this area benefit from their presence and therefore tolerate them. Elephant Human Relations Aid[10] (EHRA) has invested heavily in protecting the water points in this area and monitoring these elephant herds.
This particular criticism would thus be well-founded if it were not based on a misunderstanding of which elephants are being targeted. The elephants in the lower reaches of the Ugab (west of Omatjete) are not the same ones that are causing havoc on the freehold farms east of Omatjete, which are the ones that MEFT is targeting (see map below). If the elephants that are currently on the freehold farms are sold, as per the tender advert, one could use that money to electrify the fence line between the communal conservancies and the freehold farms and thus establish a longer-term solution.
With some context and a better understanding of the situation, my hope is that those reading this article would consider ways to support MEFT and the farmers. Long-term investment into conflict mitigation and tourism is required in all four of the conflict hotspots. Near Omatjete, some of the communal conservancies need joint-venture tourism partners to realise the same benefits as those located further west. There are also many communal farmers here that have not established conservancies, and they require assistance as much as the nearby freehold farms. All of the hotspots on freehold land require protection for their water points, while strategically placed electrified fencing would ensure that the elephants stay where they are welcomed (or at least tolerated).
In the wake of a devastating multi-year drought and the COVID-19 pandemic that has crippled tourism, Namibian farmers on both freehold and communal lands stand in dire need of support. MEFT and its partners have stepped in to help the communal conservancies with the COVID resilience fund[11], and the tender advert is intended to provide much-needed relief also to freehold farmers suffering from elephant damage. At this moment in time, Namibian conservation efforts could do with fewer critics and more genuine supporters.
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I have a brief story to tell, and it goes some way to explaining why conservation is in such a mess these days.
Two talented, passionate people have taken up the cause of lion conservation and made a career of it. Neither lives in Africa. Both have recently featured regularly on international television and news media. BUT they occupy opposite ends of the acrimonious debates about the role of trophy hunting in wild lion conservation. And they regularly slag each other off on social media – often flinging out reams of information at their adoring followers.
We approached each to write a story for us, including providing FACTUAL evidence backing up their oft-repeated claims about the evils/benefits of trophy hunting of wild lions. Neither knew that we had approached the other. Both submitted their stories to us, but neither has responded to our fact-check questions, despite repeated requests going back many months.
And there you have it. While INFLUENCERS slug it out for dopamine-infused social media fame, Rome burns. It is what it is.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
In the wake of Hukumuri’s death, lots of people are now interested in human-wildlife conflict (HWC). Many wanted to replace Romina Mathonsi’s livestock. The issue of compensation for livestock killed by wild predators is complicated. Some research shows it exacerbates HWC. Other research indicates precisely the opposite. I went to find out how or if compensation is given on the Greater Kruger National Park’s western borders by the national park, the private reserves, and the provincial governments. I also spoke to NGOs working in the HWC space. I doubt Romina Mathonsi (or anyone who has lost livestock) gives a flying hoot about the reams of research, conferences and committees deciding whether or not compensation is a good idea. She needs goats. Thornybush River Lodge, didn’t muck about. They bought two goats and delivered them quietly to her. So as the debate rages, at least Ms Mathonsi has some comfort. Find out more in our first story below.
Our second story below tackles the conservation effect of farming wild species and legalising trade in their parts for human consumption. Interestingly for me, apparently stigmatising wildlife consumption helps reduce demand.
The subject of our third story below, looks at the slightly taller, red-eared version of the domestic moggy, but, to paraphrase Basil Fawlty…cuddle that, and you’ll never play the guitar again.
Finally, the seventh week of glorious African celebration through your images in our Photographer of the Year, which carries a prize of 10 000 USD and a six-day safari to Khwai in Botswana. Here’s all you need to know about entering. We are looking for pictures that evoke emotion and tell an African story.
Story 2 https://africageographic.com/stories/african-wildcat/
TOUGH MOGGIES
The African wildcat is one of Africa’s “Secret 7” – tough little cats are just as untamed and fierce as their iconic big cat cousins. Read more here
On the 12th of February 2021, we posted a story on the circumstances surrounding the death of a famous leopard Hukumuri. Many people asked what they might do to help all concerned (animal and human). This article attempts to explain the complex issues around compensation for damage caused by wild animals.
An outpouring of emotion
The death of Hukumuri unleashed a wave of emotion: outrage, sadness, helplessness, fear.
There was also an outpouring of reasoned compassion. Sympathy extended to Hukumuri, to African people living in close proximity to potentially dangerous animals and to Ms Mathonsi who, to remind you, has seven children and lost two pigs, two goats and a dog to Hukumuri. Some wanted to know how they might help to stop this sort of thing from happening again. Many expressed an earnest desire to give money to Ms Mathonsi in order that she might replace her herd.
I wish we could simply have posted her PayPal account on social media, and told those generous souls to have at it. Ms Mathonsi would no-doubt have replaced her herd many, many times over. Unfortunately, it simply ain’t that simple – in 2021 it should be, but it ain’t.
Firstly, Mrs Mathonsi has never heard of PayPal. She might have a bank account but will have no digital access to her bank because of a combination of ridiculous data costs, poor education, and physical separation from an actual bank. Secondly, Ms Mathonsi is not the only one who lost livestock to leopards in the recent past – perhaps to Hukumuri, perhaps to others, no-one really knows. Thirdly, Ms Mathonsi lives in a village awash with cultural complexities that I’m not going to vaguely attempt to delve into save to say that were she suddenly to receive a windfall, she’d immediately become a target.
So what can those kind souls who want to help do?
Well, I think the best thing we can do is explain how compensation for wild animals is effected on the western borders of the greater Kruger National Park, and then provide a few guidelines.
Compensation pros and cons
In this case, compensation means a cash (or kind) payment for a loss incurred to a Damage-Causing Animal (DCA) that has escaped from a reserve. It must be remembered that compensation is just one part of a very complex set of interventions used to mitigate human-wildlife conflict (HWC). It is a deeply emotive and powerful intervention however.
A look at the literature around financial compensation for incidents involving wild animals indicates mixed effectiveness in Africa and beyond. In summary, if managed correctly with effective reporting, adequate resources, a proper legal framework and long-term commitment, compensation has a positive impact on conservation. That said, if reporting is open to abuse and there is no legal framework then compensation can result in people encouraging DCA incidents or inventing them – nothing earth-shattering there [1][2][3]. A little more earth-shattering are reports of incidents where people will specifically cut fences and chase elephants out, claiming that they are DCAs so that the animals will be shot and the meat can be consumed.
The greater Kruger boundary
The border of the greater Kruger National Park in South Africa is more than 700 kms long. There are in excess of two million people living in rural villages living along the borders. There are many more in the region but not all live close enough to the park for DCAs to be an issue. It is important to understand that the KNP in South Africa is fenced along the entire border – this is unusual in Africa. The fence provides a hard boundary and often there is no buffer zone separating people from the fence.
The people living in these villages are poor. Villagers survive on a combination of government grants (for the elderly, unemployed mothers, the indigent and the disabled), livestock, gardening or small-scale farming. Unemployment is above 70% in many areas.
Most villages have electricity but few residents can afford it. Potable water is normally collected from communal taps which frequently run dry. Medical care is appalling and often far away. Schooling, provided by the government, ranks somewhere near the bottom of the world in various measures[4].
The purpose of this rather detailed socio-economic description is to illustrate how utterly devastating it can be when a wild animal comes out of the park and kills livestock or destroys crops – when your livelihood and those of your children is tied up with your little maize crop, your herd of goats or your cattle.
Who gives what to whom?
Although a number of reserves and lodges do not offer direct compensation for incidents involving DCAs, they do provide support for a number of community projects (water provision, education bursaries, game drives for local children, farming, medical etc.). The effectiveness and proportional generosity of these interventions form the basis for countless PhDs, endless conferences and reams of politically-charged commentary. Support of this nature comes from the lodges themselves and not the reserves they are on.
With all this in mind, we wanted to find out about the compensation policies of SANParks (operators and custodians of the Kruger National Park), the private reserves on the western boundary, and the state-operated Manyeleti Game Reserve.
By law, when an animal escapes from the greater Kruger, it becomes a problem for the province in question. In the Kruger that is either the MTPA (Mpumalanga Tourism and Parks Authority) or LEDET (Limpopo Economic Development Environment and Tourism). One of these authorities has to decide what to do with escaped animals and whether or not they are declared DCAs. So when an elephant, for example, breaks out of the Kruger, it becomes the responsibility of the province – not SANParks – although often SANParks will be brought in to help with the situation because the provincial authorities cannot deal with the situation for financial or logistical reasons.
South African National Parks (SANParks)
SANParks – Kruger National Park is responsible for the longest length of boundary bordered by rural villages. They have a compensation plan that, in broad strokes, does the following:
When claims can be verified compensation is given for livestock killed by escaped lions, spotted hyenas, cheetah and wild dog.
Livestock killed by leopards is generally not compensated for, as these cats are free-ranging and found outside of reserves.
No compensation is given for crop destruction due to the difficulty in verifying such incidents.
Each incident and request for compensation must be investigated by the relevant conservation agency official (provincial or SANParks). Photographic evidence and other forms of information must form part of the submitted claims.
Compensation can be difficult to do effectively. It is complicated and requires on-going discussion and engagement both inside and outside of the organisation. However, livestock compensation next to Kruger is necessary, has born positive results and will continue to do so as it adapts through the various lessons learnt.
To summarise what a highly experienced conservationist once said to me: if you are going to treat animals as assets, then the custodians or owners of those assets must take responsibility for them. If your asset causes damage, then you have a moral duty to try to reduce the impact felt by the person in whatever way you can. This creates goodwill. Without goodwill, your asset simply becomes a hindrance to the person’s livelihood and when that happens, people may take matters into their own hands.
The financial cost of the compensation is most likely relatively low compared to the benefits. Especially when considering that only a relatively small fraction of people actually own cattle, and have likely been affected by predators directly and would need compensation. In contrast, many more people express a perceived fear of stock loss or danger from wild animals. So addressing the impact through actions such as compensation can go a long way in influencing perceptions at a broader scale.
Sabi Sands Game Reserve
There is no compensation given for human-wildlife conflict. The Sabi Sands defers to the MTPA for all incidents involving DCAs. That said, the Sabi Sands will fund helicopter and capture operations if their fence is breached provided such operations are deemed viable and appropriate.
Timbavati Private Nature Reserve
No compensation plan – deferral to the MTPA or LEDET depending on where a DCA animal escapes.
Balule Game Reserve
There are no rural communities that live near the Balule fence. The reserve does not have any specific compensation policies in place for DCA incidents. Since the surge in rhino poaching, the boundaries are monitored constantly – at least twice a day on foot, continually with digital alarm and camera systems. Any breach of the fence by human or animal is immediately acted upon which lessens the chance of predators escaping. This is more or less the case for the Sabi Sands, Timbavati and Klaserie.
Manyeleti Game Reserve
The Manyeleti defers to their land custodians, the MTPA. They do not pay compensation or make any decisions on DCA incidents.
Thornybush Private Game Reserve
Thornybush has no specific compensation plan for DCAs. That said, ad hoc compensation claims are assessed on an incident by incident basis.
Klaserie Private Nature Reserve
The Klaserie does not have a compensation plan because, as an official told me, they do not have villages directly on their borders.
Abelana Game Reserve
Abelana (the business) does not have a specific compensation policy. That said, the landowner is the community on the eastern border of the reserve. Relations with the community are of the utmost importance to the well-being of the business. Because of this priority, the eastern fence line is patrolled almost permanently and repaired continuously. To date, Abelana has not had any DCA incidents. They will, however, treat any DCA claims on an ad hoc basis and consider compensation.
Makalali Game Reserve
Makalali, does not have any villages on the borders and therefore does not have a compensation scheme. There is a big buffer zone between Makalali and the nearest village. They do however have insurance that should cover them in the event of an animal causing damage in a village or on the main road. In instances where elephants have broken out and caused damage to the fences of neighbouring properties, the reserve has reimbursed the owners and reclaimed this from their insurance.
They do have breakouts of animals from time to time because, as the warden admitted, it is very difficult to maintain 90kms of fence in permanent, perfect condition. None of these breaches of the fence has resulted in a DCA incident.
The provincial authorities
The MTPA, through their spokesman, told me emphatically that ‘…the MTPA doesn’t pay community members who lost livestock due to wildlife.’ That said, there is anecdotal evidence that ad hoc compensation has been paid from time to time. It is possible that the MTPA does not want a flood of compensation claims and therefore does not have an official policy for compensation but this is a guess.
I made multiple attempts to contact LEDET and was promised some information but none was forthcoming. Going on hearsay from people intimately involved with HWC issues, it would seem that LEDET does not pay compensation.
Ye olde adage – prevention is better than cure.
It would seem that compensation is a cure or medicine required for as long as the ‘sickness’ that are DCA incidents occur. The better we become at preventing DCA incidents, the less this cure will be required. Until then, compensation – well managed, funded and equitable – has shown some positive results, not only in improving relations between people and parks but also helping reserve authorities to identify hotspots where fences are regularly breached. These areas are monitored and this has reduced DCA incidents in hotspots on the western boundary of the greater Kruger.
I spoke with Mike Grover of Conservation South Africa and Vusi Tshabalala of Kruger to Canyons Biosphere (K2C), both of whom are dedicated to making the confluence of people and parks amicable, equitable and mutually beneficial.
One of the programmes that K2C facilitates, involves employing a number of environmental monitors from 74 communities on the western boundary. A pilot project in five villages, sees the environmental monitors deployed specifically to assist with human-wildlife conflict. Their role is to educate community members, identify problems through patrols and tracking, and then facilitate communication with the right authorities when an issue is identified.
Further afield, in the Mozambican part of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park, a specialised herding scheme allows for community members to graze their cattle in the reserve. The scheme, using specialised bomas and highly-trained herdsmen has reduced cattle losses to predators from 22 animals a month to zero – and this is INSIDE the Transfrontier Conservation Area!
It is initiatives like this that will ultimately provide the prevention and negate the need for the difficult-to-administer cure that is compensation.
So how can you help?
Your best bet is find an NGO (not for profit), research what they do, and contribute to their work trying to mitigate human wildlife conflict – arguably Africa’s greatest conservation challenge. There are some highly experienced, specialised and knowledgeable people with decades of experience in this space and they need support. In many cases they are having measurable success in making sure that tragedies like the death of Hukumuri, become less and less frequent.
Also, of course, you can travel responsibly. Research the lodges and reserves you visit. Make sure that their initiatives align with efforts to reduce human-wildlife conflict.
[1] Maclennan, S. D. et al. 2009. Evaluation of a compensation scheme to bring about pastoralist tolerance of lions. Biological Conservation.
[2] fao.org/3/ap537e/ap537e.pdf
[3] Bauer, H. et al. 2015. Financial compensation for damage to livestock by lions Panthera leo on community rangelands in Kenya. Oryx, volume 51, issue 1.
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
“In ancient times, cats were worshipped as gods. They have not forgotten this…” ~ Terry Pratchett
A cat stretched out on the best seat in the house, lazing in the sun, is the very picture of domestication. They purr contentedly and rub up against their human servants’ ankles, demanding to be timeously fed, or regard the excitable family dogs with a kind of contemptuous smugness from a place of safety. Yet as every cat owner knows, there are times when these cats stalk their surrounds, pupils wide and teeth and claws at the ready, embroiled in their own hunts, scuffles, and romances. In these moments, domestic cats don’t appear particularly domestic.
Their instincts are a throwback to a time when their ancestors stalked Africa and Asia, surviving by their wits and reflexes, and preying on any number of small mammals, birds, amphibians, and arthropods. Some of these cat ancestors were drawn to human settlements and abandoned their wild existence to enslave their human owners. Yet others remained wild and, to this day, African wildcats continue to live as they have for thousands of years. Rangy and hard-bitten, they slink through the continent’s savannas, forests, and wetlands – seldom seen and often overlooked but every bit as wild as the other members of the feline family.
The true ancestors of domestic cats
In many ways, African wildcats are to cats what wolves are to dogs, with some important differences. While a history of domestic cats may seem out of place in an article on a wild creature, it goes to the heart of understanding the challenges faced by conservationists in classifying and protecting African wildcats.
The process of cat domestication was a complex one, and fossil evidence is in short supply, making piecing the events together somewhat tricky. Historians and scientists now believe that domestic cats went through two different periods of domestication – first in south-west Asia around 10,000 years ago and then, once again, in Egypt about 3500 years ago. Genetic analysis indicates that domestic cats may have two different source populations that can be traced to different periods but confirms African wildcats are the true ancestors of domestic cats.
As with dogs, scientists believe that cats were domesticated along a commensal pathway. Essentially, the wildcats (initially in Egypt and the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East) would have been attracted to human settlements for a variety of reasons, including warmth and increased food availability. Over time, people realized the benefits of keeping cats for pest control and gradually a shift took place from a purely pragmatic mutualistic relationship to one that extended to companionship (and selective breeding). A skeleton of one wildcat uncovered in Egypt and dated to somewhere between 3,600 and 3,800 years ago shows evidence of healed fractures that suggest the injured cat was cared for by a human.
Unlike dogs, modern cats have retained more genetic and behavioural similarities with their wild relatives, most likely because, while domestic dogs have been largely isolated from their ancestral wolf populations for thousands of years, domestic cats have continued to breed with their wild cousins. This, in turn, has ultimately led to one of the greatest threats facing wildcat populations not only in Africa but across the globe.
What’s in a name? Everything.
Given that domestic cats have only been “domesticated” for around 4,000 or so years and have continued to breed with their immediate wild neighbours, they are almost indistinguishable genetically from wildcat populations. These genetic and morphological similarities have made the classification of several smaller cat species extremely complicated and often contested. So much so that even the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature only confirmed the domestic cat as a separate species in 2003.
The Felidae family or cat family evolved around 10 million years ago, and the Felis genus diverged some 7 million years later. This genus of small and medium-sized cats encompasses several different species and subspecies including domestic cats (F. catus), the jungle cat (F. chaus), the black-footed cat (F. nigripes), the sand cat (F. margarita) and the African wildcat (F. lybica).
The IUCN Red List still lists the African wildcat as a subspecies of the European wildcat (F. silvestris), which in turn has been allocated a conservation status of “Least Concern”. However, this is likely to change after a 2017 report by the IUCN’s own Cat Specialist Group recognized the African wildcat as a separate species – Felis lybica. The report also tentatively proposed three different subspecies distinguished primarily on distribution: F. l. lybica (found in North Africa), F. l. cafra (the Southern African wildcat) and F. l. ornate (found in Asia).
Species and subspecies distinctions may seem pedantic in animals that are almost identical on so many levels, but these distinctions are fundamental to conservation efforts. Classification as a separate species allows zoologists to draw substantive conclusions as to the animal’s conservation status. It also makes the process of identifying specific threats more selective. In the case of the African wildcat, it is the threat to its genetic integrity that menaces the population.
The conservation (cat)astrophe?
In a 2010 study by the Ecology Global Network, scientists estimated that there were some 600 million domestic cats in the world. By contrast, while there are no estimates of African wildcat populations (the logistics and their widespread distribution make counting them an almost impossible task), there is no doubt that they are massively outnumbered.
As available wild spaces have vanished one by one, human populations have expanded, bringing domestic and feral cats with them. Given their genetic similarities, sexual encounters between domestic cats and wildcats are inevitable, and hybridization is common on the fringes of wildcat distribution ranges.
In a 2014 study, researchers concluded that in South Africa at least, levels of hybridization are still relatively low, especially in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier National Park which is a population stronghold for the African wildcat. The DNA samples collected from wildcats that indicated the highest levels of interbreeding came from individuals in the Kruger National Park. Given the high human population density on the Park’s border, this is hardly surprising.
A project such as Alley Cat Rescue aims to mitigate this impact through domestic and feral cat sterilization programmes, focussing their attentions on specific border areas. These programmes also implement vaccination schemes to reduce the risk of disease transmission between domestic and wildcats.
Is it a wildcat or an escaped moggie?
To the uninitiated, an African wildcat could look for all the world like a slim domestic cat. There are, however, subtle differences between the two. African wildcats are slightly taller than the average domestic cat, and their legs are proportionately longer, which gives them a more upright posture, particularly when sitting. Their walking gait is more like that of a serval or cheetah than the average domestic cat.
