Page 7 – Africa Geographic

RHINO

It started as a relatively innocuous morning spent recording midden positions for a research project, barely 200 metres from our vehicle. I was crouched over a midden examining the freshness of the dung (very) when a soft snort drew our attention to the black rhino cow standing in a thicket some 50m away. She stared myopically at the three guides standing upwind of her for a second or two before wheeling around and trotting off in the opposite direction, tailed curled characteristically over her back. We changed our trajectory to avoid her and set about circling back.

As we stopped to record the coordinates of the next midden, she reappeared suddenly, again only 50m away but this time downwind of us. While we were dawdling, she had circled to get a better measure of the situation and had clearly decided that we were unequivocally not to be trusted. Aided by an exceptional sense of smell and hearing, she was no longer confused, and her head was raised as she stared directly at us. She took one step in our direction, then another. A quick assessment of my immediate surroundings showed a raisin bush to my left and a bushwillow sapling the width of my wrist to my right. Marvellous.

Then suddenly she was charging, closing the gap at an alarming pace. If clichés are to be believed, my life should then have flashed before my eyes, but I felt only an unreasonable bitterness directed at the useless bushwillow. One cliché did hold, however, and time seemed to slow as I become aware of every huff of her breath and the movement of her feet and, at what seemed like the last second, the way she dropped her head…

And then it was over. She whirled around in a cloud of dust less than two metres from us, turning in an impossibly tight circle, and trotting off with a surprising amount of dignity. Certainly, more than I was capable of at that moment. When, eventually, my thoughts had cleared (and my knees had stopped shaking), I was filled with a profound sense of respect for the wild, her creatures and the little black rhino cow, later known as Elizabeth, so determined to assert herself.

The conservation world is almost saturated with the tragic reality that ego and greed have desecrated the populations of one of the world’s most iconic animals. Innocuous lumbering giants made vulnerable by their size and an absurd human obsession with their keratinous horns, the very future of the planet’s rhinos hangs very much in the balance. An unfortunate consequence is that in many ways, the wave of polarized debates, heart-breaking stories and fury-inducing news items inevitably detracts from the fascinating ethology of one of the world’s largest land animals. What follows is a celebration of Africa’s rhinos – their characteristics, peculiarities, and nuances.

The basics

There are five extant (surviving) species of rhino across Africa and Asia: the white rhinoceros (‘Near Threatened’), the black rhinoceros (‘Critically Endangered’), the Indian rhinoceros (‘Vulnerable’), the Javan rhinoceros (‘Critically Endangered’) and the Sumatran rhinoceros (‘Critically Endangered’). Rhinos belong to the order Perissodactyla (or odd-toed ungulates) meaning that their closest relatives, somewhat counterintuitively, are horses, zebras, and tapirs.

The two Africa species: the black rhino (Diceros bicornis) and the white rhino (Ceratotherium simum) are further divided into subspecies depending on their distribution, some of which are now either extinct or survived only by a handful of individuals (such as the northern white rhino or the western black rhino). As is so often the case where subspecies distinctions are concerned, there are different classification approaches and levels of disagreement within the scientific community as to where the distinctions should lie.

Equally contested is the explanation behind the names “white” and “black” describing the two species. For many years, the convenient and widely-accepted explanation was that the name “white” resulted from an Englishman’s misinterpretation of the Afrikaans word “wyd” (in Dutch, “wijde”, meaning wide) used as a description of the white rhinoceros’ characteristic square upper lip. According to this particular theory, the name for the black rhino followed naturally from there. Unfortunately, however, Middle Dutch linguistic experts have disproved this – “wijde” was not used as an adjective to describe body parts of either humans or animals. While there are several other theories, often involving the soil types of the areas where notable biologists were studying these newly observed behemoths, there may never be a definitive answer as to why two grey animals found themselves thus labelled.

The names “square-lipped” (white) and “hook-lipped” (black) are also used to refer to the two species, as the shapes of their upper lips are clear distinguishing characteristics. The wide upper lip of the white rhino is used to crop grass, while the almost prehensile upper lip of the black rhino is used to pull and pluck leaves and branches.