The variety seen in domestic cat coat colours is a product of selective breeding, and this variety is not reflected in the coat colours of the African wildcat. Instead, their almost uniform colour ranges from red to sandy and brown to grey, with very faint stripes known as the mackerel-tabby pattern. The end of their tails is ringed with black, the backs of their ears are characteristically russet, and the underside of their paws are pitch-black.
Behaviour
Like their domestic congeners, African wildcats have proved to be extremely adaptable and, as a result, occupy a wide number of different habitats from deserts and grasslands to savannas (though their range does not extend to rainforests). Their diets are varied and unselective – anything, including small mammals, birds, reptiles, and arthropods are all targeted. Some individuals have even been known to prey on young livestock animals such as lambs or kids, putting them at risk of conflict with farmers. African wildcats are reliant on keen senses, particularly their hearing, to identify prey. Their ambush approach is well-honed, and they demonstrate extraordinary patience in stalking – often biding their time for hours at a time.
One of the common effects of domestication (seen in domestic dogs, cats and other animals) is an increased breeding frequency. Female domestic cats reach sexual maturity as early as four months old and are capable of producing three litters of kittens every year. In contrast, the African wildcat generally only produces one litter during the wet season.
Being one of the smallest members of the cat family, their natural predators are numerous and include the larger cat species and birds of prey.
Conclusion
For the most part, African wildcats are somewhat underappreciated – they look so similar to feral cats that they are often dismissed as such, despite their status as one of the “Secret 7” (serval, wildcat, large-spotted genet, civet, porcupine, aardvark and pangolin). Yet these gangly, tough little cats are just as interesting, untamed, and fierce as their iconic big cat cousins.
The debate surrounding the farming and regulated, legal trade of wildlife is one of the most polarizing discussions in conservation. Supporters of both sides have reached an effective deadlock over the historical and perceived advantages and disadvantages of each approach. A new study by the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife in the USA investigates the effects of bans/legalisation on the Chinese consumption of animal parts. The results caution against legalising trade.
In summary, the findings show that:
The legalisation of trade impacts personal and social perceptions of the use of wildlife parts;
The legal trade of wildlife reduces the stigma and increases the personal acceptability and social approval of animal parts’ consumption for both medicinal and non-medicinal purposes;
The effects of wildlife farming are more pronounced on the perceptions surrounding the use of mammals: farming mammals reduces the stigma attached to using mammal parts;
Reducing the stigma attached to the use of animal parts could see a massive increase in demand;
Trade and farming of one species has knock-on effects on the stigma attached to other, non-target species; and
For bans to be effective, they need to be purpose-specific – directed at both medicinal and non-medicinal use.
The background
One of the primary questions at the heart of the wildlife trade debate is the effect that legalisation has on demand for the animal part concerned – does a legal wildlife trade saturate the market or increase it? Following on from this question is whether or not farming wildlife can meet this demand and reduce poaching of wild populations. Yet even though these conversations dominate conservation circles, little empirical evidence exists to answer these complex questions. The study by Dr Rizzolo, an expert in conservation criminology, is based on an experimental vignette survey conducted in Mainland China to address some of these unknowns in a more quantifiable manner.
The survey
When used for research purposes, vignettes are essentially short stories about a hypothetical person or situation presented to the participants of the survey. The participants are then asked a series of questions based on the context of their specific vignette. In this case, the various scenarios presented in the vignettes focussed on four species (bears, tigers, snakes, and turtles) and two different uses of the animal product (medicinal or non-medicinal). It also dealt with three legal situations: the product is illegal; the product is legal and from a farmed animal; or the product is legal and from a wild animal.
Once the respondents had read the vignette, they were presented with a series of questions around the acceptability of wildlife consumption, the social approval of wildlife consumption and the legal repercussions for the various wildlife species. The survey was conducted online with a sample of 1002 adult respondents, and the demographic variables (age, gender, and income) were approximately representative of China’s population as a whole. The sample did include more highly educated respondents than is representative of China as a whole. However, given the link between social status and wildlife consumption, the researchers were comfortable that the survey captured the demographic relevant to the questions at hand.
Legal trade of wildlife = increased acceptability and social approval
The results of these surveys provide empirical evidence for the stigma effect on wildlife consumption. There is strong evidence that the legal context of a particular animal part affects not only influences perceptions of legal punishment, but also the level of acceptability and social approval for wildlife consumption. Naturally, while this acceptability does not automatically alter behaviour (purchasing and using animal parts), it does act as a decisive motivating factor. The fact that illegality decreases both acceptability and social approval challenges the idea that demand can be saturated through legal products – because demand will invariably increase with legalisation.
Interestingly, the study also indicates that legalisation and wildlife farming are related but distinct policy contexts. Hypothetical bans had a uniform effect on the survey responses for all species concerned, but the impact of legal wildlife farming was more nuanced. Where parts from mammals (in this case, bears and tigers) were concerned, wildlife farming increased the acceptability of their consumption and reduced the stigma surrounding their use.
Furthermore, wildlife farming and wildlife trade bans can also impact the consumption of non-target species. For example, in a hypothetical scenario where snake consumption was banned, this correlated with increased acceptability of the consumption of bear products and social approval of the use of tiger bones. On the other side of this spectrum, legal bear farming was associated with the increased acceptability of tiger bone and skin. The reason for use (medicinal or non-medicinal/consumptive) also affected perceptions of the use of non-target species. This demonstrates just how complex the effects of wildlife farming and trade bans can be for all wildlife, even those species not directly under discussion.
The conclusion
The author acknowledges that there are limitations to this research, including the lack of qualitative data that could have provided some insight into the respondents’ motivations. In addition, the stigma attached to the use of wildlife products is only one of several factors that influence the acceptability of consumption.
However, the study offers important insights into how the legalisation of wildlife trade and wildlife farms affects consumers and, ultimately, the demand for wildlife products. The data indicate that for bans to be effective, they need to be tailored to the species, the product, and the type of use. Where mammal-based medicinal products are concerned, a ban that explicitly targets medicinal use is needed to reduce demand, rather than just a species-level consumption ban. Notably, the study concludes by suggesting that “bans on wildlife consumption and decreased wildlife farming of mammals can have conservation benefits”.
Studies such as this are of profound importance in the realm of African wildlife conservation, as conservationists and policymakers debate the legal trade in rhino horn (both from wild and farmed animals) and the farming of lions for their bones. Understanding the real demand for animal parts once the illegal stigma is removed is vital to determining whether there is any truth to the popular theory that farmed wildlife will keep wild populations safe.
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Turn up the mic; I’ve got something to say.
It’s no secret that Covid-19 and other viruses originated in the wildlife markets of China. Of course, this needs to be officially confirmed so that society can find a way to avoid further illness, death and economic misery – as we are currently experiencing. But here’s the thing: this pandemic was forecast by health experts and China was warned about the ‘wet’ markets. Despite that, what are the chances that the government of China will be held ACCOUNTABLE for the tidal wave of death and economic misery that has swamped us all? The world surely needs to keep the government of China in a good mood if our stuttering economies are to recover, and we will all certainly continue to buy mobile phones, computers, clothes and other goods made in that country. Expect a light slap on the wrist for the government of China, for the evil wildlife trade to continue unabated (it has already recommenced, after a brief hiatus) and for the next wave of viruses to come rolling off the factory floor.
On a lighter note, check out the NEW FEATURE on our website where you can easily find our best stories – based on species, places, safari tips and safari report-backs. From our home page, go to ‘Our stories’ on the menu and see the drop-down menu of delicious content offerings. Off you go!
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
Our two stories below will invoke entirely disparate emotions.
The first will leave you frantically making excuses to your employer for why you need a few weeks off. My wife and I honeymooned in the Kgalagadi last year (note: camping in the desert is an excellent test of whether newlyweds have made a great choice or a catastrophic mistake). It is a mystical desert of astonishing life. Whether you camp or choose more salubrious accommodations, the Kgalagadi will plug you right back into wilderness.
The second story is a tragedy on multiple fronts. A tale that has created heated debate, anger, sadness, compassion, learning and, lamentably, vitriolic attacks. Most people reacted with compassion, expressing a desire to help. Hukumuri was a magnificent leopard. He died too soon. If there is an atom of positivity to be taken from Hukumuri’s tragic demise, it is that his fame has created an awareness of human-wildlife conflict challenges; a greater appreciation of the fact that there are people, straining well below the breadline, who must live with beautiful, threatened but potentially dangerous African wildlife.
Lastly, another stupendous collection of images in our Photographer of the Year, which carries a prize of 10 000 USD and a six-day safari to Khwai in Botswana. Send in your images. Here’s all you need to know about entering. The only criterion is that the pictures must be a celebration of Africa. (They should not include, as one hopeful submitted, a selfie using nothing but a coat hanger to cover the bits no-one wants to see. That’s just odd).
Story 1 https://africageographic.com/stories/kgalagadi/
PREDATOR HEAVEN
Safari on your mind? The Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park offers one of the most spectacular and intimate immersions in nature imaginable
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
As dusk descends over the red sands of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, her animal choir prepares for another encore-worthy performance. First, the barking geckos emerge to set up the staccato rhythmic accompaniment for what is to come. The pennywhistle arpeggios of the pearl-spotted owlet – disproportionately loud for such a small bird – weave through the gracenote “brrps” of the scops owls and trills of the rufous-cheeked nightjars. Waiting patiently in the wings, a lion adds a booming baritone that echoes over the ancient, ephemeral, rivers, setting the stage for the main performance of the evening.
As the sun dips below the horizon, the scenery is bathed in the colours of the Kalahari, and a solitary jackal howls. One by one, its neighbours add their voices to the call and response melody, a haunting, lupine soprano that cuts through the night and raises goosebumps on human skin.
This is the song of the Kgalagadi
The Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park
The Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park covers an enormous 35,551km2 (3.5 million hectares) in the Kalahari Basin, incorporating national parks in South Africa and Botswana. In Botswana’s southwestern corner, the Gemsbok National Park covers nearly three-quarters of the Kgalagadi (28,400km2) while the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park and the !Ae!Hai Kalahari Heritage Park together comprise the South African section in the Northern Cape.
As the oldest transboundary protected area in Africa, the Kgalagadi enjoyed a de facto existence from as early as 1948, when informal agreements between the national parks ensured that the entire ecosystem was holistically managed. However, it was only in 1999 that South Africa and Botswana legally formalised these agreements, and the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park was officially opened in May 2000. Visitors are free to travel between the two countries within the park without a passport, provided they exit from their original country of entrance.
While the rolling red dunes and Kalahari sandveld plains are spectacularly beautiful, life in the Kgalagadi centres around its two ephemeral rivers: the Nossob and the Auob. The rivers hardly ever flow at surface level; instead, underground water supplies the surrounding camelthorn trees and other vegetation which, in turn, provide essential nutrients to the park’s herbivores at the end of the long dry season.
The basics
The Kgalagadi – which possibly translates as ‘the land of thirst’ – is not an appropriate destination for spontaneous exploration or the inadequately prepared visitor. Main camps aside, most of the wilderness camps and campsites offer only basic facilities and little in the way of phone signal. Though there are entrance gates on both the South African and Botswanan sides, most of the park infrastructure and camps are dotted throughout the South African portion of the park. In contrast, the Botswana side is vast and wild. Large distances and limited roads separate campsites with few facilities and no fuel. This section is only accessible with 4X4 vehicles.
Three main or “traditional” camps in the Kgalagadi are equipped with shops and fuel, as well as electricity (though only Twee Rivieren offers 24-hour power). Twee Rivieren, Nossob and Mata Mata are connected by the park’s main roads which are corrugated but accessible to 2X4 vehicles unless there has been unusually high rainfall. These main camps are the hub of park activity, and visitors can book guided drives (including night drives), guided 4X4 trails and walks.
The wilderness camps (powered by solar and gas) and isolated campsites are unfenced, offering an entirely immersive experience free from the trappings and distractions of modern life – including, in some luxurious cases, flushing toilets. As a result, the Kgalagadi is one of the few remaining wild spaces where visitors can lose themselves in nature and revel in the wildlife’s authenticity; especially the ubiquitous, bright-eyed ground squirrels that have learned to capitalise on the generosity (or messiness) of passing campers.
The wildlife
Arid it may be, but the Kalahari ecosystem is a complex web of life well-adapted to extremes. The Kgalagadi itself is probably not suited to first-time safari-goers, particularly not those intent on ticking off the Big 5, because elephant, rhino and buffalo are not present in the park. Nevertheless, the wildlife viewing in the Kgalagadi is exceptional for two main reasons: the profusion of predators and the opportunity to appreciate the underappreciated.
A predator profusion
Of the 60 or so recorded mammal species in the park, nearly a third of these are predators. For most people, top of the list are the lions of the famed Kalahari black-maned pedigree. The Kgalagadi is considered a vital Lion Conservation Unit (as designated by the IUCN Cat Specialist Group) and it is not uncommon to fall asleep to their roars only to wake up in the morning and discover their tracks crisscrossing the previous night’s braai site. Cheetahs and leopards complete the big cat trifecta, especially during the dry season when the desolate landscape makes it somewhat easier to pick them out at a distance. Russet-coloured caracals with their characteristic black ear tufts are relatively common and the Kgalagadi is home to one of the largest (and genetically purest) wildcat populations in Africa.
Of the other large predators, brown hyenas are particularly well-adapted to desert habitats. These shaggy predators patrol the dunes and scrublands in a constant search for their next carcass or moisture-rich tsamma melon. Their spotted cousins are less numerous but more vocal and conspicuous, often wallowing in pans during the heat of the day.
The smaller canid species are some of the Kgalagadi’s most captivating residents. When not serenading each other, black-backed jackals use their canine wiles to eke out a tenuous existence in the inhospitable landscape. Whether they are scrapping over a leftover piece of leathery skin, bravely snatching a morsel of meat from beneath a lion’s nose or launching acrobatic attacks to catch unsuspecting sandgrouse, time spent with jackals is never wasted.
Like the jackals, Cape foxes (also known as silver-backed foxes) can be equally entertaining, particularly for those fortunate to spend time at den sites with young kits, which must surely rank among the world’s cutest baby animals. Unlike the insectivorous bat-eared foxes (which are also present), the Cape fox is the only true fox species in sub-Saharan Africa.
The underappreciated
The Kgalagadi experience is one of quality over quantity, and rushing from sighting to sighting is not a recipe for success. Instead, time, patience and attention to detail yield greater rewards to the discerning visitor, especially if it means a few hours spent at one of the waterholes at dusk and dawn.
Even within the confines of the camps themselves, life abounds. The aforementioned ground squirrels are so commonplace that they are often overlooked. Close observation of familiar individuals, however, reveals that they lead complex and intriguing lives. Their habit of using their tails as built-in parasols and charismatic personalities make them extraordinarily endearing. Yet, they are also consummate survivors, and their reflexes are lightning-fast, as this brave mother demonstrated in her battle with a Cape cobra.
From honey badgers, meerkats, and mongooses to elephant shrews, whistling rats and chameleons, appreciating nature in all her glory is the very essence of exploring the Kgalagadi.
Jumping for joy…
At the risk of repetition, the best wildlife viewing is at the end of the dry season. The animals are forced to congregate around available water resources (particularly the pumped pans), and vegetation is sparse. However, the park is magnificent regardless of the time of year and the transformation effected by the seasons and the arrival of the rain around December is remarkable. Seemingly overnight, the barren, desiccated landscape is revitalised and carpeted in new life’s green flush. As the thunderstorms roll overhead, annual flowers spring up out of nowhere, painting the scenery in flamboyant colours that seem decidedly out of place in a desert.
Herds of blue wildebeest, gemsbok, red hartebeest, and eland congregate in celebration of the rains, migrating within the park to secure the best resources for the birthing season. There is a palpable sense of relief among the animals that survive the savage dry season, and this is particularly apparent in the herds of springbok that seem to jump for joy. Their unique, pronking leaps provide hours of entertainment. While there are solid biological explanations for this behaviour (displaying physical fitness to predators and potential mates), to many of us, these antelopes simply seem to be enjoying themselves.
The experience
The only luxury lodge in the Kgalagadi is !Xaus Lodge which is found on the border of the southern section of the park, in the !Ae!Hai Heritage Park. This 580km2 section of land was set aside for both the ‡Khomani San and Mier communities, and profits from the lodge are fed back to these communities.
The Kgalagadi is a land of extremes, and visitors should be prepared to face them. At the height of summer, the temperatures soar above 40˚C every day, and the relentless sun beats down on the red sands, lifting temperatures to around 70˚C on the surface. As already mentioned, most of the camps are rudimentary, and few are equipped with fans, let alone air conditioning. By contrast, the temperatures at night in winter can drop to well below freezing and where there is plumbing, it is not unusual to wake to pipes frozen solid. Comprehensive planning and research will ensure that visitors get the most out of the Kgalagadi experience.
A stroll around the campsite at night with a UV light will reveal the scorpions emerging to take advantage of the cooler temperatures. This, combined with regular snake sightings, should be sufficient to convince even the most experienced camper to wear sensible footwear at night and carry a powerful flashlight.
Want to go on a safari to Kgalagadi? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
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WOW, our tragic breaking news story of a few weeks ago about the plummeting Kruger rhino populations has certainly rattled a few cages and grabbed worldwide attention. Many international news media and conservation/activist organisations took up the story and made it their own. My team and I are proud of this role we play – as originators of factual content.
Our own Jamie Paterson (scientific editor) conducted two radio interviews and helped spread the actual situation to an even larger audience. Listen to her brief interviews below. I was particularly affected by her story in the one interview of takeaway food packaging strewn around the bloody poached rhino carcass – another day at the office for these evil ones.
The South African government’s high-fiving press releases about fewer rhinos poached will now fall on a few more EDUCATED ears and be treated with caution. That said, I see that many news media platforms simply cut-and-paste this misleading information to a gullible public desperate for good news.
Our first story below features the region in Kruger National Park favoured by those in the know. The Makuleke Contractual Park is a special place if you seek remote areas with huge trees, giant elephant bulls, JAW-DROPPING biodiversity and fascinating human history. Next, we celebrate the discovery of a tiny chameleon in Madagascar – although of course nature has known of its existence for a while. Our third story is what you need to know about the aardwolf – that seldom-seen hyena that so many ardent safari-goers have yet to see. What a fascinating creature!
And, finally, we celebrate yet another week of entries to our Photographer of the Year. Competition for the US$10,000 cash prize and a rather special Botswana safari is hotting up. PLEASE send the link below to photographers you feel may benefit from the exposure and prizes 🙂
Story 1 https://africageographic.com/stories/makuleke/
SAFARI SECRET
Two rivers and three countries merge in northern Kruger – expect spectacular biodiversity and a historical hotspot at Crooks Corner
Story 3 https://africageographic.com/stories/aardwolf/
KNOW MORE
The aardwolf is one of the most specialised carnivores on the planet – and a highly sought-after species on game drives
DID YOU KNOW: There are eight recognised species of baobab: six native to Madagascar and one native to each of mainland Africa and Australia. Read more about baobabs here.
Hukumuri, a famous Lowveld leopard, is dead. He died on 16 January 2021 – shot by the local authorities in a rural village after he killed livestock and a dog. These are indisputable facts, and an ongoing investigation may reveal more detail. Huk, as some know him, was a favourite amongst tourists to the northern Sabi Sands Game Reserve and amongst online live safari followers. He was not in the Sabi Sand Game Reserve at the time of his death, and the game reserve management had no hand in his death.
We have, as far as possible, in the short time available, tried to establish exactly what the facts surrounding Hukumuri’s death are. We have spoken to park officials, and yesterday Jamie visited Mr Nabot Mathonsi, the village headman, and the homestead of Romina Mathonsi who lost valuable livestock – almost her entire life’s savings. Here then are our findings, followed by our personal thoughts about a leopard we knew and loved.
This, then, is what we know with relative certainty:
The Mpumalanga Parks and Tourism Authority (MPTA) has confirmed to Africa Geographic that Hukumuri was shot by staff of the Manyeleti Game Reserve with the full authority of the MPTA. Most importantly, this was a ‘last resort’ decision. The staff of the Manyeleti made multiple attempts to catch the leopard under challenging circumstances. If further details become available, we will share them.
He was shot in a village a few kilometres north of the Sabi Sands Game Reserve, some 200 metres west of the Manyeleti fenceline.
Hukumuri killed several goats, pigs and at least one dog, causing a potentially devastating loss for more than one family.
Ms Mathonsi, who has seven children, including young toddlers and lives in abject poverty, lost all of her female livestock and one of her dogs when it tried to chase Hukumuri from her home. The animals had been placed in a ‘kraal’ for the night, and she cried when relating the story to us. When the leopard was tracked down, he was lying beneath a buffalo thorn just 100 metres from her homestead.
Despite the obvious frustration they felt, the community did not take matters into their own hands but called the relevant conservation authorities.
Many of the people living around the game reserves in the area are resentful about the lack of benefit (employment) and the perceived lack of help with compensation when livestock is lost to wild predators. The process of applying for compensation requires a certain level of literacy from the applicants, yet few of the villagers have had any formal education.
The potential for conflict in the area where Hukumuri died is very high. There is no buffer zone between the fence and the villages – there is no soft boundary, and people live virtually up against the fence.
We know, as a hugely experienced guiding friend reminded me, that Hukumuri had become a potential danger to human life. It is often small children who look after livestock in the villages and a non-territorial, possibly injured or sick leopard is not only a threat to livestock but also villagers – especially young children herding livestock. Both Mr and Ms Mathonsi told us that they were terrified for the lives of the village children.
We know that Hukumuri was being pressurised by other males in his area and had probably lost his territory – maybe even more than once. This comes from guides who work in the area and have spent extensive periods with him.
We know that darting and then relocating leopards back to reserves they have left, because they’ve been excluded from territories, seldom works. The costs of relocation are also very high. Despite this, the Manyeleti did make multiple attempts to catch Hukumuri.
Sadly, we also know that this will not be the last time something like this happens despite many people’s best efforts.
When a leopard such as Hukumuri dies, many of us who knew him, feel devastated. It feels like we have lost a close friend, or even, dare we say it, a beloved pet. Hukumuri, of course, would not have mourned our passing because he did not seek out the company of the countless humans he met in the way that a pet might have. But that doesn’t make it any easier for those of us who mourn the loss of a favourite leopard.
We knew Hukumuri for many years – we watched him forge his first territory – full of youthful exuberance and powerful, uncompromising energy. We watched him hunt warthogs to the delight of a live, international, television audience. We noted with trepidation the conflict that left him blinded in one eye – we wondered if he’d manage to hold onto his territory. He became a figure of admiration as he overcame this disability, and then we delighted when he fathered cubs. Sadly, we also noted that despite his relative youth, he seemed to be feeling the pressure from several other male leopards in his area, and his future became uncertain.
It is this sort of rollercoaster drama that makes the lives of animals like Hukumuri so compelling. There will be those who argue we should watch in a detached ‘scientific’ manner. Then again, there are plenty of scientists who have shed tears at the loss of a favourite animal.
When the death of a beloved animal like Hukumuri comes brutally, the pain is that much worse. (We must remember that, in the wild, death very seldom comes peacefully). When the death is brutal and at human hands, the pain we feel often spills over to rage. Anger and pain create mists through which it is very difficult to evaluate situations objectively.
None of this will help the feeling of loss that many of us feel – be it a sense of loss because we knew him, or because we simply love these mystical, spotted cats and can’t bear the thought of them being destroyed in a time of such wanton environmental carnage. But these are the realities of conservation in Africa.
Human-wildlife conflict is one of, if not the greatest challenge facing African nature conservation. There are some very complicated situations at play where people and parks meet. In a simplistic nutshell, the people living on the borders of conservation areas are usually impoverished. They have often been removed from the land or excluded from benefiting directly from it. This has created a situation where conflict with wildlife and wildlife authorities is all but inevitable. If disputes are not quickly and timeously resolved, poor people who bear the brunt of the conflict with wildlife, take matters into their own hands.
In this case, the villagers concerned, while frustrated, further impoverished and also fearful, did not do so and they are to be commended for their patience. Remember that this is a village where the unemployment rate probably exceeds 70 percent. Those who do have jobs are frequently employed in ecotourism. The positive attitude that many community members show to conservation and game reserves is partly a function of this employment.
The loss of Hukumuri is a tragedy; there are no two ways about it. He was only around nine-years-old when he died. In a perfect world, he would have sired more cubs, established himself in another area and continued to delight us with his one-eyed belligerence. But this is nowhere close to a perfect world, and because of the realities of nature conservation in Africa, we have lost a leopard – to many almost a friend.
However, we do not believe that the sadness of this tragedy should overshadow the realities of the situation or override an objective perspective. Hukumuri was pressurised in his territory; he left the protection of the reserve; he killed livestock and posed a genuine threat to human life; the Manyeleti staff did what they could to mitigate the situation; they took the last-resort decision to destroy Hukumuri because they did not see another option.
Were mistakes made? Possibly – we’re all human. Will this happen again? Almost certainly. We must work tirelessly to inform ourselves – to understand the wildlife, the people who live beside it and the myriad factors at play in the complex arena that is African nature conservation. We need to learn to treat the people most affected by conflict with wildlife with the same compassion we would show the animals concerned. Only then can we hope to avoid further tragedies like this one.
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
Scientists have discovered a new contender for the title of world’s smallest reptile: a minute Madagascan chameleon species that can balance comfortably on the tip of a finger. The newly described Brookesia nana male has a body length of just 13.5mm and overall length of 22mm (including the tail). It is the smallest known adult male reptile species. Astonishingly the male’s genitals make up 18.5% of its body length.
The tiny chameleon was discovered by a joint team of German and Malagasy scientists on an expedition to northern Madagascar in 2012. Extreme miniaturisation is relatively common in Madagascar, home to some of the smallest primates, frogs, and chameleons.
The B. nana specimens were collected in a degraded montane rainforest where they spend their days hunting for mites and springtails on the forest floor. At night, the chameleon hides on grass blades. Despite the scientists’ extensive efforts, the team could only find two specimens – a female and a male. The female is slightly larger, usually the case with smaller chameleon species.
One of the most critical tasks was to confirm whether the specimens were mature adults or juveniles. Micro-CT scans of the female revealed two developing eggs, confirming her maturity, but the process for the male was somewhat more complicated. As male chameleons mature, their reproductive structures, termed ‘hemipenes’, change, becoming more intricate. In this case, the male’s hemipenes were sufficiently well-developed for scientists to conclude that he had reached maturity.
The explanation behind the extraordinary size of male genitals most likely lies with the reversed sexual size dimorphism in smaller chameleons. The outsized hemipenes ensure a better mechanical fit during mating.
Of further interest to scientists is just how small complex vertebrates can get, as many of the tiny frog, gecko and chameleon species seem to converge around a similar size. The Brookesia genus (the Madagascan dwarf or leaf chameleons) all demonstrate similar reduction of particular body parts and a lack of head ornaments such as crests or cones. Though there are several theories, the reason the miniature chameleons of Brookesia are as small as they are remains a mystery.
Equally unknown at this point is just how many of the newly discovered B. nana chameleons exist in the wild and whether or not their populations are sustainable. Other members of the genus have a limited distribution, and all are threatened to some extent by habitat loss. While Madagascar is home to around half the world’s chameleon species, it is estimated that less than 10% of island’s forests remain. Of the Madagascan chameleons, 52% are threatened, and 70% are considered threatened or near-threatened. Fortunately, the tiny, new chameleons live in a newly proclaimed protected area ‘Resérve de Ressources Naturelles du Corridor Marojejy-Anjanaharibe Sud-Tsaratanàna partie Nord’, thankfully abbreviated to COMATSA Nord. However, the report recommends that B. nana be classified as ‘Critically Endangered’ on the IUCN Red List.
“Unfortunately, the habitat of the nano-chameleon is under heavy pressure from deforestation, but the area has recently been designated as a protected area, and hopefully that will enable this tiny new chameleon to survive,” says Oliver Hawlitschek from the Centrum für Naturkunde in Hamburg.
The word carnivore in Africa instantly conjures images of long canines and sharp claws – powerful predators like lions or leopards, capable of rending flesh from bone or enthusiastic painted wolves coursing after their equally speedy prey or perhaps even the sinuous athleticism of Madagascar’s fossa. Yet one of the most highly specialized carnivores on the planet wanders the grasslands, deserts, and savannas of the African continent, largely unnoticed and unrecognized. This is the Aardwolf.
Africa’s aardwolf is one of the continent’s most underappreciated yet charming characters. Unlike their larger, spotted cousins, aardwolves are, for the most part, extremely shy and often elusive – few visitors are fortunate enough to spend any time with them and even fewer genuinely appreciate just how lucky they are to do so. For out of all the hyena species, the aardwolf is unique: the last of the dog-like hyenas to survive an evolutionary purge by virtue of its somewhat unusual diet.
The black sheep of the family
The aardwolf (Proteles cristata) is a member of the Hyaenidae family, along with the spotted hyena (Crocuta Crocuta), the brown hyena (Parahyaena brunnea) and the striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena). Of all the hyena species, the aardwolf looks most like a striped hyena, though this is where the similarities end.
The ancestral origins of all four species can be traced back to a civet-like hyena species known as Plioviverrops that thrived throughout Eurasia around 20-22 million years ago. Devoid of canine competition at the time, the early hyenas provided a particularly neat example of convergent evolution – steadily developing longer legs and pointed jaws like those of the canid species in North America. From there, evolution began to follow two different specializations, producing a dog-like hyena lineage that chased down smaller prey and a bone-crushing lineage of hyenas capable of capitalizing on the kills of the large felid species. By 15 million years ago, 30 different species of hyenas roamed early Earth, most of which were dog-like hyenas not dissimilar to jackals.
Then, for the hyenas at least, catastrophe stuck sometime between the 5 to 7-million-year mark. Climate changes resulted in a gradual decline in dog-like hyenas and canid species began to cross the Bering land bridge (between present-day Russia and Alaska) into Eurasia. What followed, presumably, was an evolutionary war of competition, with the canids emerging victorious. One by one, the dog-like hyenas vanished, barring a scattered few: the ancestors of the aardwolf, now the sole survivor of an evolutionary dead-end.
Fussy eating is not always a bad thing
Most evolutionary biologists point to one particular trait responsible for the aardwolf’s survival – the ability to digest the toxic terpene excretions of termites. Myrmecophagy (eating termites or ants) is surprisingly rare in the mammal kingdom and it is a trait typically associated with more ‘primitive’ species such as the pangolin or aardvark. (For the sake of clarity, it is important to note that while many mammals feed on termites or ants on occasion, myrmecophagous mammals are entirely dependent upon them.) What makes the aardwolf so fascinating is that its origin is considered to be relatively recent, with the oldest member of its family tracing back to around between 10 and 20 million years ago (unlike pangolins or aardvarks, whose ancestors have been around for some 60 million years).
Speculative biologists suggest that perhaps it was the aardwolf’s ancestor’s exceptional capacity to digest decaying food that imparted at least a partial tolerance to the otherwise toxic excretions of the termites. This in turn allowed these ancestors to slide into an ecological niche with significantly reduced levels of competition by changing their dietary approach. Unlike the previously evolved termite specialists, aardwolves lack the powerful claws and digging equipment necessary to break open termite mounts to unearth their prey. As a result, aardwolves have come to rely on termite species that forage in large numbers on the soil surface. They feed mainly on nasute harvester termites of the Trinervitermes genus, though the specific species differs according to specific regions. During the cold winter months, they may shift to the more heavily pigmented (and therefore, more diurnally active) Hodotermes species.
Whatever the origins of this unusual dietary preference, the fate of the aardwolf’s success was irrevocably linked to the presence of these specific termites. As a result, in areas such as Zambia, Central and West Africa where these termite species are uncommon or do not congregate on the surface of the soil, the aardwolf is conspicuous by its absolute absence.
The price of reduced competition
This reliance on specific dietary requirements may have allowed the aardwolf to survive the extinction that awaited all other dog-like hyenas, but every adaptation comes with its own cost. Unlike their bone-crushing cousins whose bite-force is renowned, the slim-jawed aardwolf lacks this characteristic entirely and their molars are greatly reduced in size. Their tongues and palates have broadened, and massive salivary glands secrete a constant stream of sticky saliva that coats the tongue, which in turn is covered with hardened papillae, allowing the aardwolf to lap up over 200,000 termites every night. There are patchy records of aardwolves consuming small mammals and birds, but these instances are rare and likely highly opportunistic as the peg-like molars would struggle to process harder food sources.
Given the available numbers of termites, this specialization might seem ideal, but researchers have also shown that seasonal abundance has a profound impact on an aardwolf’s physical condition and survival chances. Termites are temperature sensitive and may be entirely inactive during the cold winter months. Research shows that during this time, the aardwolf’s termite intake reduces to just a fifth of the normal amount and body mass losses of up to 20% have been recorded. These winter months have also been shown to be the period of highest mortality for cubs.
This has interesting ethical implications for guides and visitors looking to view one of Africa’s more unusual offerings. The best chance of seeing an aardwolf is during the winter months when, similar to aardvarks, their behaviour becomes more diurnal to conserve heat. However, great care should be taken to avoid frightening or chasing them during this period, as this unnecessary burst of energy will just add a metabolic drain to their already stressed bodies.
Familial familiarity
While their diets are diametrically opposed, the aardwolf does bear some similarities to its larger bone-crushing congeners, particularly in terms of behaviour. Like the striped hyena, aardwolves generally form monogamous pairs and like all other members of the family, they have highly developed anal glands that produce a pungent paste used to mark territorial boundaries.
They occupy burrow systems, and both the males and females accept responsibility for caring for their young, with the male guarding the den while the lactating female is foraging. As is the case with most monogamous pairings in nature, monogamy does not always equate to fidelity. Typically, this takes the form of male promiscuity but in aardwolves, both the males and females have been observed mating with neighbouring or intruding individuals. In many cases, a more dominant male neighbour will begin regular incursions onto a rival’s territory prior to the onset of the female’s oestrus, sometimes adding their own scent marks inside the territory itself. The female, if allowed the opportunity, will readily mate with the more dominant intruding male. This overt cuckoldry is rare in the animal kingdom and may result in the male deserting the female, a behaviour that has been observed in aardwolves. However, research suggests that this desertion is rare and that the male will usually continue to raise the cubs as his own. Fights between rival males, while unusual, can be ferocious, accompanied by an extraordinary range of vocalizations including a roar-like sound.
The cubs themselves are born with their eyes open, like other hyena species, but remain inside the den for at least six weeks. The litters usually consist of around two to three cubs (though up to five have been recorded) and they begin to venture out on brief foraging excursions at around three months old. Though they reach independence at a young age (between four and six months old), they usually remain with their parents until their mother comes back into oestrus.
A consummate survivor
Despite the fact that their retiring natures mean that they are seldom seen, aardwolf numbers appear to be relatively stable, at least for now, earning them a conservation status of “Least Concern” on the IUCN Red List. In the past, their association with the hyena family caused significant levels of persecution at the hands of farmers under the mistaken impression that they were preying on their livestock. Fortunately, this misconception has been rectified for the most part through educational campaigns and aardwolf populations have been observed to be flourishing in some agriculture areas.
As a specialized forager, conservation organizations recognize that future environmental changes such as global warming may have a significant impact on aardwolves as has already been demonstrated in aardvarks. However, the extent of this impact is still unclear.
Conclusion
Expectations around safari experiences are changing and there is a growing realization that not everything revolves around spotting the ‘Big 5’, as wonderful and iconic as they may be. Many visitors to Africa are now equally enthralled by the prospect of viewing some of her more unusual offerings – from slinking servals to powerful-bodied aardvarks and endangered pangolins. Yet somehow the aardwolf seems to have remained cloaked in obscurity, despite their fascinating lives and intriguing evolutionary oddities.
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It is time to rally together and kill the enemy that is IGNORANCE. Because ignorance fuels the ideological differences that cause us to bicker while Rome burns and results in environmental enthusiasts in the western world lambasting African people for a perceived lack of commitment to wildlife conservation – amongst other consequences. At the root of most behaviour that is destructive to biodiversity and ecosystems lies ignorance.
SO THIS IS A CALL-OUT: Please help us destroy ignorance. The more people we can recruit into our tribe, the more we can spread fact and considered opinion to counter the mountains of misinformation that now dominate our lives. You can help us destroy ignorance by sending this link to those of your family and friends that you know care for Africa as much as you do. Let’s build this tribe and kick some ignorant butts.
Our first story below illustrates my call-out fairly well. No single factor killed those elephants in Botswana last year, nor is there a SILVER BULLET solution. Despite what the needy campaigners will tell you, as they draw a straight line between these deaths and their personal feelings. Now, respected scientists have suggested additional factors that contributed to the elephants’ demise. No, it’s not 5G or Covid-19 or any of the other silly suggestions from the armchair experts. This is an important read to understand how complex these situations often are.
Then, some intriguing details about the sexual DALLIANCES of those remarkable creatures – hyenas. And our third story below is the next instalment of our ever-popular Photographer of the Year – week four. Kick back, scroll, enjoy.
Finally, I leave you with this quote, emailed to me by tribe member Mark Winsloe from the US. “The rarer they get, the fewer meanings animals can have. Eventually, rarity is all they are made of.” – Helen MacDonald
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
Did fences in northern Botswana cause the mysterious death of hundreds of elephants in 2020? News media have been quick on the draw to blame fences, after the release of a recent report suggests a strong link. But, as is often the case, the situation is nuanced and requires pragmatic analysis rather than finding simple solutions to complex problems.
Between March and June 2020, a mysterious illness claimed the lives of 330 elephants in the Seronga district of Botswana’s Okavango Delta. Now, a new study has shed light on the broader ecological implications of these elephant deaths and how a complex interplay of natural and anthropogenic factors (including fences) all played a role.
Scientists have used previous research on elephant movements in the area to interpret the wider conservation implications of these deaths. In particular, their conclusions highlight three main aspects significant for the management of elephant populations, not just in Botswana but throughout Africa:
The impact of fences on conservation – data from collared elephants indicates that the combination of the Okavango River and fences have prevented the elephant population in Seronga from dispersing under unfavourable conditions;
The overlap between natural and unnatural factors – the elephants were likely more susceptible to natural diseases/toxins due to anthropogenic restrictions and, potentially, stress due to human-wildlife conflict;
Land-sharing between people and elephants becomes superficial when the elephants’ access to resource is restricted, and they are prevented from dispersing naturally.
Their recommendation to mitigate future mass die-offs is to remove or realign certain fences around the Seronga district of Botswana.
The background
As would be expected, the deaths of such large numbers of elephants fuelled considerable concern and significant media speculation, though investigating authorities ruled out poisoning, poaching, and anthrax. Samples were sent for testing in Zimbabwe, the United States and South Africa’s Faculty of Veterinary Science at the University of Pretoria, though COVID-19 restrictions delayed the process significantly. In September, Botswanan officials announced that the deaths had resulted from poisoning by cyanobacterial toxins caused by a bloom of cyanobacteria in the available waterholes. These bacteria are naturally occurring, and ‘blooms’ happen when conditions are suitable.
The recently published (11 January 2021) report was written in October 2020, just after the Botswana government’s announcement regarding the cause of death. However, the authors note that other carcasses, including domestic animals, would have been expected had the pans been contaminated by cyanobacteria. They state that the “restriction of freshwater supplies that force elephants to use pans as a water source possibly polluted by blue-green algae blooms is a possible cause, but as yet not supported by evidence.”
Most of the elephant carcasses were found within an area administratively known as NG11, along the Panhandle region of the Delta – a region where human-wildlife conflict is rife. Neither NG11 nor neighbouring NG12 have protected status and are designated for subsistence agriculture. These regions neighbour the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area that extends over five countries and is home to the largest population of African bush (savanna) elephant in Africa.
The research
The study was authored by members of the Conservation Ecology Research Unit in the Department of Zoology and Entomology at the University of Pretoria and the Nicholas School of Duke University Environment. Their previous research included a long-running research programme in the region, tracking the movements of ten collared elephants within NG11 for several years and those of elephants in neighbouring blocks. Their research indicates that the elephants within NG11 are restricted by the Okavango River to the west and international border and veterinary fences to the north, east and south. As a result, the elephants cannot disperse when numbers are too high or when environmental conditions are harmful. The population growth rate for the Seronga area since 1995 is exceptionally high, and elephant numbers in NG11 and NG12 are significantly higher than those in neighbouring blocks, though densities are comparable.