The differences

	Black rhino	White Rhino
Shoulder height	1.4-1.8m	1.6-1.86m
Mass	800-1,400kg	1,700-2,300kg (3,600kg max)
Diet	Browser	Grazer
Upper lip shape	Hooked	Flat
Head position	Raised	Lowered
Ear shape	Round	More elongated
Gestation	15 months	16 months
Number of offspring	1 calf	1 calf
Life expectancy	Up to 40 years	Up to 40 years

White and black rhino have very distinct behavioural reputations. For the most part, white rhinos are seen as more placid while black rhinos are often described as more solitary, unpredictable, and even cantankerous or capricious. There are certain truths to these generalizations, but, as is the case with any wild animal, individuals have unique personalities and variations exist under different circumstances. As the less numerous of the two species, and with a preference for dense habitats, black rhinos are often more skittish due simply to a lack of exposure to people and vehicles.

Social lives

Both black and white rhinos have a relatively flexible social structure that changes throughout their lives and is determined by the sex of the individual. The mature males of both species are usually territorial and generally solitary, spending a large portion of their time patrolling territorial boundaries and refreshing existing scent marks. The females are more social and often form loose aggregations of up to ten or more individuals. These herds (or “crashes”) consist of combinations of females, sub-adults and calves and the individuals therein may or may not be related. Rather than defending territories, cows move through large home ranges depending on seasonal food and resource availability. Mature males occasionally associate with these groups and are mostly tolerant of other young males approaching maturity, provided these sub-adults show the requisite submission and respect.

For an animal with excellent olfactory capabilities, it is only natural that much of their long-distance communication is through scent secured in middens. Any rhino passing through will deposit his or her dung to the pile, using chemical signals to indicate age, sex, and reproductive status. Territorial males will also mark these middens and other landmarks by spraying urine and scraping their feet through the scent. In areas where they overlap, both black and white rhino will readily use the same middens.

For more immediate interactions, rhinos rely on body language cues and a surprising vocal range of squeaks and groans that sound bizarrely similar to whale noises to the human ear. Research has also shown that white rhinos (and likely black rhinos) can communicate through low-frequency rumbles below the range of human hearing, like elephants.

Love and war

While conflicts between mature males are often decided based purely on posturing and intimidation displays, there are times when two evenly matched competitors will come to blows, sometimes battling intermittently for days at a time. When the fight is over a cow in oestrus, these jousting matches can result in serious stab wounds and, on rare occasions, may even prove fatal.

While on average the bulls are larger than the cows, the females are far from defenceless themselves, and they may reject the advances of prospective suitors for days at a time until the cow is satisfied that a better prospect is unlikely. During this protracted courtship, the bull is extremely possessive of the female and may view almost anything as a potential threat to his mating rights, including the cow’s current calf. A calf is usually around 18 months old when its mother comes back into oestrus once again and is typically still suckling, so this process can be exceptionally traumatizing. In some instances, the bull may even injure or kill the calf, despite the mother’s protective efforts.

Rhino calves

After a gestation period of just under a year and a half, the cow moves off on her own to give birth and usually remains alone for several days or weeks before re-joining other rhinos. For those with a current calf, now around 2.5 to 3 years old, this means first breaking the existing bond. One can only imagine the confusion a young rhino experiences when, overnight, its once loving mother becomes completely intolerant and drives it away, impervious to its desperate and indignant squeals. When the cow is comfortable that her new calf is ready, she may once again tolerate the presence of the older calf, though their relationship is never quite the same.

Rhino calves are one of the most beguiling creatures imaginable – all ears and over-sized feet. They are almost puppy-like in their behaviour – scampering, gambolling, and bounding around their indulgent mothers before falling into an exhausted sleep. A protective mother weighing more than a ton is generally sufficient to deter most predators and natural calf mortalities are relatively rare – only lions and spotted hyenas have enough numbers to overwhelm the mother’s defence. Even then, it generally is not worth the effort.

Conclusion

Sadly, the same cannot be said for humans because rhino horn has a perceived value of over $60,000 per kilogram. The extent of the poaching crisis is beyond the scope or purpose of this article but so often hidden under devastating statistics is the profound loss of individual animals, unique in their characters and personalities. Beyond their importance in the ecosystem, those who have spent time with rhinos come to know just how different each rhinoceros can be – from docile, confiding, or curious to grumpy and unpredictable. And while rhinos are not outwardly demonstrative in their affection, their social bonds are both important and extremely touching for those fortunate enough to witness them.