The report concludes that while a disease is a likely explanation for the mass die-off, this would have been caused by several forces acting in concert, exacerbated by both natural and artificial factors. The restricted movements have resulted in high densities of elephants and, at the same time, confined the death-causing agent to one specific region. It is also possible that poaching, conflict with people and restricted access to the Okavango Region forced elephants to rely on stagnant water. Increased stress levels may also have increased their susceptibility to disease. Thus, the article suggests that “such a complex chain of events consisting of multiple causes makes communication complex and policy actions intricate.”
The implications
These complexities highlight several aspects for deeper consideration. The first is the impact of fences on the broader African conservation landscapes and how, historically, veterinary fences have contributed to the declines of antelope species such as sable and tsessebe, and zebra and wildebeest numbers. According to the authors, the restriction of elephant movement and dispersal in Seronga adds more evidence of the potential hazards of fencing. However, they acknowledge that this is area-specific and there are areas, like South Africa, for instance, where fencing may benefit conservation.
The second is what kind of management response is required, given that the causes were likely a combination of natural and anthropogenic ones. Diseases are not unnatural, and mass die-off events are not without precedent. However, the barriers that prevent dispersal and access to the permanent river are unnatural.
The third aspect centres around the discussion of the human-wildlife coexistence (or lack thereof). Essentially, the question of land-sharing, as opposed to land-sparing in the case of national parks, becomes superficial when access to resources is restricted, and artificial barriers prevent dispersal, allowing for the spread of contagious disease. The land is not “shared” with them. Here, the authors recommend a discussion around realigning to veterinary fences.
In essence, the deaths of 330 elephants will have little impact on the region’s overall population and represent just 2% of the total estimated 15,000 elephants in the Seronga region. The event that caused their death, whether contagious disease or poisoning by cyanobacterial toxins, is almost certainly natural. However, the circumstances that made it more likely to occur are due to human restrictions on both movement and access to fresh water.
The authors conclude that “we must not allow our predilections for simple answers to interfere with reasoned analysis and discussing the broader significance.”
The full study can be accessed here: “The 2020 elephant die-off in Botswana”, van Aarde RJ., Pimm SL., Guldemond R., Huang R., Maré C., (2021), PeerJ
For animals, reproduction is a biological imperative, an instinct to pass their genetics onto the next generation. This translates into a complex dance of competition, dominance, and courtship for the males of the species. The process is even more fascinating in spotted hyena clans, with their hierarchies and intricate systems of power-plays and alliances. Long-term behavioural research and hormone analysis by the Hyena Project in Tanzania reveal further insight into the complicated romantic lives of spotted hyenas.
As is the case with the females, every individual male hyena in a clan has a particular rank, with immigrant males finding themselves at the bottom of the clan hierarchy. Status and dominance equate to better access to both food and females. The researchers’ questions set out to answer related to how this social rank influences an individual’s reproductive success. Were high ranked males more successful because they are stronger and fitter and, therefore, a more attractive mate choice likely to produce sturdy offspring? Or, given the intricacies of hyena society, was the reason more complex? The results of the research indicate the latter.
Due to the clan hierarchy and their unique genital structure, female spotted hyenas control the process of mate selection entirely. Extended courtships are the order of the day for hopeful males, and they will nurture their relationships with certain females, sometimes for years at a time. The supplicant male will do everything in his power to convey his intentions to a receptive female, bowing and scraping in a comic display of humility. If he is successful, she may just allow him to mate with her. According to the study results, high-ranked females are more in demand than those of a lower rank, which is to be expected given the benefits conferred on offspring of higher-ranked females (“the silver spoon effect”).
Naturally, this intensive courtship requires both time and energy, things that the study indicates are in shorter supply for lower-ranked males. In collecting over 400 samples of fresh hyena scat, the researchers analysed levels of faecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations – cortisol, a stress hormone – to estimate the psychological effects of social interactions between clan individuals. The results indicate that male-male interactions are more stressful for the low-ranking males than for high-ranking ones. These interactions are an inevitable part of everyday life for spotted hyenas. The males are obliged to maintain relationships with clan-mates but low-ranked males, understandably, spend more time on their own, avoiding stressful situations. In essence, low ranked individuals invest less time in sexual activities, social activities and spend more time away from clan mates.
Researchers at the Hyena Project in the Ngorongoro Crater in northern Tanzania have recorded behavioural data of spotted hyenas for over 20 years. In recognising each clan member and understanding their histories and dynamics, the authors of the study were able to use the biological information imparted by hormone analysis to interpret observed behavioural trends.
In conclusion, the researchers note that fortunately, for the low-ranking hyena males, chances are their time will come. ‘Social queuing’ means that a male hyena’s status and rank will increase when a higher-ranking individual dies or disperses. Rather than using physical strength and violence to increase their chances of reproducing, it is simply a matter of patience for most.
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Before I unload another rant on you, a quick SHOUT-OUT to the Thulamela Royal Family for emailing such a wonderful note to thank my team for last week’s story about that ancient Kruger walled kingdom known as Thulamela. Respect.
OK, stand by for a rant of note.
I am battling to find the words to explain my frustration and confusion about our wild rhinos’ situation. We are plagued by humans from the east who think that horn provides all sorts of medical benefits, others who gift horn to boost their status and some who stash horn in the vault as a speculative investment. Supplying horn to these misinformed people are sophisticated networks of illegal operators who also trade in drugs, humans and weapons. So our rhinos have become properly COMMODITISED – often trafficked by the evil ones alongside legal goods. And here in South Africa, where we host the vast majority of the remaining wild populations of these gentle giants, they are being butchered by locals desperate for money. Those in charge of these massive operations have inculcated themselves into our society at every level. They live amongst us, and some even walk the corridors of power.
The rhino population in Kruger National Park is crashing – our first story below refers – and my sources tell me that the true numbers are worse than the official stats we managed to dig up (the stats are well-hidden). Kruger ground crews are stretched, worked to the bone – under massive emotional and physical pressure. And yet our Minister of these things says that the situation is sustainable. In fact, she wants to reduce the CITES protection status of our rhinos. What is going on?
Rant over. I feel better now. Not really. Breath deeply Simon. Remember to celebrate.
On a more positive note, thank goodness that in the current state of global chaos, some caretakers of our wild areas are still DELIVERING the goods – see our second story below.
And finally, check out the awesome gallery below. Our Photographer of the Year celebration is already smoking hot – and it’s only the third week! Entrants are competing for a US$10,000 cash prize and a Botswana safari of note!
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
After years of silence about Kruger National Park rhino populations from South Africa’s Ministry of Forestry and Fisheries and Environmental Affairs, we can now confirm that populations in the Kruger National Park have plummeted to an estimated 3,549 white rhinos and 268 black rhinos.
This represents a population reduction of 67% for white rhinos – from 10,621 in 2011 and 35% for black rhinos – from 415 in 2013.
Note that the Minister’s regular rhino poaching updates over the last years focussed on volumes of rhinos poached and other related statistics such as arrests and park incursions – but did not include population details. Recent updates claimed progress in the war against poaching on the grounds that the volume of rhinos being poached per year has reduced recently. This population update suggests that the population reduction is a significant factor contributing towards lower poaching volumes, although refined tactics and back-breaking work by a dedicated and passionate SANParks’ team and various service providers are arguably also contributory factors.
PUBLICLY-AVAILABLE RESOURCES:
1. These latest stats (2019) are available on page 96 of the 2019/2020 SANParks Annual Report: download.
2. 2018 stats are available on page 101 of the 2018/2019 SANParks Annual Report: download.
Pendjari National Park and W National Park in Benin have completed a major collaring exercise, the largest of its kind in the region, fitting satellite collars on 25 elephants and 14 antelopes to increase the surveillance and protection of these species in this transboundary landscape. Both parks are managed by conservation non-profit African Parks through a partnership with the Ministry of Living Environment and Sustainable Development, the National Agency for Heritage Promotion and Tourism Development (ANPT), and the National Centre for the Management of Wildlife Reserves (CENAGREF). They have worked together since 2017 to ensure the sustainability of these vital, connected West African ecosystems for the benefit of people and biodiversity in the region.
His Excellency the Minister of Living Environment and Sustainable Development, Mr José Tonato said, “We are taking decisive steps and utilising the most innovative tools in biodiversity conservation to ensure the effective management of our parks, enhancing their natural resources for the development of eco-tourism and the promotion of livelihoods in local communities”.
Pendjari and W in Benin form an anchoring part of the W-Arly-Pendjari (WAP) Complex – a UNESCO World Heritage Site straddling Benin, Burkina Faso and Niger. The WAP Complex is home to the largest elephant population in West Africa, in addition to the only viable populations of West African lion, cheetah and Korrigum antelope. However, its elephant population has declined over several decades due to the persistent threat of poaching, with recent surveys estimating that just over 3,250 remain in the entire WAP Complex, of which more than half are protected within Pendjari and W in Benin. Therefore, an effective monitoring system is crucial to supply accurate information on the species’ population dynamics and their threats to bolster efforts to conserve them.
On December 12th specialist veterinarians and park teams concluded an almost three-week operation. They successfully collared 20 elephants and four antelopes in W National Park-Benin; and five elephants and ten antelopes in Pendjari National Park. The satellite collars will enable teams to closely monitor the animals’ movements, thereby providing valuable insights to improve their protection and reduce human-wildlife conflict.
The collaring exercises were attended by the Minister of Living Environment and Sustainable Development, the Prefects of Alibori, Atacora and Donga, the Director-General of CENAGREF, the Executive Director of the West African Savanah Foundation (FSOA), Forest Administration officials, Mayors and representatives of communities neighbouring the two parks.
“This operation is an important milestone for ecological monitoring in the park. It will ultimately help to improve our ability to provide long-term security for people and wildlife, ensuring that both can prosper in this profoundly valuable landscape” said the Director of Pendjari National Park, Mr Jean-Yves Koumpogue.
“Having concluded a management agreement for W National Park with the Government of Benin in July, this large collaring project is a significant development for the park” added the Director of W National Park-Benin, Mr Christophe Lemee. “It is a true testament to the commitment of every partner involved – including the Ministry of Living Environment and Sustainable Development, CENAGREF, ANPT and local communities – to preserving this natural treasure, giving it a chance to evolve into one of Benin’s greatest national assets’.
The Benin Government prioritised the revitalisation of its protected areas as a core project of its national investment programme, “Revealing Benin, ” launched in 2016. With a vision of building ecological and economic sustainability, they initiated a partnership with African Parks to manage Pendjari National Park in 2017 and manage the contiguous W National Park in 2020.
The collaring initiative was made possible thanks to the Norwegian Government’s financial support through UNESCO and the Elephant Crisis Fund for W National Park-Benin; and the support of The Wyss Foundation, Elephant Crisis Fund, The Wildcat Foundation, FSOA, National Geographic Society for Pendjari National Park. This is the largest operation of its kind implemented by African Parks in the WAP Complex.
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It was always going to be a matter of time before the evil ones in neighbouring countries were attracted by the stench of filthy lucre. Now, opportunists in Botswana supply the festering South African captive lion breeding industry with lion parts and live lions. How long before their Namibian counterparts join the feast, I wonder? Our first story below refers.
On to more pleasant matters. Last year, I had the honour of accompanying a small band of special people to a sacred place to pay respect to their forefathers, who had built a magnificent walled kingdom in what was to become the Kruger National Park. This was an ancient civilisation of goldsmiths, traders and farmers – sophisticated for their time. Every Kruger fan should spend time at this ancient site to truly understand the soul of the far north of the park. Story two is about Thulamela – my top travel experience of 2020.
Our third story shows how long humankind has been treating Africa’s riches like a limitless treasure chest. The shameless plunder by our forefathers was as morally bankrupt and repugnant as it is now.
And finally, our Photographer of the Year is picking up speed, and we showcase week two below. Selecting the best of every week is a highlight for my team – thanks so much for your submissions and for sharing our galleries far and wide!
Story 2 https://africageographic.com/stories/thulamela/
RESPECT
Thulamela is an ancient and sacred walled kingdom in Kruger National Park that unlocks some of the fascinating history of southern Africa
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
Data shows that over a 10-year period South Africa received most of the live lions and lion products exported from Botswana – including 16 live lions in 2019.
Botswana is deeply involved in the controversial export of live lions and lion products to satisfy growing international demand.
Experts fear that the legal trade in lion commodities, including bones, claws, teeth and skins, could be used as a front for illegally obtained products.
There are also concerns that the export of live animals may be linked to “canned” lion hunting in South Africa, the subject of international condemnation.
In the past, Botswana has been at the centre of uproars about the illegal exportation of lion bones to South Africa, and has controversially exported live lions to South Africa for canned hunting.
Lion products are growing in importance as a replacement for tiger derivatives in some traditional medicines in Asia as tigers become rarer and more difficult to hunt.
The products are claimed to be the result of trophy hunting, natural mortality and “problem” lions that farmers have killed in retaliation for attacks on their livestock.
Botswana continued to take part in the trade even after the previous president of the country, Ian Khama, imposed a moratorium on the hunting of the big cats in 2014. The government also banned canned hunting of carnivores, in response to an exposé by Oxpeckers Investigative Environmental Journalism that showed the then minister of agriculture, Christian de Graaff, had exported a large shipment of lions to a canned hunting outfit in South Africa. (Botswana bans canned hunts).
About 20,000 African lions are thought to remain in the wild. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Red List now classifies them as “vulnerable”, and some experts believe that at the current rate of decimation, the big cats may be extinct by 2050.
CITES data
A trove of data from the CITES Trade Database, which is managed by the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre on behalf of the CITES secretariat, highlights the depth of the country’s involvement.
The data shows that over a 10-year period South Africa received most of the live lions and their products from Botswana, while lion derivatives went to China – the second-largest consumer – Hong Kong, India and the United States.
The data shows that in 2019 Botswana exported 16 live lions to South Africa, as well as derivatives such as bodies and skins.
The exports are listed as being for personal and commercial use. It is not clear whether “commercial” indicates they went to South Africa’s canned hunting industry.
In response to questions about who exported the live lions, Botswana’s director at the Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Kabelo Senyatso, said he could not divulge the name of the farmer behind the exports, or of the South African buyers.
“The lions belonged to the farmer who exported them. We are not in a position to divulge who the lions were sold to,” said Senyatso.
Asked whether the trade could damage Botswana’s reputation for wildlife conservation, he said the exported lions would be governed by South African laws.
“Botswana cannot impose on South Africa how to manage resources within their jurisdiction,” he said.
Senyatso said the moratorium on the hunting of lions in Botswana was still in force, but denied that the exporting of live lions defeats its purpose, saying that the traded animals were bred in captivity and not hunted.
“The moratorium is on lion trophy hunting, not the export of live animals as in this case, or products from problem animal control,” he added.
He said the Wildlife Conservation and National Parks act of 1992 allows for the killing of any animal that has damaged and or is likely to damage property.
The Act requires farmers to report the circumstances of a killing and deliver trophies of the killed animal to the department or a police station. The department then carries out auctions of the dead animals and their products across the country.
Senyatso said the export of lions to South Africa was meant to address the carrying capacity of wildlife ranches and improve the gene pool.
Lion products
The CITES trade data base shows that the largest sale of lion products between 2010 and 2015 took place in 2013 when 126 claws were exported to China, from “problem” lions killed by farmers, natural deaths and trophy hunting – before the hunting moratorium came into place. Senyatso would not divulge the names of the three people involved in the claw exports.
The data also shows that China is not reporting the imports from Botswana, as required by the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. India and Hong Kong have also failed to report lion imports from Botswana such as claws, skins and bones from 2015 to the present.
China only reported importing a rug in 2017 but failed to report nine claws imported in 2015 and two skins in 2017. Hong Kong failed to report the importation of a lion body, while India did not report the importation of two claws in 2018 and a skin in 2019
A former CITES desk officer at the department, Abednico Macheme, said that dealers could choose to utilise a commercial trade quota that is available to Botswana on lion parts and derivatives. “The claws you refer to were sourced in this manner and legally traded,” he said.
He said illegal trading takes place when criminal syndicates exploit loopholes in the legal system. “This becomes dangerous when there is institutionalised corruption, either at ports of entry or source points,” he said.
“Lion derivatives became a cheaper replacement for tiger products because the overheads associated with running a captive facility are eliminated. But illegal activity from smuggling is possible based on counterfeit documents from the legal trade,” added Macheme.
“Lions are listed in the CITES Appendix II which allows for legal trade in live lions and lion products,” said Macheme.
He would not comment on the export of the 16 live lions to South Africa in 2019, because he was not aware of the circumstances.
[Editorial note: The featured image included at the start of this article is for illustrative purposes only and does not feature lions exported from Botswana.]
There is an ancient and sacred site on the Luvuvhu River in the northern reaches of the Kruger National Park that unlocks some of the fascinating history of southern Africa. The people of the walled kingdom of Thulamela first lived here about 400 years before Europeans first settled in South Africa. This was a sophisticated society of farmers, goldsmiths and traders who thrived by selling their manufactured jewellery and other goods to people from across the globe, using the river system to transport their goods to the east coast. I spent time at Thulamela with direct descendants of the Thulamela royal family as they paid their respects at the burial sites of a king and queen from way back when.
There are about 300 identified archaeological sites in Kruger National Park, ranging from early Stone and Iron Age settlements to more recent historical buildings. The 9-hectare Thulamela site is the largest and most dramatic of several ancient stone-walled sites in the area. This stone fortress was inhabited by an estimated 2,000 people from AD 1250 to AD 1700, rediscovered in 1983 by a park ranger and painstakingly restored in the 1990s. The stone walls have been beautifully reconstructed by masons who worked for 14 months and packed more than 2,000 tons of the original stones to rebuild the ancient circular kraals – without cement or mortar, just as they were several hundred years ago.
The meaning of the name Thulamela is not clear, with some sources suggesting it to mean ‘growing mound’, in reference to the tall anthills in the area and others suggesting “the place of giving birth” or alternatively ‘seed of stillness’.
The spectacular Thulumela walled kingdom is perched on a rocky hill overlooking the Luvuvhu River and shares its spectacular view with massive baobab trees, some dating back thousands of years – certainly far earlier than human settlement in the area. The kingdom was built by the Makahane subtribe – members of the Vhalembethu clan of the Karanga tribe (Shona ethnic group) from Zimbabwe. These are the forefathers of the Venda people.
SACRED LEADERSHIP
This was a hierarchical society, and the royal family ruled from their stone-walled fortress on the hill, while the commoners lived below where they farmed and mined iron ore from about 200 sites. These civilisations were amongst the first in Africa to show the characteristics of sacred leadership and social classes.
According to oral histories, the people of Thulamela believed that there was a mystical relationship between their leader (the Khosi) and the land and that the ancestors of the Khosi would intercede on behalf of the nation. The Khosi was an elusive figure who lived a secluded life in a hilltop palace and could only be seen by specific individuals. If a commoner wished to meet the Khosi, he would go to a special chamber that was divided probably by a central wall separating the visitor from the Khosi. The concept of sacred leadership transcends that of today’s king and queen.
GRAVES
During the 1996 archaeological excavations, 2 graves were found beneath hut floors.
The first skeleton discovered was that of a female, dated to around AD 1600. Anatomists believe she was somewhere between 45 and 60 years old and measurements of her bones indicate that she was over 1.73m tall. Her body had been laid on its side with her hands folded under her cheeks – the losha position, indicating respect. As a result, archaeologists named her Queen Losha. She was buried along with 291 gold beads, a gold bracelet on her left arm and copper wire on her legs. Queen Losha was later reburied on the site, with 800 people attending the ceremony.
The second skeleton, a male, was dated to around AD 1450 and it is possible that he never lived at Thulamela. The skeleton was broken and packed in a square shape, implying that the person did not die on the site. He had injuries to the lumbar vertebrae consistent with a sharp object and was buried with 73 gold beads and 990 ostrich egg beads. The archaeologists named him King Ingwe (leopard) because, on the day that his grave was found, a leopard was waiting as the excavating team returned to their vehicle.
TRADE
As we strolled the ancient fortress, we were shown various artefacts and tiny remnants collected from the site that reflect the extensive trade links of these people. Glass beads, Chinese porcelain, imported textiles, ivory bracelets, gold, bronze, and other jewellery have all been found. Skilled artisans forged gold and iron which were traded as currency in exchange for ivory, glass beads and grain from merchants closer to the east coast. There were likely also trade links with West Africa. Goods were ferried along the Luvuvhu and Limpopo Rivers to Mozambique for onward distribution via Arab traders to markets in the Middle East, India, South East Asia, and China.
FARMING
The fertile Luvuvhu River flood plain was cultivated to yield sorghum and millet to make porridge and beer. Clay spindle wheels found in the area suggest that cotton was also cultivated for making cloth. Numerous potshards found on the site are the remains of discarded clay pots made by the women at Thulamela for cooking, eating, and drinking. The pots were of various shapes and sizes and often decorated.
WHY DID THEY LEAVE?
The Thulamela civilisation lasted about 450 years, and the area continued to be occupied for another 120 years – presumably by the same people. Subsequently, the Makuleke people moved into the area and assumed control (which has lasted till current times).
The reasons for the demise of the Thulamela kingdom are not known because there is no written history from the inhabitants of the kingdom, and oral history seems to have disappeared when the city was abandoned. Archaeologists and social anthropologists have presented many theories that range from traditions surrounding the death of a ruler, an environmental disaster or war over the control of land and resources. The influence of Portuguese colonialists in Mozambique and civil war in Zimbabwe have also been mooted as reasons.
THREE WALLED KINGDOMS
Many stone-walled sites around southern Africa reflect the presence and migration of these walled-kingdom-living people in southern Africa. The three best known, and the largest, are Mapungubwe, Great Zimbabwe and Thulamela. Another example is the Khami Ruins near Bulawayo – the second-largest stone ruin site in Zimbabwe.
It is believed that there was a migration of people between these three kingdoms, in that order – from Mapungubwe to Great Zimbabwe and finally to Thulamela. The exact dates of living and departing from each site are estimates, and there are overlapping periods when more than one location was inhabited.
During the Middle Iron Age – about AD 900 – Bantu people moved from the north into the Limpopo valley and initially established themselves at Mapungubwe (circa AD 1075-1220) where they built a walled kingdom. Before this, Bantu people were mostly nomadic in the region. From there they established Great Zimbabwe (circa AD 1200-1400) and then to Thulamela (circa AD 1250-1700).
Gold found at both Thulamela and Mapungubwe was found to have the same ‘chemical fingerprint’. “The conclusion could therefore be drawn that both the Mapungubwe and Thulamela gold artefacts originated from the same gold source,” wrote a team of researchers in a paper published in 1998 in the journal Gold Bulletin.
WHO CAME BEFORE?
Of course, the Mapungubwe/Great Zimbabwe/Thulamela era is but a snapshot in time. Before these civilisations, the area was inhabited as far back as 100,000 years ago by San people (‘Bushmen’), as evidenced by Middle and Late Stone Age artefacts such as stone tools and rock paintings. The San people disappeared during the Late Iron Age after the arrival of the Bantu-speaking people from further north in Africa who were looking for more grazing land for their cattle. Arab slave traders were raiding the area circa AD 800, using the ports in Mozambique to ferry slaves to destination markets.
YOUR VISIT TO THULAMELA
Thulamela is a site of immense cultural importance. Although the site is in the Kruger National Park, no visitors are permitted unaccompanied by a SANParks guide, and booking is essential.
To visit Thulamela with a SANParks guide, please contact SANParks via this informative website page. If you are staying at a nearby lodge, ask them beforehand if they can arrange a guided visit to the site.
We stayed at Pafuri Luxury Tented Camp during our time in northern Kruger, an excellent base from which to explore the Makuleke Contractual Park and to visit Thulamela. For more about this camp and about the other RETURNAfrica camps, also read more about the Makuleke Contractual Park in the northern reaches of the Kruger National Park.
Want to go on a safari to Thulamela? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
FINAL WORD
The experience at Thulamela deeply moved me and my long-time friend and occasional travel companion, Sharon Haussmann. There is no question that this sacred site has a deep spiritual ambience – we both felt the presence of the ancestors who still preside over this wild part of the Kruger National Park from their hilltop fortress.
We had the immense privilege of attending a ceremony conducted by Khosi Wilson Matodzi Magulasavha Makahane and Makhadzi (aunt) Lucy Lufuno Makahane. Also in attendance were community member Gilbert Munyai and SANParks guides Carel Nkuna and Daniel Shibambu.
I would also like to thank Isaac Phaala of SANParks, and his colleagues, for making this immensely spiritual sojourn possible.
About the author
I am a proud African and honoured to be CEO of Africa Geographic. My travels in Africa are in search of wilderness, elusive birds and real people with interesting stories. I live in Hoedspruit, next to the Kruger National Park, with my wife Lizz and 2 Jack Russells. When not travelling or working I am usually on my mountain bike somewhere out there. I qualified as a chartered accountant, but found my calling sharing Africa’s incredibleness with you. My motto is “Live for now, have fun, be good, tread lightly and respect others. And embrace change”. Connect with me on LinkedIn. ” Picture: Simon Espley with long-time friend Sharon Haussmann on assignment at Thulamela
The Kruger National Park’s northern reaches offer arguably the most scenic, biodiverse, and historically fascinating experience of the Greater Kruger area.Consider that this slice of wildland is sandwiched between two great rivers, three countries and millennia of geological and social upheaval – and you begin to get the picture. This is the 24,000 ha Makuleke Contractual Park, previously known as the Pafuri Triangle.
Since the Early Stone Age, humans have been drawn to this land of legends, and their impact is there for all to see – from rock art and cave paintings to stone fortresses perched on hilltops and ancient baobab trees etched by passers-by. The deep canyons and riverine forests whisper with the tales of tribal skirmishes, explorers, poachers, gun-runners, slavers and great white hunters. Civilizations have come and gone and left their mark, and the current custodians – the Makuleke people – have committed the land to conservation.
TWO GREAT RIVERS MERGE
The ‘Pafuri Triangle’ refers to the triangular wedge of land at the Limpopo and Luvuvhu Rivers’ confluence, where forests of massive nyala trees and bright yellow fever trees thrive on the wide alluvial river floodplains. This wedge of land pulsates with biodiversity and is arguably Kruger’s best birding hotspot. Twitchers arrive to pursue Pel’s fishing owl, racket-tailed roller, grey-headed parrot and African finfoot – amongst other avian jewels.
In 1950, a Zambezi shark was caught at the two rivers’ confluence, having worked its way upstream from the Mozambique coastline. Wrap your mind around that nugget of amazingness!
The Big-5 are certainly present, although if this is your key pursuit, you are best served further south in the Kruger. That said, the concentration of huge elephant bulls and the presence of large herds of buffalo on the banks of the Luvuvhu River in the dry season make walking an exciting experience!
On its journey to meet up with the Limpopo, the powerful Luvuvhu River has carved its way through sandstone to create the breath-taking Lanner Gorge with its towering cliffs and steep-sided valleys – another biodiversity hotspot.
The two rivers meet at Crook’s Corner, where the triangle’s tip marks the meeting of South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. This unique bottleneck offers a crossing point between these countries for both wildlife and people.
CROOKS CORNER
Legendary tales abound about this celebrated region – a hub of wildlife and human activity. During the 1900s Crooks Corner was a safe-haven for gun-runners, poachers and other fugitives who would hop over the border when the long arm of the law threatened to catch up with them in either country.
Another nefarious activity that flourished in this wildland was ‘blackbirding’ – recruiting local tribesmen to work under appalling conditions on the South African mines.
The infamous elephant poacher and blackbirder Cecil Barnard was said to have hidden on an island in the middle of the Limpopo River to avoid arrest and confiscation of his ill-gotten ivory. Barnard, nicknamed ‘Bvekenya’, or ‘he who swaggers while he walks’, was the main character in TV Bulpin’s book The Ivory Trail. Notwithstanding the Colonial-era perspective of criminals like Barnard as adventurers and respected characters, he and his kind were as destructive for Africa’s wildlife as modern-day poachers and wildlife traffickers. There were warrants of arrest issued against Barnard from all three countries, and it is believed that Crook’s Corner was so named primarily because of his presence and activities in the area.
Barnard plundered the area for 19 years and killed more than 300 large-tusked elephants during that time. The Ivory Trail describes how Barnard hung up his rifle in November 1929 after determinedly tracking down the giant elephant known as ‘Dhlulamithi’ (‘taller than the trees’). With the giant elephant is his rifle sites, Barnard decided that “enough was enough” and let Dhlulamithi live.
Today it is perhaps difficult for tourists to fully appreciate the legend that is Crooks Corner, particularly for those reaching this point via the Kruger National Park. Gazing at Zimbabwe and Mozambique on the opposite bank of the wide Limpopo River, you can usually hear cattle and people going about their business. There are no fences and elephants, lions and other dangerous species move between the three countries as a matter of course, so human-wildlife conflict is rife. Poaching is an ongoing problem for conservation authorities. Fireside discussions tell of unscrupulous human traffickers who provide transport to the big South African cities for illegal immigrants that walk across the wide Limpopo riverbed border. So perhaps Crooks Corner retains some of its reputation as a safe-haven for unlawful activity.
LAND OF TRANSITION
This land has attracted human migrants and occupiers since the Early Stone Age, and the human story continues today. After the Stone Ages (including the San era), the mid-Iron Ages saw the great Bantu migration from the Great Lakes region of East Africa into Southern Africa and the Limpopo Valley in search of grazing for their cattle. The Thulamela period was followed by the ‘Mfecane’ (meaning ‘crushing, scattering, forced dispersal, forced migration’), a period of widespread warfare amongst ethnic communities in southern Africa. It was during this time of upheaval that the forefathers of the Makuleke people arrived in the region.
The Makuleke people lived in scattered villages and practised various forms of subsistence farming and hunting. Crops such as tobacco, millet, sorghum, maize, potatoes, groundnuts, beans, watermelons and pumpkins were grown. Wild harvest included fish, meat, honey, mopane caterpillars, termites and various fruit and berries.
Following a significant Foot and Mouth disease outbreak in the region in 1938-39, the Makuleke were banned from keeping cattle, sheep, or goats. All livestock not secreted into Zimbabwe and Mozambique were killed by the authorities (without compensation).
The land south of the Luvhuvu River was declared as the Shingwedzi Game Reserve in 1903, and in 1933 the Makuleke area was proclaimed as the Pafuri Game Reserve – a provincial reserve under the control of the Kruger National Park. (Read The Kruger History & Future for a better understanding of how the Kruger came about.)
A fence was erected on the north side of the Luvhuvu River in 1961, effectively cutting off the Makuleke people’s access to their natural food sources. However, gaps in the fence permitted access to the river for water.
Then, in 1969, South Africa’s ‘apartheid’ government enforced the removal of the 3,000 followers of Chief Makuleke from the land that the tribe had occupied for more than 150 years. They were moved to Ntlavani – an arid area of equal size outside the Punda Maria gate. Their new homeland was previously part of the Kruger National Park.
This decision was reversed in December 1998 by the post-Apartheid South Africa government, with the first successful land claim. Having won their land back, the Makuleke people agreed to remain in Ntlavani homes and commit their land to conservation objectives. And so was born the Makuleke Contractual Park in the Greater Kruger.
THANKS, SEE YOU AGAIN
“I found the Makuleke area to be vibrant and diverse – a fantastic addition to what Kruger offers further south. The diversity of habitats and species will keep any experienced safari enthusiast buzzing with expectation, and the dramatic human history adds to the romance and nostalgia of this place. The feeling at the camp is one of friendship and family – the staff are clearly proud of their ancestral land and lodge. The game drives through giant fever tree forests, sandy river floodplains and rocky valleys were super-stimulating, and those huge baobab trees that lurk all over the place seemed to beckon to me with whispers of a bygone era. I could have stayed on my private deck all day – with a constant procession of elephant bulls and dagga boys below me harvesting the fallen anna tree seed pods and crunching them like pork crackling. But of course, I didn’t. Next time, for sure.” – Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
During his research for this story Simon was hosted by RETURNAfrica at Pafuri Luxury Tented Camp. This exquisite camp stretches along the Luvuvhu River under the shade of huge trees, with each of the 19 privately positioned tented units accessed via a raised wooden walkway.
The other RETURNAfrica camps in the Makuleke Contractual Park:
Baobab Hill Bush House is an exclusive-use homestead perched on a ridge overlooking the Luvhuvu River – for private groups of up to 8 people on a catered or self-catering basis.
Pafuri Walking Safaris is a seasonal bush camp that acts as a base for walking safaris in this iconic landscape.
On Friday the 7th of March 1533, a Portuguese trading ship called the Bom Jesus set sail for India, loaded with gold and silver coins, ivory, and copper. At some point along its ill-fated journey, the ship foundered, and the notoriously treacherous Namibian coast claimed another victim. The wreckage was found in 2008 near Oranjemund and made international headlines as one of the oldest and most valuable wrecks ever discovered. For biologists and geneticists, the treasure of the discovery lay not in its precious metals but in the history stored in the ivory. Their analysis offers an unparalleled insight into the elephants of 500 years ago, and the effects of the trade that exploited them.
As archaeologists worked their way through the Bom Jesus cargo, they uncovered a collection of over 100 elephant tusks, the most extensive such collection ever discovered. Had the ship not fallen foul of the dangers of the sea, these tusks would have been made into anything from jewellery and combs to decorative and religious items. The tusks ranged in size and length and had been well-preserved courtesy of the chill created by the Benguela current that runs along the Namibian coast. As a result, scientists were able to extract DNA from 44 of the recovered tusks.
DNA analysis showed that the tusks came from forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) rather than savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) and, interestingly, all of these forest elephants came from West Africa. This was somewhat unexpected, as extensive ivory trade routes through Central Africa were well-established by that point in history. The scientists expected to find samples from a variety of locations. Isotopic analysis of carbon and nitrogen also revealed that, rather than living in the tropical forests similar to today’s forest elephants, these forest elephants lived in scrubby woodland savanna.
This discovery alone has practical ramifications for modern conservation efforts: understanding the historic habitat use of forest elephants can help policymakers and conservationists protect the few that remain today.
Of particular interest to the researchers was the mitochondrial DNA recovered from the tusks. The DNA in mitochondria of cells is separate to DNA inherited from both parents during the normal fertilisation process. Instead, mitochondrial DNA is inherited from the maternal line only. Given the female-led herd structure of elephants, this is a useful way of investigating elephants’ genetic codes.
Distressingly, the study results indicate that the tusks analysed came from 17 different herds of forest elephants from West Africa. Today, there are records of just four of these lineages in the surviving West African forest elephant populations. The researchers believe that this reflects the profound impact of the ivory trade on elephant numbers and genetic diversity.
“The other lineages disappeared because West Africa has lost more than 95% of its elephants in subsequent centuries due to hunting and habitat destruction,” said Professor Alfred Roca, one of the authors of the study.
Once scientists studying forest elephants were faced with a limited amount of genetic data; the genetic information gathered from these “lost herds” has added a considerable amount of information to the database. The hope is that this information can be used and supplemented to inform anti-poaching and conservation efforts, particularly in analysing confiscated illegal ivory. Equally importantly, this collaborative effort across different scientific disciplines has resulted in new techniques and methodologies to examine historical and archaeological ivory.
Dr Ashley Coutu, Research Fellow of the Pitt Rivers Museum at the University of Oxford, said, “There is tremendous potential to analyse historic ivory from other shipwrecks, as well as museum collections. These scientific techniques are vital for understanding the histories of elephant populations, people who hunted and traded the ivory, as well as the global history of the ancient ivory trade, which increasingly drew Europe, Africa, and Asia together via the Atlantic Ocean”.
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I had a brief discussion on Facebook with a guy who felt that his ‘2 minutes of research’ (his words) trumps my 30 years of experience in the topic at hand. I don’t often get involved in social media discussions any more, but because he was using factual inaccuracies to challenge an AG post, I engaged with him. It was like talking a cat out of a tree, and a good reminder for me to continue avoiding social media discussion.
Yay, it’s time to celebrate again! Submissions for our 2021 Photographer of the Year have started trickling in, and we have some stunners! Entrants are competing for prestige, US$10,000 cash and a Botswana safari – we expect the pace to pick up as the word gets out. Check out our first story below for a celebration of Africa at her finest.
Our second story is about Africa’s rarest parrot. I wonder how many people even know that Cape parrots cling to existence in the few remaining patches of mistbelt forest in South Africa. Centuries of logging of the old yellowwood trees on which they depend, disease and the caged bird industry are significant threats. And then along came climate change and Asian borer beetles …
And finally, our third story below is exciting – the possibility that we can monitor wildlife populations from space.
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions!
There are cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
The competition runs from January to June 2021. Get your entries in now and join us in celebrating Africa!
South Africa’s remaining Mistbelt forests make up less than 0.15% of the country’s total land area, and less than 5% of these forests are under formal protection. They are small and fragmented, increasingly divided by the steady and persistent advance of human progress. Small though they may be, these forests are biodiversity hotspots in South Africa, home to some of the country’s most unique and unusual plant and animal life. One such creature is the Cape parrot. It is South Africa’s only endemic parrot species, and there are believed to be fewer than 2,000 left.
Introduction
Like all members of the Psittaciformes (the parrot family), Cape parrots are charismatic little characters; brightly coloured and intelligent. Similar in size to the African grey parrot (but with a larger beak), they measure between 251-349mm in length and weigh between 260-329g. While they are predominantly green in colour, the outer edges of their wings and shoulders are highlighted in vivid orange. They are occasionally mistaken for the more common and widely distributed grey-headed parrot (more on that later) due to the brownish feathers around the head and neck, though this colour can vary from olive-yellow to a golden brown. The juveniles and females have a bright orange patch of their foreheads, which the males typically lose upon reaching adulthood.
The parrot and the yellowwoods
While they occasionally do frequent other habitats, the lives of Cape parrots centre around the Mistbelt forests which are dominated by yellowwood trees and, as a result, the future of these parrots is intricately linked with that of South Africa’s national tree. Yellowwoods are large evergreen trees which may reach over 30m in height and, while lightweight, the wood is hard and durable. These characteristics meant that yellowwoods played a significant role in South Africa’s version of the industrial revolution, with millions of trees historically harvested for railway sleepers, mining, floors, wagons, and furniture. Today yellowwoods are officially protected, but the wood is prized for its quality and colour, making it one of the country’s highest-valued timber trees.
Cape parrots have the most specialized diet of any of their family members and show a distinct preference for yellowwood fruit kernels, though they will also feed on the kernels of other fruiting trees in the forests. They are pre-dispersal seed predators, and their powerful beaks crack open unripe kernels at a stage when their avian and mammal competition would find these unpalatable and inedible.
The fruiting of yellowwoods and other tree species varies and, as a result, Cape parrots are “food nomads”, sometimes flying up to 90km per day to find food. When other fruit resources are scarce, they have been known to feed on exotic species such as the seringa, jacaranda, and the black wattle, and will feed on protea flowerheads at certain times of the year. They have also been observed foraging in coastal forests and opportunistically feed on crop species like pecan nuts, which naturally puts them at risk of conflict with farmers.
The specialist dietary and breeding requirements of the Cape parrots means that their range is restricted to the mosaic of remaining Mistbelt forests in Eastern Cape and KwaZulu Natal, with a small population in the forests of Magoebaskloof in Limpopo. Research has shown that there are three genetically distinct subpopulations: one in the Amatole mountains in the Eastern Cape, another which ranges from Engcobo and Mthatha in the Eastern Cape to the midlands of KwaZulu Natal and the isolated population in Magoebaskloof.
Birds of a feather
Cape parrots have been recorded to live for over 30 years in captivity and breed for the first time between 4 and 5 years old. Though they may gather in large flocks of up to 70 or more individuals around suitable roosting sites on the higher ridges of the forest, Cape parrots are solitary nesters with peak breeding occurring between August and February. The eggs are incubated for between 26-30 days, and both parents play a role in caring for the chicks. Once the young parrots have fledged (between 55-79 days after hatching), the young remain with their parents, and they often move around in family groups before joining large juvenile flocks. Vocal communication between family members and other parrots is almost continuous throughout the day, particularly in flight.