As for Elizabeth, no amount of courage or spirit could have saved her from the poacher’s bullet that claimed her life some three years after she gave me the fright of mine.

About the author

Jamie Paterson – Scientific Editor at Africa Geographic

Jamie was born in Johannesburg and after completing her schooling in South Africa, spent three years at the University of Cambridge studying law. On successfully finishing her honours, she returned to South Africa and decided to head into the wilderness where she has worked as a research guide and television presenter. A desire to tell Africa’s stories as they deserve to be told led her to Africa Geographic, where she now works as the scientific editor.

580 elephants return to Virunga in DR Congo – and other species follow in their wake

Elephants from the Ishasha area in Uganda’s Queen Elizabeth National Park are now again crossing into neighbouring Virunga National Park (DR Congo)

Some 580 elephants have taken everyone by surprise by moving between Queen Elizabeth National Park (Uganda) and the savanna area in neighbouring Virunga National Park (DR Congo).

At the start of this year, Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo was home to just over 100 African bush elephants (savanna elephants – Loxodonta africana). Over the past thirty years, their numbers had been decimated from some 8,000 in 1980 to around 500 in 2015 and 120 by the start of 2020. Internal conflict in the region has fuelled poaching by rebel militia groups and made the work of the dedicated park staff and conservationists both vastly challenging and exceptionally dangerous. And so this latest development of significant conservation importance.

Virunga National Park, as Africa’s oldest national park, covers some 7,700km² (nearly 800,000 hectares) and is a recognised UNESCO World Heritage Site due to its exceptional variety of habitats and biodiversity. The long, narrow park lies on the eastern boundary of the Democratic Republic of Congo and is perhaps most well-known for the extensive gorilla conservation efforts in the forested portions of the park.

Elephants in the Ishasha River, which is the border between Uganda and DR Congo

As with most parks throughout Africa, COVID-19 has placed Virunga under severe strain without any revenue from visiting tourists and both poaching incidents and attacks on park staff and civilians have increased. April 2020 saw one of the deadliest attacks in recent history when rebel militia killed four civilians and 13 staff members. Emergency funding from UNESCO and other organisations helped park officials erect walls and hire armed protection. The park also reached out to surrounding communities to help with providing security and economic support.

While still dealing with the aftermath of the tragic incident, park officials were stunned when 580 elephants entered the park in July. While in the past it was common for small herds to move between Queen Elizabeth National Park and Virunga, years of conflict had deterred most of their natural movements, and the return of such large numbers is unprecedented.

In the absence of elephants and other large herbivores, alien plant life was running rampant in the savanna regions of the park. However, according to Virunga officials, the bolstered elephant population has begun to reshape the landscape far sooner than anyone could have expected, restoring the habitat to grassland savanna.

Perhaps even more astoundingly, in just seven months, the return of the elephants and their subsequent impact on the habitat has prompted the return of other iconic mammals including buffalo, Ugandan kob, warthog and topi. The first lions were also seen in the region for the first time in nearly two decades.

The arrival of the elephants in Virunga is testament to the dedication of park authorities and conservationists under exceedingly trying conditions. It also means that they now have their work cut out for them in ensuring the safety of the new arrivals, as well as assuming responsibility for supporting neighbouring communities.

The director of Virunga National Park, Emmanuel De Merode, said, “The return of large elephant herds to Virunga is the outcome of decades of extraordinary efforts on the part of Congo’s park rangers. Considerable work remains to ensure that the park makes a significant contribution to the wellbeing of the local community.”

Those wanting to support the park can do so through donations to the Virunga Fund, a joint effort between Virunga National Park, Global Wildlife Conservation, Emerson Collective, the European Commission and Leonardo DiCaprio. Funds will go towards law enforcement and security efforts in the park to protect both the wildlife and the people, as well as to the families of the rangers who have lost their lives in the line of duty.

Female banded mongooses incite violence for better mating opportunities

Exploitative leadership is famously common in human societies, particularly in conflict situations where most members of society pay the price of warfare or conflict while self-serving leaders profit in some way. Now researchers have shown that female banded mongooses will lead their groups into deliberate conflict with rival groups to increase their chances of mating with unrelated individuals, often to the detriment of the males of the group.

Banded mongooses (Mungos mungo) are extremely social and live in groups of around 20 adult members which forage and sleep together as well as cooperating to defend and raise offspring. It is unusual for a banded mongoose to leave their natal groups (around 85% spent the duration of their lives in the same group in this particular study). If this does occur, same-sex groups may either be forcibly expelled or leave voluntarily. These groups, where the ratio of males to females is typically relatively high, are strictly territorial and are intolerant to invasions of rival neighbouring groups. Encounters between different groups are common and always aggressive, culminating in physical fights and occasional mortalities.

A research team from the University of Cambridge and the University of Exeter analyzed data from 10 to 12 groups of banded mongooses in Queen Elizabeth National Park in Uganda that had been consistently monitored from 2000 until 2019. This included nearly 600 records of intergroup conflict between different groups, marked by conspicuous calling, chasing, and fighting which can extend for up to an hour, with most resulting in a clear “winner”. For 539 of these observed mongoose battles, the researchers knew the oestrus states of the females within the groups.

As cooperative breeders, the oestrus cycles of female banded mongooses within a group are synchronized, and multiple females will give birth on the same day, in the same underground burrow. When they become sexually receptive, the males of the group become extremely protective and follow the females “nose-to-tail” throughout the day. What the researchers observed was that the females used this state of absolute distraction in the males to incite conflict with a rival group and, during the chaos and confusion, used the opportunity to mate with males from the rival group.

For the males of the group, this particular tendency came at a high cost, with disproportionately high conflict-related mortality rates recorded for male banded mongooses when they are forced into conflict situations against their own best interests. For the females, it presents the opportunity to gain genetic benefits in mating with unrelated individuals. Rather than following a “heroic” leadership model, the female mongooses demonstrate “exploitative” leadership that confers a benefit that they might otherwise be unable to attain while avoiding participating in the fights themselves and exposing the rest of the group to unnecessary risk.

The study also compared these results with conflict and conflict-related mortalities within meerkats, which, while also social, are typically dominated by an alpha female who is generally unrelated to her mate. Here researchers observed that without an incentive, the female showed no inclinations towards inciting encounters with rival groups. Instead, the female would typically exert her dominance to avoid encounters.

While these banded mongoose “wars” may be far removed from human reality, researchers believe that this study may go some way towards explaining the extremely destructive nature of our conflicts as a species. The model elucidated by the authors shows that this inequality (with some individuals in a group benefitting to the detriment of others) may favour the evolution of increased aggression during conflicts with rival groups. Though they do acknowledge that many factors may have shaped our violent encounters, they suggest that investigating how and when our “leaders” became removed from the costs of the violence they incite would be extremely valuable to understanding our own history.

The full study can be accessed here: “Exploitative leaders incite intergroup warfare in social mammal”, Johnstone, R., Cant, M., et al (2020), Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences

CEO note: Free at last + Hwange + the edge

CEO NOTE: 04 December 2020

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It’s time. To stop treating elephants as political COLLATERAL for ideological campaigns. If you believe the extreme FRINGE of the vocal animal rights lobbies, then elephants were ‘there’ first and so humans must leave Africa’s rural areas. And the whining FRINGE of the trophy hunting industry will tell you that elephants are ecosystem destroyers that should be taken out in large numbers. Then there are the politicians, who hope that by trumpeting dramatic elephant-related announcements from the podium they will earn the popular vote. Of course, there is a thread of truth in all these sweeping statements – we all know that a good lie includes elements of the truth. My point is this: elephants are sentient creatures that should, by default, have our respect. They are also essential roleplayers in Africa’s ever-changing ecosystems, big drawcards for the mighty tourism Dollar and spiritual totems for many of Africa’s people. Elephants are both nuanced and hard-core in their impact on Africa’s people and on our reducing wild areas, and only science and Africa’s people can make the best decisions about them. So, the next time some evangelising lunatic tries to sell you an alternative lens through which to view elephants, walk away. Just walk away.