Cementing their reliance on yellowwoods even further, Cape parrots also prefer to nest in yellowwood trees, utilizing cavities or holes made by other bird species and in dead portions of mature trees and often returning to the same nest in subsequent years. Research also indicates that their chicks are fed on a diet consisting almost exclusively of yellowwood kernels.
The Innominate Parrot
Of all the parrot genus divisions, the genus Poicephalus is the most species-rich and widely distributed in Africa. The classification of the Cape parrot (Poicephalus robustus) has historically been the cause of significant contention within the scientific community, and it was only recognized as an individual species on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in 2017 based on a decision by BirdLife International. Before that, the species P. robustus was considered to have two subspecies: the grey-headed parrot (now P. fuscicollis suahelicus), the brown-necked parrot (now P. f. fuscicollis).
The taxonomic revision was based on an examination of differences in habitat usage, body size and morphology and behaviour. Although the revision was not based on genetic data, a genetic study by South African scientists which suggested the two taxa had diverged more than 2 million years ago did prompt BirdLife to take a second look. As in any situation where a species/subspecies division is under consideration, the classification of the Cape parrot as a separate species allows policymakers and conservationists to shape management strategies to protect them better.
Conservation consequences
The change from subspecies to species on the Red List required the allocation of a conservation status, and the Cape Parrot is now considered to be ‘Vulnerable’ based on the fact that while the total population is small, the numbers seem to be relatively stable. However, within South Africa, the 2015 Eskom Red Data Book of Birds allocates the Cape parrot a local classification of ‘Endangered’, with the authors suggesting that in the next two generations, the population will have decreased by at least 20%.
The Cape Parrot Big Birding Day
The Cape Parrot Big Birding Day, an initiative of the Cape Parrot Working Group, began in 1998 and has been held on one day every year in April and May. Every year, volunteers gather at various appropriate sites to count birds and aid researchers in counting parrots, making this one of the longest-running citizen science projects in South Africa. As its popularity grew, more and more observers joined the process, and the first few population estimates increased dramatically from around 500 to over 1000 individuals before stabilizing at approximately 1,600 or so individual parrots. In 2019, the Cape Parrot Big Birding Day yielded the most extensive ever population estimate of 1,804 across the entire range. The 2021 count yielded 1,477 parrots.
The threats
Habitat loss and fragmentation are the primary threats to remaining Cape parrot populations, though much of this damage was done before 1940 at the height of the logging of forest hardwoods. However, in some parts of the Cape parrots’ range, logging continues, especially of dead yellowwoods, which are their preferred nesting sites. An increase of non-indigenous trees (mainly pine) has also played a role in threatening Cape parrot populations. The knock-on effect of this logging and the degradation of natural habitats is a shortage of food. As mentioned earlier, fruiting in these forests tends to occur in “patches”. In the past, the forests would probably have been large enough that the parrots would simply move from place to place, but there are now times during the year when they are forced to seek food elsewhere, occasionally in orchards and farms.
While a robust breeding industry supplies the legal trade, Cape parrots are valued in the illegal wildlife trade, as is the case with all parrot species. The extent of this particular threat has yet to be quantified, but there are reports of birds being lured using bird calls and nestlings being harvested to supply the illegal trade.
Another major threat affecting both wild and captive Cape parrots is Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD), caused by a Circovirus which is believed to have originated in Australia. The disease may cause abnormal feather growth and the loss of normal feathers, as well as painful sores around the bill, and in acute cases, there is only a slim chance of recovery. The birds have been observed to be particularly susceptible to the disease during times of drought when food resources are limited, and severe outbreaks have the potential to cause serious harm to the remaining populations.
Emerging threats
As if the Cape parrots did not have enough to contend with, researchers have also identified two major emerging threats to their future stability. The first is climate change, which is likely to impact almost every fauna and flora species on the planet but particularly specialist species with a small population and restricted distribution. The second comes in the form of a threat to Mistbelt forests and, in particular, the tree species utilized by the parrots. The polyphagous shot hole borer (Euwallacea fornicates), native to south-east Asia, infects host trees with a fungus which spreads through the tree’s internal transport system, eventually blocking it and resulting in the death of the tree. The borer has spread rapidly through South Africa, and 43% of the tree species affected by it are feed on by Cape parrots.
A Plan of Action
In September 2019, the country’s foremost experts in Cape parrots and their conservation held a workshop to develop an Action Plan to guide future and ongoing conservation efforts of the Cape parrot, incorporating new research and information and building on previous action plans. Amongst others, representatives from the World Parrot Trust, the Cape Parrot Working Group, BirdLife and the Endangered Wildlife Trust were in attendance to share their expertise and experience. The report from the workshop details extensive assessments of the threats facing the parrots both now and in the future, and details what actions will be taken and how responsibility will be delegated.
The Action Plan links the conservation of the Cape parrots to the protection of their vital habitat. It includes everything from continued research, the development of a vaccine against PBFD, the early detection of borer beetles, the management of captive populations, the assessment of logging quotas, as well as the extensive rehabilitation of critical forests.
Conclusion
The vision statement of the aforementioned Action Plan is described as working collectively towards a “thriving population of Cape Parrots acting as a flagship for the protection and recovery of indigenous forests in South Africa, for the shared benefit of people and nature”.
These enigmatic and characterful birds, as South Africa’s only endemic parrot species, are undoubtedly deserving of protection in their own right. However, in reality, the knock-on benefits of protecting the Cape parrot are also of paramount importance, not least of which is the preservation of the country’s few remaining Mistbelt forests and the many species that rely upon them in turn.
An accurate estimate of a species population is an essential starting point for conservation efforts and shapes everything from on-the-ground activities to policy decisions and legal protection measures. Nevertheless, attaining and updating these population estimates can be complicated, and scientists are always working on new ways to improve the process. Researchers from the University of Oxford Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (WildCRU) and Machine Learning Research Group have found a new way to use technology to count elephants – using satellites to spot elephants from space.
Monitoring elephant numbers in Africa is vital, especially since their numbers have been decimated over the past century due to poaching, habitat fragmentation and uncontrolled trophy hunting of large-tusked individuals. Researchers use several different techniques to count elephants depending on the size and logistical realities of an area, including dung and track counts, camera trap grids and aerial surveys. However, all of the current methods are usually time-consuming, labour-intensive, and prohibitively expensive, where large scale aerial surveys are concerned. All of the traditional techniques are also subject to considerable human bias and, potentially, fatigue.
Satellite remote sensing is one of the newest approaches to emerge as a viable monitoring technique in detecting wildlife and has been used in previous research to detect animals in homogenous landscapes and seascapes. It offers several advantages, including the capacity to cover a large area in a short space of time, allowing for regular reassessments. This also reduces the risk of double-counting animals that may move during a count. Furthermore, it removes the risk of human disturbance of the animal entirely.
Both practically and politically, satellite remote sensing can also render previously inaccessible areas accessible and avoids the complex and time-consuming process of applying for permits. It is, however, influenced by the size of the animal and the type of habitat.
The satellites generate enormous quantities of imagery that require processing. If this were to be done manually, it would take researchers months to work through the data and pick out individual elephants. However, through automating the detection process, the process can be completed in a matter of hours.
Biologists have been using machine learning to detect wildlife in several different images, including camera trap images, aerial survey images and unmanned aerial vehicle images. However, before this study, only three species had been detected by satellite using deep learning (an artificial intelligence function that mimics the human brain): albatross, whales, and pack-ice seals.
The study was conducted in Addo Elephant National Park in South Africa and to test the technology, the research team used a training image dataset of 1125 elephants. These images were sourced from the highest resolution satellite imagery currently available – Worldview 3 from Maxar Technologies – and fed into a Convolutional Neural Network (a type of deep learning algorithm). The results were compared to human analysis and confirmed that elephants could be detected in satellite imagery with an accuracy equal to human detection capabilities.
While previous studies have primarily focussed on marine species due to their inaccessibility, the results of this research indicate that it is possible to teach a machine to automatically detect elephants in satellite imagery, in both homogenous and complex heterogeneous habitats. The authors of the study believe that these conservation technologies will open a new world of possibilities. This power, say the scientists, should be embraced as a matter of urgency as we barrel through the sixth mass extinction event in our planet’s history.
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Let me tell you a story. One of personal perspective and priorities. Two years ago my wife and I moved from Cape Town to the bushveld town of Hoedspruit. Our home is within a large residential wildlife estate bordering Kruger National Park – where dangerous wildlife species such as lion and elephant are EXCLUDED by a fence. There are leopards and hyena aplenty moving around the estate at night (fences mean nothing to them), and we keep our dogs indoors after dark. We fenced off the immediate area behind our house, to keep our dogs in and the warthogs out. It’s wonderful to share our lives with giraffe, zebra, waterbuck and many other species. And kudu. I thought it would be great to have these handsome antelope in the garden now and then. I was wrong.
You see during the peak of the dry bushveld months the grass and leaves have all but disappeared, and the desperate animals will eat just about anything. Kudus would hop easily over our fence and feast on our newly-planted indigenous trees and shrubs. In fact, they would annihilate our planted garden – nibbling huge aloes down to a withered stalk and even breaking a 4-meter sausage tree in half to get at the leaves (which they discarded).
Obviously, we would not knowingly harm any wildlife, but we also wanted a shady garden for our own enjoyment. Something had to be done. And so we increased the height of the fence by adding more wire strands (no electrification). It worked, and the kudus now cannot get to our precious plants, which are flourishing after excellent early summer rains.
I now have a different PERSPECTIVE of kudus from when I lived in Cape Town (which has no kudus).
Now imagine if I did not have the resources to keep wild animals out of my home. Imagine if the intruders were elephants or lions destroying my subsistence farming livelihood and threatening my family’s lives. That’s perspective for you …
Our first story below angers and saddens me – the state-sponsored rape of Namibia’s woodlands. How does the one-off annihilation of entire blocks of hardwood trees contribute to the country’s sustainable future? Note that the beneficiaries seem to be SHADY foreigners and local power brokers.
Then we celebrate Madikwe – a huge conservation success story where indigenous landowners invested in the future and are reaping the REWARDS. Good news indeed.
Just over three decades ago, a tract of land stretched across the corner of the North-West province of South Africa – a brown and dusty mosaic of degraded cattle farms devoid of almost all life. The transformation of this landscape to today’s thriving Madikwe Game Reserve, though not without its challenges, is one of South Africa’s conservation success stories.
The story of Madikwe Game Reserve is one that runs counter to that of most protected wild spaces in that its beauty and biodiversity potential were realised only after the fact. The decision to proclaim the reserve was made for socioeconomic reasons – a conscious conclusion that ecotourism would bring more value to the community than farming. And so, conservationists were faced with a vastly different task. Rather than protecting what was already there, they had to restore what once was.
The result is a thriving conservation model that has worked to benefit not only wildlife but the local communities as well while providing one of the premier safari destinations in South Africa.
The Reserve
Madikwe Game Reserve lies just south of South Africa’s border with Botswana only 40km from Gaborone and extends across 750km2 (75,000 hectares) including recently incorporated private land, making it the fifth-largest game reserve in South Africa. The reserve occupies a transition zone between Kalahari thornveld and savanna bushveld and is topographically varied and fascinating. The region’s woodlands and plains are broken by volcanic inselbergs, while the Groot Marico River (which is also known as the Madikwe River) adds riverine habitat along the eastern portion of the reserve, and the Dwarsberg Mountains dominate the southern skyline.
By the later part of the 20th century, it became clear that poor farming practices combined with an arid climate and degraded soils had made the area almost entirely unsuitable for either crop or livestock farming. Faced with decisions as to what to do with the land, the Settlement Planning Services of the Government of South Africa commissioned and conducted a comprehensive study into the most efficient form of land use and how it could be used to benefit the communities of the area. They concluded that wildlife-based ecotourism would be the most economically sound use of the land.
In many ways, this practical and financial conclusion came to underlie the fundamental tenant that has made the Madikwe model so unique (and successful): people first.
The people-first approach
There is no doubt that the colonial “snatch-and-grab” approach has played a significant role in the history of many protected areas throughout Africa and, as a result, the needs and opinions of local communities surrounding them have been sorely neglected or ignored. In many cases, wildlife reserves and national parks have prospered without their immediate neighbours benefitting in any way. As a general rule, the mere existence of these people near or amongst wild animals has been viewed as working in opposition to the overall goals of conservation – to the extent that keeping local people and wildlife separated was seen as essential to ensuring the survival of biodiversity. A gradual shift in mindset has resulted in a growing awareness that the fortunes of both protected areas and their human populations are irrevocably linked. In the case of Madikwe, somewhat unusually, this value system was inculcated from the start.
Upon its inception, Madikwe Game Reserve was described as a partnership between three main stakeholders: North West Parks and Tourism Board (initially the Bophuthatswana Parks Board), the private sector, and local communities. The underlying strategy is that local communities should benefit through employment, business opportunities and a share of the game reserve profits that should be directed at community development projects.
Operation Phoenix
While the foundations of Madikwe were built upon the people-first approach, the success of tourism-based land use depended on the successful transformation of barren farmland to a game reserve. This process began with the gradual restoration of soil and plant life but also required the reintroduction of almost every large mammal species currently seen in the reserve. The translocation of wildlife to the reserve began in 1991 in an undertaking known colloquially as ‘Operation Phoenix’. During the next seven years, nearly 10,000 animals ranging from antelope to predators and rhinos to elephants were relocated to Madikwe in what was, at the time, the largest ever wildlife relocation project of its kind.
Risen from the dust
The success of Operation Phoenix is seen in Madikwe’s thriving wildlife population: the reserve now supports the second largest elephant population in the country. The magic of Madikwe lies its variety of available ecosystems and its prime position between the Kalahari and Lowveld habitats. For visitors to the reserve, the safari is about more than merely seeing the Big 5 – painted wolves (African wild dogs), cheetahs, brown hyenas and sable and tsessebe antelopes are all significant drawcards that keep visitors returning year after year. Despite a series of natural challenges including a rabies outbreak, Madikwe’s painted wolf population has thrived since their introduction in 1994 and the region is renowned for spoiling excited tourists to spectacular sightings of these energetic and endangered predators.
The inevitable consequence of the success of the elephant population growth is the question of what to do next. While historically the region may well have been home to just as many elephants, they would have been free to move and migrate according to the seasons, rainfall, and available vegetation. For many years, the state, management teams and conservationists have been working on creating a corridor system that would follow ancient migratory routes between Madikwe and Pilanesberg National Park – a distance of just 75km in a straight line. If this goal is ever realised, it would create an enormous, connected wilderness area of 3,000km2 (300,000 hectares) and form part of the proposed Segarona Heritage Experience.
The experience
Want to plan your Madikwe safari? Scroll down to the end of this story to research and get in touch with our travel team to start the discussion.
The creation of this corridor is likely to be many years in the making, and for now, Madikwe remains a wilderness oasis offering some of the best safari experiences in the country. Unlike South Africa’s national parks, day-visitors are not allowed into Madikwe and access to the reserve will on be granted on booking accommodation in the reserve, making the entire experience a genuinely exclusive one. From the back of a vehicle to the back of a horse, this exclusivity translates to a far more personal safari experience. There is a range of camps and lodges to choose some, from high-end luxury to family or budget-friendly options, and, importantly, community-owned and run lodges that see profits going directly to community members.
Unlike many of the South African Big 5 safari options, Madikwe is malaria-free, making it a suitable alternative for families travelling with young children. It is also easily accessible from Johannesburg. The game viewing is at its best during the winter months – the dry season – as the animal life congregates around the available water (often at lodges). For birders looking to spot a few of Madikwe’s 350 recorded species, the reverse is true, and the summer months offer the best birding and exquisite verdant scenery to accompany the experience. It is worth remembering that the reserve lies on the fringes of the Kalahari and winter nights can be somewhat chilly.
Researchers from the Giraffe Conservation Foundation (GCF) have recently published a paper in BMC Research Notes describing two dwarf giraffe in separate populations in Namibia and Uganda. This study represents the first known accounts of dwarf giraffe in the scientific literature. These giraffe were documented in Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda, and on a private farm in central Namibia during photographic surveys routinely conducted by GCF to determine numbers, population dynamics, and giraffe distribution throughout Africa. Using digital photogrammetry techniques, the researchers measured limb dimensions of the two dwarf giraffe and compared them to other giraffe in the populations, finding that these dwarf giraffe had shorter legs; more specifically, they had shorter radius and metacarpal bones compared to other giraffe of similar age. Click here to see a video of the dwarf giraffe in Murchison Falls, filmed by Dr Michael Brown.
“Instances of wild animals with these types of skeletal dysplasias are extraordinarily rare”, said lead author Dr Michael Brown. “It’s another interesting wrinkle in the unique story of giraffe in these diverse ecosystems.”
The study notes that Uganda’s giraffe population experienced a significant bottleneck in the late 1980s due to civil unrest and associated bushmeat poaching. However, it is unlikely (and unclear) if this particular giraffe – named ‘Gimli’ by the researchers in honour of Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings character – is related to a decrease in genetic diversity. It is unknown what effect, if any, these conditions might have on giraffe survival or reproduction, but fortunately the population is rebounding. In Namibia, ‘Nigel’ the dwarf giraffe, was born in 2014 and his unique body shape was first observed when he was about four years old; an age when male giraffe are close to maturity and fully gown. The GCF researchers will continue to monitor these two male giraffe to see if any observable variances in their behaviour and social status occur.
“While the Namibian farmer had spotted Nigel regularly over the years, it was only after our observations that he realised that Nigel was not a juvenile but a fully grown male giraffe”, said Emma Wells. “It is mainly in comparison to other giraffe that his difference in stature becomes obvious.”
Across Africa, giraffe have experienced significant population declines over the past 30 years, leading to a silent extinction crisis. Population monitoring efforts like those conducted by GCF and its partners in Namibia, Uganda and elsewhere are providing critical information to inform conservation efforts and ensure a future for wild giraffe throughout Africa. GCF estimates that only about 111,000 giraffe are remaining in the wild in all of Africa today. Read more about giraffes here: Giraffes – The Silent Extinction
“Giraffe are undergoing a silent extinction in Africa. The fact that this is the first description of dwarf giraffe is just another example of how little we know about these charismatic animals”, said Dr Julian Fennessy, Director and Co-Founder of GCF. “It is only recently that our research has shown that there are four distinct species of giraffe. There is just so much more to learn about giraffe in Africa, and we need to stand tall now to save them before it is too late.”
About the Giraffe Conservation Foundation
The Giraffe Conservation Foundation (GCF) is the only organisation in the world that concentrates solely on the conservation and management of giraffe in the wild throughout Africa. GCF currently implements and supports giraffe conservation efforts in 16 African countries. As an international science-based conservation organisation, GCF that provides innovative approaches to saving giraffe. GCF is dedicated to a sustainable future for all giraffe populations in the wild. For more information, visit our website: https://giraffeconservation.org/
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It’s DAY ONE of the rest of your life. 2020 was a shocker, and 2021 will get worse before it gets better – certainly here in Africa – so let’s pause to reboot our expectations and come up with a personal winning strategy for the year. My winning strategy to counter the Covid blues is to celebrate Africa every day of my life.
Today also heralds the first day of entries for our 2021 Photographer of the Year – Africa Geographic’s greatest annual celebration! This year we decided to shake the tree and offer a substantial CASH PRIZE in addition to a safari for the winning trio of photographers and their partners. After a record number of entries last year, our thinking for 2021 is that we all need extra incentive to refocus on the joy of life. Expect 6 months of eye-watering epicness as we share our weekly selection of the best entries, before selecting the winners in June.
Again, our judging will be based on whether the image evokes an emotion, tells a story and reflects the true diversity and amazingness of Africa. Of course, there are technical issues to consider, and these are important. But most important for us is that the photograph breaks through the clutter of everyday life and makes you FEEL Africa’s pulse. Check out this video for details.