First up below, learn about Hwange and why it is such an iconic safari destination. This vast, ancient ecosystem has survived many generations of meddling humans and still offers an epic safari experience. GO THERE.

Our second story may only involve 39 parrots, but it does represent years of hard work in overcoming senseless political barriers related to returning wild-caught birds to their home ranges. SUCCESS at last – well done to all involved!

Our last story below covers a BEAUTIFULLY filmed documentary about one of the biggest issues facing our wildlife and our people. The production team is one of the most passionate, most talented in this space. Please read this interview and watch the doccie trailer.

HEADS-UP
Finally, my team and I are extremely excited about what will be coming your way early in 2021. I am just putting it out there that in a few months we will challenge you (yes, YOU) to join us on a long-term mission to make a real difference on the ground here in Africa. Stand by.

Story 1
https://africageographic.com/stories/confiscated-parrots-fly-free-again-over-dr-congo-forests/
FREE AT LAST: 39 poached & confiscated African grey parrots released in eastern DR Congo after being rehabilitated at Lwiro Primate Rehabilitation Centre

Story 2
https://africageographic.com/stories/hwange-2/
SAFARI PARADISE: Zimbabwe’s oldest and largest national park, Hwange is a safari paradise that hosts large populations of elephants, lions and wild dogs

Story 3
https://africageographic.com/stories/the-edge-of-existence-and-human-wildlife-conflict-we-interview-james-suter/
THE EDGE: ‘The Edge of Existence’ tells the story of human-wildlife conflict on the western boundary of Tanzania’s Serengeti. We interview the filmmaker

Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic

The Edge of Existence and human-wildlife conflict – we interview James Suter

The ever-increasing human population has made human-wildlife conflict one of the greatest threats facing wildlife and conservation areas in Africa. It also gravely affects the livelihoods and safety of people every day.

Through the years, conservation has focused on the preservation of untouched wilderness. Not long ago, the greatest prize for conservationists was to gain protected status for an area and then establish rigorously controlled boundaries around these important places – with the focus always on the protection of the species that live within these areas.

However, over the years, conservation has changed profoundly, and those involved in the field have come to realise that protecting an area in isolation is not enough – one has to focus on a much bigger picture. Modern conservation must take the surrounding communities into consideration and factor in human/wildlife interactions.

Produced by South African filmmakers Black Bean Productions, The Edge of Existence tells the story of human-wildlife conflict on the western boundary of the Singita Grumeti concession in Tanzania, the trailer for which can be viewed here.

Africa Geographic spoke to James Suter, a Co-Founder of Black Bean Productions and one of the directors of The Edge of Existence.

1. What are your reasons for producing The Edge of Existence and what change and action do you hope to come from it?

We set out to document and uncover the untold story of human-wildlife conflict in Africa. This issue is becoming a serious threat to wildlife and conservation areas due to the increasing population and pressures on wilderness areas.

It also affects the livelihood of many people daily. It is an issue without a simple answer. The documentary aims to tell the story of key characters on the ground, who face daily challenges in terms of living alongside Africa’s wildlife. We show the true meaning of conflict with wildlife from the perspective of those most affected by it and hear their point of view on this topic.

We hope to educate individuals around the world on what is happening – in many areas this problem is now reaching crisis level, and we hope the documentary will help to uncover solutions, connect communities, conservation authorities, and government.

What happens after the documentary is hugely important to us as a team – we want to see positive steps are taken that promote the co-existence of humans and wildlife not just in Africa, but around the world.

A member of the Grumeti Fund Anti-Poaching Unit collects and stores old wire snares. These are extremely dangerous and can be difficult to find in the wild as they are so easy to conceal. Snares do not discriminate and can cause irreversible damage to animals that were not the original target of the poachers.

2. How did you come to choose to focus on the Serengeti ecosystem?

We are focusing only on one area – but this is truly a microcosm of what is happening in Africa as a whole, as well as many other parts of the world. We had worked closely with the Grumeti Fund for several years before starting work on the documentary, and we were able to see first-hand how human-wildlife conflict is impacting wildlife and people in this area.

Throughout the documentary, we follow the Grumeti Fund, navigating through the challenges of human-wildlife conflict as they work to find solutions that enable people and wildlife to co-exist peacefully.

3. Do you believe enough education and awareness is being created in the communities in terms of the importance of why wildlife needs to be protected, and the vital role people play in their protection?

Conservation used to be about keeping the communities out and protecting the wildlife within. However, conservationists now understand that communities are essential if you want a conservation model to work.

Without the buy-in from people, conservation does not work – community members need to benefit from conservation too. We must consider the communities living in such close proximity to wildlife and understand the daily challenges they face while working to protect the wildlife that is impacted by communities encroaching on wilderness areas.

Conservation is not sustainable unless we find workable solutions to human-wildlife conflict that can support the communities affected. In this ecosystem, there is a focus on educating the youth about protecting the natural world and understanding the value of these resources. There needs to be more of this happening around the world, so that the next generation grows up with these values. Having said this, I can sympathise with someone who finds it difficult to see the value of an animal, if that animal has caused so much hardship and that individual has never directly received any benefits from the presence of that animal.

4. While filming, you experienced the consequences of human-wildlife conflict first-hand, both in terms of the loss of human and animal life. Witnessing that suffering and loss, how have your views on the topic changed, and how do you hope your audiences’ views will change?

This is something that inspired us to share this story. There is an entirely different perspective to the human-wildlife conflict that people are not always aware of. We have spent several years documenting human-wildlife conflict in the Serengeti, and a huge part of this was documenting the impact this conflict has on human lives.

We’ve seen families lose loved ones, parents witnessing their children being injured or killed by wild animals, and farmers who in a single night have lost their entire crop due to elephants. In an area as remote as the Serengeti, a farmer losing his crops can have devastating impacts that last for years.

The Edge of Existence — The Grumeti Fund Law Enforcement’s Anti-Poaching Unit arrests a young man from a local community who has been caught poaching within the Grumeti Concession.

The other side of this, of course, is that as a result of retaliation and the conflict caused by communities living in such close proximity to wildlife, we are witnessing endangered animals being pushed to the brink of extinction. Experiencing this conflict first-hand affirmed our belief that the only way to ensure conservation efforts are successful and sustainable is to ensure these efforts look at the whole picture and include communities.

Our hope in sharing this film is that people will realise that human-wildlife conflict is not a black and white issue. This issue is far more complex and really requires us to look at conservation from a holistic point of view as well as the need to act now.

5. Elephants seem to have the biggest impact on the community’s livelihood in the Grumeti region- do you think there is a solution to the devastation that they cause, and why should people want to protect them when they are not benefitting from their presence?

While every situation requires a different set of mitigation tactics, in the western Serengeti the construction of a fence is the most recent solution to be implemented, effectively separating human areas and wild spaces without impacting on the natural movement patterns of wildlife. In Kenya, fencing has been proven to be the most effective solution to keep elephants out of community areas. The communities we spoke to in Tanzania feel this solution needs to be considered. By reducing conflict between elephants and people, community members may be more inclined to see value in protecting natural resources as long as they benefit as a community.

Fencing is expensive, and the kilometres are vast. We have partnered with the Grumeti Fund in Tanzania, and together we have launched an initiative to raise funds to put up a fence to protect communities living on the edge of a human/wildlife conflict hotspot on the western corridor of the Serengeti.

A group on men from the local village have gathered in anticipation of a retaliation attack against a predator which has entered their village.

6. Given the drastic effects it could have on the annual migration, what is your view on erecting an electric fence as a more permanent and effective solution in mitigating human-wildlife conflict?

Electric fences have been proven to be an effective measure to mitigate conflict in Africa, especially with regards to elephants. Elephants are the main culprits when it comes to HWC on the continent. Creating a permanent buffer between wildlife areas and communities does make sense, particularly where there are high incident rates of conflict and large populations of people living close to areas where wildlife populations thrive.

When considering fencing in the Serengeti ecosystem, one needs to consider several factors. What we have learnt is that in an ecosystem with migrating animals, you can’t just erect a fence anywhere. Fencing needs to be strategically placed and work as a buffer in high conflict areas, without restricting the movement of migratory species.

Fences also need to be semi-porous and allow for free movement of some animals but keep larger animals like elephants out of community areas. Typically, these fences are low structures, with electrified tendrils that point towards the reserve or wildlife area.