Our three stories below reflect the variety that Africa brings to us all. Elephants are congregating in areas that they deem to be safe from the evil ones, which in turn creates real issues for humans living in those areas. This is a CONUNDRUM that requires astute management – of elephants and humans. We then delve into the fascinating world of how the NIGHT SKY has affected human thinking for millennia. And our last story below is from one of our tribe, who expresses her frustration that some activists call for BOYCOTTS of certain African tourism industries based on the wildlife policies adopted by those countries. What are your thoughts about this?
Recently, an article by Africa Geographic arrived in my inbox on why Hwange National Park should be on everyone’s list of places to visit. Having worked in the park for the better part of ten years, I was naturally drawn to it and, as always, drifted to the comments below. To my dismay, one of the first responses to the story stated that she would boycott travel to Zimbabwe on principle, however much she would love to go there. Her comment was made in protest against the country’s policies on wildlife sales to other countries.
I have seen many similar comments in the past and my response to it is always the same – do your homework.
There are many misguided opinions on how those living outside of countries such as Zimbabwe can help wildlife in these areas. However, few people truly consider the reality of how their actions (or inactions) can affect conservation in these countries. We are all familiar with the aphorism “the road to hell is paved with good intentions”, and it rings particularly true in this instance. The protection and conservation of wildlife and wild areas is a community effort: many businesses, people and operations are involved in maintaining these protected areas, even where the connection might not be immediately apparent to the casual observer.
Many lodges in wildlife areas have established their own conservation programmes or throw their weight behind supporting existing ones, often donating a portion of their earnings to support local projects. These lodges rely on tourists to generate income, and without this income, they cannot support these valuable initiatives. Not only do these lodges employ numerous people from local communities, but the materials and services necessary to keep a lodge running are sourced from a large number of local businesses.
Without the employment and revenue generated by the hospitality and tourism industry, countless people would be unable to support their families in an already impoverished country, worsening their suffering. The inevitable outcome is that some will turn to illegal activities to survive, and poaching will increase. At the same time, the conservation initiatives that supply water to the wildlife, conduct research or run community development programmes will find themselves severely underfunded.
Yet in all this, the government has little concern for the views of armchair activists on the other side of the world. Few countries do.
Rather than making sweeping declarations and passive protests, perhaps one’s time might be better spent researching how you could actively help conservation. Donations to conservation programmes and community upliftment projects are always welcomed, as are contributions of equipment and supplies.
At the very least, generating awareness in your own community and friendship circles about these projects and how best to support them would go a lot further towards actually making a difference.
Kate Hughes has worked in Hwange National Park for Wilderness Safaris and The Hide where she was also involved in their in-house conservation projects. She continues to support Friends of Hwange and Conservation & Wildlife Fund in their efforts to keep Hwange safe.
Editorial note:
It has become commonplace to see comments from people, particularly on social media, threatening to boycott travel to certain countries based on their disagreement with that country’s conservation and wildlife policies. They often encourage others to do the same. Our concern is that these sweeping statements, while generally well-intentioned and based on admirable principles, are made without thorough consideration of their impact. In choosing to boycott a country and encouraging others to do the same, you will certainly do more harm than good.
We would respectfully suggest that this underlying passion and energy might be more effectively applied to directly benefit conservation. As Kate has written, there are numerous underfunded projects throughout Africa involved in everything from removing snares to supporting and empowering surrounding communities. Aside from donations, there are multiple other ways to help. You could, for example, lend your skills to conservation projects – from fund-raising to legal/financial advice, marketing and website/technology/social media assistance. And yes, tourism revenue plays an enormous part in keeping Africa’s remaining wild spaces safe, so travelling to these areas is an excellent way to help.
The sentiments behind calls to boycott are almost always laudable. Unfortunately, it is worth bearing in mind that these statements will have little impact on the governments of the country concerned. Instead, the wildlife and the people on the ground – who may well share the same feelings directed at their policy-makers – are the ones who will pay the bitter price.
Since the dawn of mankind, the human race has recorded its stories, myths, and legends in the tapestry of their starlit night sky. Regardless of geographical location and culture, the celestial realm has long been the ultimate storyboard upon which humanity has logged its thoughts, beliefs, and experiences. Their observations not only were not purely aesthetic in nature, however, and it did not take the early settlers long to begin to understand the world by watching the passage of the stars night after night.
People quickly began to notice the cyclical nature of the heavens, and with that came the concept of time. Of course, modern-day timekeeping was a long way off. Still, by recognising the positions of various celestial phenomena, it soon became apparent that recurring weather conditions and temperatures could be predicted with a reasonable amount of accuracy. This knowledge could then be used to anticipate vital information on animal movements based on rainfall, as well as fruiting times of the local flora. By the age of the pastoralists, this knowledge would prove invaluable for farming activities.
These early observations paved the way to modern society, and it is fascinating to realise just how much of today’s world is linked to our ancestors’ observations of the darkness. Did you know that the days of the week are all named after planets, or that our 12-month calendar is based on the phases of the Moon?? Perhaps this is why so many people are drawn to the stars and why just staring heavenwards at night is such a therapeutic and powerfully emotive experience.
Let us now delve back into history and investigate some of these stories.
The Milky Way
The ethereal, spiral arms of our galaxy can be seen arcing across the sky, particularly during the winter months when it passes almost directly overhead. Even from suburban areas, the glow of countless stars is evident, but imagine what the sky must have looked like before the advent of electricity and industry and the pollution that they now cause!
The early Bushman told that this celestial beacon was created when a young girl threw the ashes of her campfire high into the sky to guide her father home from his hunting trip. To some tribes, the diffuse white streak of the Milky Way represented the bellies of a vast herd of celestial springbok, while to others it traced a prodigious footpath upon which the spirits of our ancestors still tread. In Zulu culture, the opalescent band was created by the hooves of the gods’ great herd of cattle as they marched to and from their feeding grounds, slowly wearing through the boundary between the perpetually lit celestial realm and the Earth below.
The Moon
According to the Bushmen, the Moon is the sandal of a trickster god named !Kaggen that had been frozen in a local waterhole before being tossed into the sky to light up the night. However, the Sun was extremely unhappy about sharing the sky with another luminous object and, to this day, chases it through the night, cutting strips from the Moon until it is almost extinguished. At the last moment, the Moon begs for forgiveness and Sun relents its attack, allowing the Moon to recover until it becomes full again. At this point, the Sun recommences its onslaught once more.
Due to the repetitive phases of the Moon and its seemingly regular regeneration, much African folklore found it synonymous with reincarnation and recovery. This belief was honoured by the Bushmen during their hunting trips, trusting that if one looked at the Moon after shooting their quarry with a poison arrow, it would allow the prey to recover and escape.
As it takes approximately 29 days for the Moon to go through a full cycle and return to the same phase, these phases have also been used for millennia to mark the passage of time. The ‘Ishango Bone’, found in the former Belgian Congo, is a baboon fibula decorated with various etchings that indicate its use as an ancient lunar calendar. Scientists estimate that it is over 35,000 years old!
The Southern Cross
The Southern Cross, or Crux, is the smallest of the recognised 88 constellations but is probably the most famous in the southern sky. Not only does it point towards the south, an invaluable navigation tool, but there are also many recognised animal associations.
The most common interpretation in southern Africa is that the four brightest stars of Crux are a herd, or ‘journey’, of female giraffe and the two Pointer Stars (Alpha and Beta Centauri) represent a pair of giraffe bulls in hot pursuit. Another version of the story sees the cross as symbolising the head of a giant giraffe (due to the diamond shape), with the Pointers as its neck. Some Bushmen tribes believed that the stars of the cross are a pride of lionesses, along with their young cub (Epsilon Crucis) and the Pointers embodying their two pride males following close behind as they prowl towards the horizon.
Orion
Orion as a constellation does not have any specific African mythology associated with it, but aspects of the constellation are well documented. Many cultures have seen the famous Belt of Orion as various animals, including both tortoises and warthogs. One legend identifies them as three zebras. Mintaka, the first belt-star to rise was seen as the stallion, with Alnilam and Alnitak, his two mares following behind.
One version of Bushman starlore tells the story of the great god of East who set out hunting and climbed up to the Large Magellanic Cloud where he aimed his bow at the three zebras of Orion’s belt. According to beliefs at the time, zebras were restricted to the heavens and were not found in Earth. However, the god missed, his arrow falling short (symbolised by Orion’s ‘sword’ and the Great Orion Nebula). The arrow could not be retrieved due to the presence of a great lion represented by the giant red star, Betelgeuse. To honour the zebras’ escape, the god of the East sent them to Earth to live out their lives in peace.
The Magellanic Clouds
When looking directly south on a clear night, two imperfections stand out against the clarity of the darkness. The Large and Small Magellanic Clouds are sister galaxies of the Milky Way, locked in a gravitational war with us, and each other. They are named after the great Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan who documented the ever-present clouds during his circumnavigation of the globe in the early 1500s.
However, these two smudges in the sky have been known since ancient times, and early settlers considered them to be indicators of summer and wet weather when visible at night. The Large Magellanic Cloud was often portrayed as the shield of ‘Naka’, the Horn Star (Canopus, the second brightest star in the sky), as it slowly emerged from the eastern horizon, dragging in the start of the new year.
The bushmen saw the clouds as a pair of celestial steenboks, perhaps due to their diffuse nature rendering them hard to see under less than perfect conditions, in the same way that the diminutive steenbok prefers to remain hidden. Others saw the testicles of a great lion! As strange as this may sound, one must remember that the bushmen had massive respect for the apex predator with whom they shared the land, and there are multiple of accounts of celestial lions in their history.
Conclusion
These examples are just a tiny percentage of ancient beliefs and stories associated with the heavens. Sadly, many records having been lost through the years, and much of history has been bastardised by centuries of oral tradition. Regardless of the specifics, it is plain to see that since mankind’s earliest origins, we have looked to the stars for guidance and a way to record our history.
This history is emblazoned in our genetics, and it is no surprise that we still gaze in awe at the glistening, inky expanse above, night after night after night. Space may or may not be infinite, but it contains the hopes and dreams of every man, woman and child that has ever trodden the Earth and will continue to be the ultimate blackboard upon which to etch our memories.
About the author: Ben Coley is a 15-year veteran of the guiding industry in South Africa and has always harboured a great fascination with the stars, the wonders of the cosmos and their influences on the natural world. This has culminated in his authoring a brand-new Astronomy qualification for field guides, as well founding his Astro-Tourism company, Celestial Events SA. Ben specialises in ‘Night Sky Safaris’ for the tourism industry, that offer a unique insight into the cultural history of the heavens, as well as out of this world views of distant worlds and other celestial phenomena.
I am indebted to three elephant experts for their input into this article.
Human-elephant conflict: Managing elephants in a landscape that includes rural human communities is a major challenge in countries where elephant populations are increasing as a result of successful conservation measures. Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe, in particular, must find ways to help their citizens living in rural areas to coexist with these great grey beasts that can be enchanting or terrifying, depending on your point of view.
In a previous article on the topic of elephants, hunting and coexistence with human communities, I pointed out that research findings on elephants must be balanced with the perspectives and needs of rural communities to make reasonable policies. Although the problems associated with human-elephant conflict were considered, we did not focus on addressing the conflict itself. In this article, we go a bit deeper into the role that research can play in managing human-elephant conflict. Namibia would benefit greatly from targeted research in this area that answers key questions for wildlife managers. If you are a student or researcher thinking about topics that can have real-world conservation outcomes, listen up.
First, let’s establish the difference between hunting elephants in order to reduce conflict with local communities and hunting to generate revenue and meat (the latter is called conservation hunting in Namibia, and trophy or sport hunting elsewhere). The conservation hunting concept is based on the principle that people living with elephants and other wildlife should benefit materially from their presence. Generating revenue and meat from elephants increases tolerance for the species and thus indirectly promotes human-elephant coexistence. Conservancies in Namibia use the income from conservation hunting to employ over 600 community game guards that assist with reporting conflict incidents and wildlife monitoring. At the national and conservancy level, conservation hunting income also contributes to the Human-Wildlife Conflict Self-Reliance Scheme, thus playing an important general role in addressing conflict. Conservation hunting is not, however, the primary topic discussed here.
The main issue I want to address is how hunting directly affects human-elephant relations in the areas where it occurs. Elephant hunting includes what is known in Namibia as problem animal control hunts, whereby specific individuals that frequently cause damages are killed. In terms of elephant behaviour, population numbers and demographics, all forms of hunting are likely to affect human-elephant interactions in some way. Figuring out what that effect might be and how hunting can be managed to improve human-elephant relations in the long term is a promising area of research. It is my hope that some of the questions below may spark the interest of Namibian researchers to delve deeper into these issues.
Human-elephant coexistence may be an unrealistic goal in areas where farm infrastructure was built when no elephants were present and the farmers living there see no direct or indirect benefits from elephant presence. Where coexistence is not possible in the short- or medium-term, options other than the ones presented here may have to be explored – like translocation or, as a last resort, culling. The research questions presented here are specifically for areas where elephant presence generates enough benefits such that reducing the costs associated with them can lead to human-elephant coexistence.
1) What effect does hunting have on long-term elephant damage?
Problem animal hunts, particularly, are meant to reduce human-elephant conflict. Research from Kenya reveals that male elephants cause more conflict (either in groups or as singletons) than females, and that some males can be classed as habitual crop raiders, while others only raid occasionally. Furthermore, habitual raiders may teach younger males their same bad habits. Removing habitual raiders from the population therefore appears to be a sound course of action for reducing conflict, at least in the short term.
With a long-term view, however, removing habitual raiders may just make space for other males to fill their shoes, thus not addressing the problem. Additionally, identifying habitual raiders is difficult, as many incidents happen at night and tracking a conflict-causing animal requires an extremely swift response to reports of damage that is not always possible. The question remains: if all else is equal (i.e. elephant and human density, habitat and agricultural practices), how does removing individual problem-causing elephants affect the long-term trend in human-elephant conflict? Conflict incidents and problem animal hunts are recorded in Event Books and through the hunting permit system, so this information can be used as a starting point for research in Namibia.
2) How does hunting influence elephant behaviour around people?
We already know that the total absence of older males leads to younger males becoming unusually aggressive to humans and other species. It is also possible that elephants that witness a hunt could become aggressive due to increased stress levels, but solid evidence for this is lacking. On the other side of the coin, there is increasing research on using a landscape of fear to reduce conflict with humans by using the animals’ instinctive desire to avoid risk.
An animal’s landscape of fear is based on their life experience and lessons from their parents (or others in their social groups) that tell them which parts of their environment or times of day are more or less risky. This is very similar to the way we decide how to move around our cities based on crime levels that we have experienced or heard about through our social circles. Theoretically, at least, one could manipulate the elephants’ landscape of fear to reduce the number of individuals willing to approach a village or enter a crop field (risky spaces), while encouraging their use of wildlife corridors and protected areas as safe spaces in the landscape.
The research challenge is to figure out how hunting contributes to either exacerbating the problem through increased elephant aggression or reducing the problem by creating a landscape of fear. Detailed records of all elephant hunts (for any purpose), followed by behavioural studies of affected elephant groups and supported by Event Book data would help us to understand the link between hunting and elephant behaviour. This understanding can be used in turn to create hunting guidelines that will limit human-elephant conflict.
3) Can non-lethal methods ultimately replace problem animal control?
The two questions above reveal that there are some uncertainties regarding how hunting can be used to reduce human-elephant conflict in the long term. When these questions are answered, lethal control must be considered alongside the non-lethal options for reducing conflict. Protecting crops and water installations at conflict hotspots should reduce the need for lethal control over time. Non-lethal elephant deterrents (e.g. burning chilli bombs or applying chilli oil to fences) could be used alongside occasional hunts to maintain and reinforce the landscape of fear around villages and crops.
One of the key drawbacks of implementing long-term non-lethal control methods is the cost. Some options can be installed using external funds, while others come at a cost to individual farmers (e.g. paying for diesel to pump water that elephants drink). In some cases, an external party makes the initial investment, but on-going maintenance is left to the farmer. By contrast, the meat of a hunted elephant is distributed among the affected people and the hunting fee may be used to offset losses incurred. Lethal control may therefore be a more attractive option for those who suffer the direct consequences of elephant damage and are expected to implement non-lethal methods (at least partially) at their own cost.
The effectiveness of non-lethal methods should be subjected to the same level of scrutiny as lethal methods, particularly to determine its long-term effectiveness, cost and practicality in the field. A method that relies solely on investment of the farmer’s time and money is unlikely to win more support than bringing in a hunter to deal with a problem animal. For any given non-lethal control method introduced into a community, we need to know how well it worked over what period of time and whether or not the farmers feel that they could integrate the method into their day-to-day lives.
Understanding the researcher’s role
Experts in human-wildlife conflict know that this particular field of science is even more influenced by human factors (e.g. relationships) than other areas of science. Coexistence with elephants is like a giant puzzle that involves turning over many important pieces through research and experience. The pieces we focused on here include the direct links between hunting and human-elephant conflict, yet the indirect links can be just as important. These include political willpower, historical context, local culture and benefits derived from elephants. While research can provide some important puzzle pieces, it takes people from a diverse array of stakeholders to solve the puzzle itself.
Solving the puzzle of human-wildlife conflict requires trust, communication and a willingness to listen and learn. If research results are used to try and force people to adopt certain ideas or methods (even if they work), they are almost guaranteed to fail. Alternatively, research can be part of a collaborative learning process whereby everyone is involved in identifying the right questions, developing sound methods to test possible solutions and discussing the results. If you have been inspired by these research questions, remember to include others in your search for answers.
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OK, it’s Christmas Day so I will keep this brief.
Firstly, thanks for the many responses regarding the Okavango oil prospecting story we ran last week. We will keep our eyes on that situation and keep you apprised. For now, we expect plenty of posturing and bluster while the EVIL ONES determine whether there is sufficient oil to ruin yet another African ecosystem, bank the proceeds offshore and leave Africa’s people to pay the cost.
The video below is special for its rarity but also deeply disturbing to me. Does that make me a speciesist? That emaciated baby rhino carcass with no PROTECTIVE mom nearby probably tells another story …
Our first story below is a carbon copy of what has happened to so many species. Add passionate collectors and the pet trade to insatiable Far East demand for wild species as food, medicine and status – and you have an industry where legal and illegal traders operate side by side and often HAND-IN-GLOVE. Interesting that a few reptile collectors (they use a fancier term) tried to distract from the message on our social media shares of this story with claims of incorrect facts. When challenged, they disappeared back into the shadows.
Our two other stories, though, are good news. Both involve restocking of former ranges, and both projects were driven by organised, professional conservation entities, ably supported by their partners – including governmental. These successes give me HOPE that we can restock Africa’s wild areas and regain some of what has been lost – once we tame the illegal stuff.
Festive season greetings to you all. We will publish a newsletter on New Year’s Day – so please keep an eye on your emails.
Bangweulu Wetlands in Zambia has received a small founding group of cheetahs – the first of their species to return to this unique community-owned, protected wetland in almost a century.
On Thursday, 17th December, the Government of Zambia announced the successful translocation of an initial three cheetahs from South Africa resulting from a collaboration between Zambia’s Department of National Parks and Wildlife (DNPW), African Parks, the Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT), Ashia Cheetah Conservation and National Geographic. Their reintroduction is part of the ongoing process to restore Bangweulu’s biodiversity and aid efforts to secure safe spaces to promote the long-term survival of the species in the region.
“With the reintroduction of cheetahs to this extraordinary wetland, Bangweulu serves as a paragon for community conservation. Our unique partnership with the Community Resource Boards and African Parks has unlocked an opportunity here to help protect this vulnerable species from extinction in the wild while helping to revitalize Bangweulu and enhance nature-based tourism,” said Dr Chuma Simukonda, Director of the Department of National Parks and Wildlife. “We are proud to be working together to preserve biodiversity, securing lasting benefits not just for local communities and for all Zambians – but as a contribution to securing a sustainable legacy for the planet”.
The translocation initiative arises from a longstanding partnership between Zambia’s Department of National Parks and Wildlife (DNPW), six Community Resource Boards (CRBs) and conservation non-profit African Parks, which has managed Bangweulu Wetlands since 2008. The partnership worked with the EWT’s Cheetah Range Expansion Project to source three healthy males from reserves in South Africa, flown to Bangweulu, in north-eastern Zambia, on December 15th.
The cheetahs were safely released into temporary enclosures specially designed to support their acclimation and will be fitted with tracking collars to enable their long-term monitoring. The founder population is genetically unrelated, and the individuals were sourced from three reserves, namely Mountain Zebra National Park (Eastern Cape), Rogge Cloof (Northern Cape) and Welgevonden (Waterberg, Limpopo).
“In many parts of the continent, cheetahs face an uncertain future, but today the Zambian Government and Bangweulu’s communities are providing a chance for their recovery,” said James Milanzi, African Parks’ Zambia Director. “Thanks to our 12-year partnership with the DNPW and six CRBs, Bangweulu has seen a dramatic transformation. The reintroduction of cheetahs marks a new ecological milestone and an exciting new chapter for eco-tourism to this region”.
At 6,570 km², Bangweulu is of suitable size and habitat to support a viable cheetah population. Its connectivity to other protected areas provides the potential to establish a healthy metapopulation to promote the long-term persistence of the species in the region.
With fewer than 7,000 cheetahs remaining in only a fraction of their historical range, safe, protected areas are essential to the species’ survival in Africa’s wild landscapes. “We’ve managed to double wild Cheetah numbers in the fenced protected areas in Africa over the past decade. Thanks to community work initiated by African Parks, reintroductions into unfenced systems are now possible. This will be our first attempt,” said Vincent van der Merwe, EWT’s Cheetah Range Expansion Project Coordinator. “We are especially grateful to Ashia Cheetah Conservation which sponsored flights, collars and vet services, and National Geographic for making this reintroduction possible. We also want to thank the Ford Wildlife Foundation, PWC, and Paul King for logistical and financial support for the Cheetah Range Expansion Programme”.
Bangweulu — ‘where the water meets the sky’— is designated as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International and as a RAMSAR Wetland of International Importance. This unique community-owned, protected wetland is not only a life source for a wide variety of wildlife but supports 50,000 people who rely on the landscape’s rich resources. Progress in restoring Bangweulu has seen poaching decline dramatically; wildlife populations steadily climb, and tourism and other enterprise projects contribute revenue to the area and its communities.
Stichting Natura Africae, WWF-The Netherlands and WWF-Zambia have provided key multi-year support for the overall management of Bangweulu Wetlands, helping to build its ecological, economic, and social sustainability.
“Witnessing the loss of a species is heartbreaking,” said James Milanzi, “but there is nothing quite as hopeful as seeing its return.”
This year proved to be unprecedented on a great many levels. Covid-19 has made all of us adapt to an ever-changing and unpredictable schedule, from working from home, surviving varying levels of lock-down and social isolation, to coping with the realisation that we will likely take a while before we return to “normal” as we knew it – if ever. With all this in mind, we at the Giraffe Conservation Foundation (GCF) are happy to continue providing positive conservation stories. While so much has changed, there is still great work being done in support of giraffe conservation throughout Africa!
Operation Twiga V (twiga is Swahili for giraffe) is the sixth consecutive giraffe conservation translocation that took place in Uganda. The ‘Pearl of Africa’ is home to over 60% of the Critically Endangered Nubian giraffe, one of three subspecies of the northern giraffe. Previous years have seen giraffe re-introduced to Lake Mburo National Park (NP) and the southern bank of Murchison Falls NP, as well as supplementing the small giraffe population in Kidepo Valley NP.
Last year, Operation Twiga IV saw the re-introduction of giraffe to Pian Upe Wildlife Reserve (WR), an area where giraffe had been locally extinct since the late 1990s. This undertaking was part one of a two-phased initiative to re-establish giraffe in Pian Upe WR. Earlier in 2020, it was unclear if this translocation would be possible but the stars aligned to allow the Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA), with direct support from GCF, to proceed with this exciting initiative. Special considerations had to be made due to Covid-19; however, the slightly smaller but well sanitised and masked team took to the field in mid-November to capture giraffe and begin the operation. This followed weeks of weather-related delays as roads and bridges had to be rebuilt after heavy rainfalls.
Over three weeks, a total of 15 subadult Nubian giraffe (11 females, four males) were safely caught in the northern section of Murchison Falls NP, housed in a temporary boma, and transported over 480 km to Pian Upe WR – all without a hitch! The UWA, GCF and Uganda Wildlife and Education Centre (UWEC) team worked seamlessly together to make this one of the most successful translocations in Uganda’s history. This is a testament to a great team effort based on six years of joined experience coupled with the ongoing support and training from GCF and additional collaboration from wildlife and zoo professionals from around the world.
Pian Upe WR is the second-largest protected area and the largest wildlife reserve in Uganda. Established in 1965, it was home to the largest population of Nubian giraffe in Uganda until years of civil unrest and armed conflict resulted in the decimation of giraffe and most other wildlife species from this area. The remaining wildlife populations within the reserve have slowly recovered since the cessation of civil unrest in the country, aided by the efforts of UWA (along with support from partners such as Karamoja Overland Safaris) to increase security and management of the reserve. The initial population of giraffe re-introduced last year has been closely monitored, and all are adapting very well to their new habitat. With the additional 15 giraffe translocated during Operation Twiga V in November 2020, Pian Upe WR now has an excellent founder population on which to continue the rehabilitation of the reserve.
As with last year, three individuals were fitted with solar-powered GPS satellite tracking units (ossi-units) by GCF – to assist with post-translocation monitoring as well as to elucidate more on how the giraffe utilise their new space. The data gathered from these units will not only help with continued monitoring of giraffe movements but will also be used as part of GCF’s larger Twiga Tracker Initiative, the most extensive GPS satellite tracking study ever conducted on giraffes. To date, GCF has fitted more than 200 giraffe in ten African countries with such units to help monitor them remotely.
Uganda now boasts five thriving Nubian giraffe populations, and their numbers are steadily increasing. These translocations are a vital conservation tool to secure the future for the Critically Endangered Nubian giraffe, as emphasised in the National Giraffe Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2020-2030). The largest Nubian giraffe population in Africa occurs in Murchison Falls NP, a park that is under pressure by impending oil exploration and drilling, intense infrastructure development, as well as poaching for bushmeat. It is, therefore, crucial to disperse giraffe back to their former historic ranges throughout Uganda to preserve the integrity of this iconic animal. We at GCF are proud to support all aspects of Uganda’s giraffe recovery, a real modern-day conservation success story.
Operation Twiga V stands testament to what can be achieved when passionate people come together not only with the team on the ground but also with giraffe conservationists and supporters from around the world. Without funding support from partners and individuals across the globe, this amazing effort would not have been possible. We want to use this opportunity to thank all our supporters for their generosity and for helping us spread the word both on the plight of giraffe and these conservation success stories. It is a genuinely incredible conservation effort all around for the entire team led by UWA, and especially for veterinarians Drs Patrick Atimnedi, Robert Aruho, and Eric Enyel, as well as our GCF team, Drs Sara Ferguson and Patrick Okello.
The Giraffe Conservation Foundation (GCF) is the only organisation in the world that concentrates solely on the conservation and management of giraffe in the wild throughout Africa. GCF is dedicated to a sustainable future for all giraffe populations in the wild. From our base in Windhoek, Namibia, and regional offices in Kenya, Niger and Uganda, GCF’s small and dynamic team supports giraffe conservation efforts in 16 African countries. For more information, visit their website.
Reptile trade: Over the past few years, Ban Animal Trading and the EMS Foundation have been conducting extensive investigation and research into South Africa’s trade in live wild animals, publishing their results in The Extinction Business Investigative Report Series. The third instalment of this series deals with South Africa’s trade in reptiles and amphibians – exposing this growing industry as largely unregulated, unsustainable, and unethical.
As the report indicates at the outset, reptiles, amphibians, and arachnids are less charismatic than mammals or birds and, as a result, are perceived as having a far lower intrinsic value than the more iconic species. For the most part, public perception attaches negative stereotypes to creatures such as snakes, crocodiles, or frogs. Furthermore, ectotherms are considerably less expressive than mammals and birds, meaning that sick, injured, or stressed individuals suffer in silence. Their slow metabolic processes protract this suffering even further. Globally, reptiles are amongst the most inhumanely treated animals in the pet trade, with a mortality rate of some 70% at wholesalers being considered an acceptable industry standard.
The previous two reports in the series (see here and here) examine in-depth how loopholes, corruption, and ineffective control systems in trade permits, including those of CITES, facilitate the laundering and smuggling of wildlife. These systemic failures have allowed the illegal trade to masquerade as legitimate and have been highlighted repeatedly by several different organizations and individual activists. Where reptiles, amphibians, and arachnids are concerned, this is often exacerbated by inadequate or non-existent population estimates or, in some cases, a failure to list entirely.
When compared to mammals or birds, catching these animals in the wild is relatively cheap and easy, spurred on by an ever-growing demand from collectors, hobbyists, and traders. According to the report, at least 50% of the reptiles and amphibians that move through international trade are wild-caught or poached. The remaining 50% are reported to be captive-bred, but little effort is made to investigate the validity of their origins and shipments, especially those containing venomous species, are seldom inspected.
South African authorities issued the following export permits (both national and CITES) from 2013 to 2020:
2,179 indigenous tortoises – most of which were exported as part of the pet trade
12 Nile crocodiles – the majority were imported by zoos
262 indigenous snakes – most of which were exported into the pet trade
21 indigenous Armadillo girdled lizards
96 indigenous rock monitors
1,456 indigenous amphibians
While international trade is, in theory, governed by CITES regulations, this needs to be implemented, complemented, and bolstered by national law. In South Africa, the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (NEMBA) was enacted in 2004 to regulate CITES-listed species. Under this act, the Threatened and Protected Species (ToPS) regulations govern any activities that could impact the survival of listed species. Any pursuit involving these species (such as capture, breeding or trading in wild specimens) should only be permitted after the South African Scientific Authority has issued a non-detrimental finding (NDF) as per the CITES treaty. For many of the species discussed in the report, such as tortoises, the necessary NDF is non-existent.
According to the report, when wild tortoises are confiscated by the provincial authorities or surrendered by a member of the public to the Johannesburg Zoo or the National Zoological Gardens in Pretoria, they are ‘reclassified’ as captive-bred, regardless of origin. Instead of being rehabilitated and released back into the wild, these are then sold on to wildlife traders and exported with minimal restrictions due to their new captive-bred status.
From the trade in snakes and lizards to frogs and arachnids, Ban Animal Trading and the EMS Foundation highlight several recurring failures. In many instances, the animal species concerned is not listed by CITES, meaning their origin (wild or captive-bred) and purpose for export is irrelevant. Where the animal species is listed, the exporters must declare them as either wild-sourced or captive-bred but do so in the knowledge that this is difficult to confirm and unlikely to be questioned. The report indicates that export permits were issued for “captive-bred” individuals of species not known to breed in captivity, such as Giant girdled lizards or rain frogs.
The report examines South Africa’s trade in endotherms in detail (both in terms of species as well as export destinations of these animals). It exposes just how damaging this trade is to the country’s indigenous wildlife. It highlights the failures of the Department of Forestry and Fisheries to implement existing legislation to ensure the regulation and management of biodiversity. Most importantly, the report stresses that this existing legislation is inadequate and failing the animals it purports to protect.
It concludes, somewhat poignantly, “Reptiles do not fit into our view of the world and its inhabitants, and because they instil a primordial fear in most humans, are not afforded the same protection as other animals. We pay little attention to the value these creatures that have lived on the earth for millions of years bring to biodiversity and their unique role in the ecosystem.”
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RANT WARNING: OK, so if ongoing tests look promising they are going to drill for oil and frack large swathes of land in the northern reaches of the fragile Okavango Delta. The massive Namibian oil concession, owned by a Canadian company, is on the Kavango River and smack bang in the Kavango Basin – a vital feeder to the Delta.
Need I even mention the UNESCO World Heritage Site status, the thriving tourism industry, the artisanal fishing that is the lifeblood for local people – amongst the many vital aspects of this region that are now at risk? Oh, and the oil concession area will cut off the vital migration path for KAZA region elephants moving between Botswana, Namibia and Angola. The same elephants that are causing untold human misery in Botswana because their former migration routes are cut off by human activities such as this. It has been suggested that this particular migration route may be the only sustainable solution to the ‘elephant problem’ in Botswana. The environmental impact assessment was found to fall short of legal requirements – no surprises there. Expect the usual mining industry smoke and mirrors as this issue plays itself out on the world stage and in courtrooms.
At what point do governments stop strangling the goose that lays the golden eggs? Is Namibia so DESPERATE that it is prepared to sell the country from beneath its citizens and slash Botswana’s throat – all for a bit of cash and a handful of jobs? Our first story below refers.
In our second story, we delve into research about that age-old rivalry between two of Africa’s APEX predators. Those lucky enough to witness lions and hyenas slugging it out will understand how fierce and bloody this rivalry is.
Let’s finish off this week with a CELEBRATION! Check out the stunning images in our third story below. My only trip to Gorongosa some years back left me awed at the beauty and biodiversity of this special place.
Festive season greetings to you all. We will publish a newsletter on Christmas Day – so please keep an eye on your emails.
For a distance of some 150km, Canadian company ReconAfrica’s oil and gas prospecting concessions border the Kavango River, a crucial source of water in a semi-arid area and the lifeline for one of Africa’s greatest concentrations of wild species in the Okavango Delta into which it discharges.
The fate of one of Africa’s most valuable ecosystems may depend on results from wells being drilled deep into the bedrock beneath the Kalahari of northern Namibia and Botswana in the hunt for a petroleum reservoir.
If the search by Canadian oil and gas company ReconAfrica is successful, the region could be irrevocably transmogrified by networks of access roads, truck traffic and heavy machinery, pipelines, drill rigs and hundreds of oil and gas production wells.
For ReconAfrica it would mean “the largest oil play of the decade” and immense financial profits. For social and environmental justice activists, it spells unmitigated disaster.
The role played by the Namibian government (a 10% shareholder in ReconAfrica’s Namibian exploration concession) is of grave concern. While the petroleum company is vocally proclaiming that they are on the brink of a major discovery, the Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME) is downplaying potential risks and suggesting that the focus is merely on “exploration”.
Does this mixed messaging suggest misinformation on the part of ReconAfrica to lure potential investors? Is the government trying to obfuscate what’s really happening in the region? Is this then a case for the US Securities Exchange Commission to investigate?
ReconAfrica holds exploration licences for an area of more than 25,000km² in north-eastern Namibia and a further 9,900km² across the border in Botswana. Beneath this land lies the Kavango Basin, a geological mega-structure which the company’s experts conservatively estimate to contain 120 billion barrels of oil equivalent.
To put the claimed size of this deposit into context, the largest oil field in history, Saudi Arabia’s Ghawar Field, is believed to have held a total of 88 to 104 billion barrels of oil, while the country estimated to have the biggest proven reserves is Venezuela at about 303 billion barrels.
In a press release, the MME suggests that the “necessary environmental impact permits” are in place, but opponents question the efficacy and thoroughness of the process and argue that ReconAfrica’s environmental impact assessment (EIA) falls short of legal requirements.
One major concern is that the exploitation of oil or gas deposits may require the use of hydraulic fracking technology, which involves injecting pressurised, water-based, chemical-laced fluid into wells to help release hydrocarbons tightly held in so-called unconventional deposits.
In its extremely optimistic communications with the media, ReconAfrica implies that fracking may well be on the cards. Daniel Jarvie, a petroleum geochemist on the company’s technical team, states that its licences in Namibia and Botswana “offer large-scale plays that are both conventional and unconventional”. Such unconventional “plays” would require fracking.
Dr Annette Hübschle of the Environmental Futures Project of UCT’s Global Risk Governance Programme warns that “we should be very concerned about the long-term impacts of fracking on livelihoods, health, ecosystems, biodiversity conservation and especially climate change.”
The MME insists, however, that neither an onshore production licence nor a licence to develop unconventional resources has been applied for or granted. They declare that “no hydraulic fracking activities are planned in Namibia” and that “Recon will not be conducting any fracking activities in the Okavango Delta.”
While the MME seems to imply that what is going on is merely exploration for possible petroleum reserves, ReconAfrica appears ready to move into oil production as soon as possible, noting that once a commercial-scale discovery is declared, their agreement with the Namibian government entitles them “to obtain a 25-year production licence”.
Ultimately, the debate over fracking may be moot as there is little doubt about the overwhelmingly destructive effects of major petroleum production – with or without fracking – in a dry, ecologically-sensitive region.
And that’s without the occurrence of any disasters – an unrealistic expectation from an industry responsible for some of the biggest environmental catastrophes in history, from the Exxon Valdez and Deepwater Horizon to Canada’s tar sands and the devastation of the Niger Delta.
According to Hübschle, “the EIA fails to address the issue of the high volumes of water required for exploration and how the highly toxic and radioactive drill mud will be cleaned and disposed of.”
A threat to people and cultural heritage
What is indisputable are the risks to which large, industrialised oil production would expose the region.
For a distance of some 150km, ReconAfrica’s concessions border the Kavango River (often referred to as the Okavango River, and called Rio Cubango in Angola), a crucial source of water in a semi-arid area and the lifeline for one of Africa’s greatest concentrations of wild species in the Okavango Delta into which it discharges.
The region as a whole is home to around 200,000 people. The Okavango Delta, which is downstream from the suspected oil field, provides a livelihood for indigenous populations of at least five ethnic groups who rely on the landscape for water, fishing, hunting, wild plant foods, farming and tourism.
Of particular concern are local San communities whose already threatened lifestyle would be deeply impacted by the arrival of the oil industry. What’s more, the area where petroleum production would occur includes Botswana’s Tsodilo Hills — a Unesco World Heritage Site — which is celebrated as the “Louvre of the Desert” and protects over 4,500 San rock paintings, some of which are 1 200 years old.
Hübschle notes that “very few affected parties were consulted by government and the company. While the company is engaging in a winning hearts and minds campaign, there are many affected people who are deeply concerned about their land rights, ability to farm and derive income from community conservancies.”
A threat to wildlife and ecology
A future Kavango Basin oil field not only poses an existential risk to the Okavango Delta, a Unesco World Heritage Site in its own right — Botswana’s most-visited tourist destination and home to a very large and diverse population of animals, including more than 70 species of fish and over 400 species of birds — but it also directly overlaps the world’s largest terrestrial cross-border wildlife sanctuary, the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (Kaza), which straddles the borders of Botswana, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Angola and Zambia.
A source of millions of dollars of income from sustainable ecotourism, the area protects at least four species on the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) list of “critically endangered” animals, including the black rhino and the white-backed vulture, seven “endangered” species, including the grey-crowned crane and the African wild dog, as well as 20 species listed as “vulnerable”, such as the martial eagle and Temminck’s pangolin.
The region is also known for its extensive network of migration routes for the planet’s largest remaining elephant population. Studies have revealed that these animals have huge home ranges of nearly 25,000km² and roam across vast distances between Botswana, Namibia, Angola and Zambia.
The disruption of migration corridors by a massive new oil industry infrastructure would not just endanger the survival of the elephant population but is likely to increase detrimental interactions with local human communities.
“If full-scale drilling goes ahead”, says Hübschle, “the outlook for Kaza would be grim. Tourists won’t come on safari to look at oil rigs.”
From a global perspective, extracting vast amounts of fossil fuels from the region will exacerbate the ongoing human-induced climate crisis which is itself threatening the survival of the Okavango Delta as a result of decreasing annual rainfall in the catchment area.
In a deeper, geological irony, the rocks suspected of containing the oil and gas reserves of the Kavango Basin were deposited in the Permian Period which came to a cataclysmic end in the most extreme extinction event of the Earth’s history that wiped out 90% to 95% of all marine species and 70% of all land organisms.
Digging up and burning oil from these strata will push us even closer to a new global mass extinction.
In its myopic vision, all ReconAfrica sees in the northern Kalahari is money buried underground.
At a time when the world’s few remaining wild places need all of the protection we can muster when biodiversity is declining rapidly and when global heating is wrecking the world, it’s the kind of vision that undermines the very foundations of our existence.
If we believe in restorative social and environmental justice, we ought to insist that the international fossil fuel industry funds Namibia and Botswana to keep the oil in the ground, to develop renewable energy systems instead and to safeguard their irreplaceable ecosystems.
Andreas Wilson-Späth is a part-time freelance writer and ex-geologist who lives and works in Cape Town.