Again, one needs to be cognizant of the movement of animals and limit the negative impact on migrating animals. We have observed that while it does happen, herds will avoid areas of large populations of people as much as possible and historically move past these populated areas. If fences are strategically placed, this should allow for free movement of these herds and limit the negative impact on migrating herds, while protecting people in high-risk communities. There will however always be an impact when erecting a fence in a natural system, one just needs to find a balance.

7. What are your fears if we do not find a balance between people and wildlife?

We fear that the conflict between humans and wildlife will reach a breaking point. Human-wildlife conflict interrupts the conservation of animals in the natural habitats, it threatens the survival of wildlife in these areas, and it also has an enormous impact on local communities.

Black Bean Productions has partnered with the Grumeti Fund in Tanzania and together they have launched an initiative to raise funds to put up a fence to protect communities living on the edge of a human/wildlife conflict hotspot on the western corridor of the Serengeti.

The public can contribute towards a metre, or more, of this necessary fence – which is already under construction. For those interested in donating, a donate button can be found on the Black Bean Productions website, with an option to choose how many meters of fencing to pay for to support this project.

The Edge of Existence was lined up for several South African and international film festivals, but all of these have been placed on hold as the world lives through the lockdown. Black Bean Productions is currently negotiating with broadcasters to buy and flight the documentary, both in South Africa and internationally.

HWANGE

On the very fringes of the Kalahari Desert lies Hwange – Zimbabwe’s oldest and largest national park – crisscrossed by fossil riverbeds that bear testament to a time when water was abundant, and mudflats, swamps and forests thrived. These ancient rivers dried up many thousands of years ago, leaving the landscape, as well as its plant and animal life, at the mercy of the seasonal rains. The resultant collision of geography and climate has fostered a wilderness that transforms from desiccated dust bowl to verdant oasis every year. Every year, through the seasons, the doyenne of Zimbabwe’s parks has treated her visitors to truly magical moments of pure, untamed Africa.

The national park

Hwange National Park is situated in the north-western corner of Zimbabwe on the main road between Bulawayo and Victoria Falls, bordering Botswana. The 14,651km² (1.46 million hectares) unfenced park is part of the greater Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area that centres around the confluence of the Zambezi and Chobe Rivers and includes protected areas of Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Angola.

Once a royal hunting area for Mzilikazi, the Mthwakazi king, Hwange’s shallow soils and scarce water resources made it unsuitable for agriculture. In 1928, Wankie Game Reserve (a colonial mispronunciation later rectified) was gazetted for the conservation of wildlife. By then, historical records suggest that the park was mostly devoid of wildlife due to the rampant hunting habits of early colonialists. However, the scarcity of water resources would also have played a significant role. The first warden of Hwange National Park, Ted Davison, set out to remedy this through the creation of many artificial water points, using boreholes to access the area’s underground water supply. With ready access to permanent water and concerted conservation efforts, the animal populations flourished.

The park can be roughly divided into seven main areas, with three national park camps at Main camp, Sinamatella and Robins Camp. Many of these areas include private concessions where specific lodges have exclusive use:

Main Camp area: one of the busiest areas in the park which serves as the park’s maintenance headquarters, Main Camp area also has several fossil riverbeds and pans (both pumped and natural), as well as the Mtoa ruins.
Sinamatella area: situated in the less arid, northern part of the park and interspersed by small seasonal rivers, Sinamatella was declared an Intensive Rhino Protection Zone in the 1990s to safeguard the region’s remaining black rhino population. Sinamatella Camp serves as one of the Park’s administrative bases.
Robins Camp area: situated right on the northern boundary of the park, dominated by plains and rugged basalt and granite outcrops, as well as the Deka River and many pans. The Robins Camp area is also close to the Deteema petrified forest where visitors can explore the rock-solid and ancient chunks of silicified wood.
Linkwasha concession area: a private concession in the south-eastern corner of the park, exclusively utilized by guests of private camps and inaccessible to self-drive visitors.
Dzivanini wilderness area: this remote and wild region of the park situated is situated in the southern section of the park.
Shakwanki wilderness area: one of the quieter regions of Hwange, Swakwanki is named for one of the main pans, in reference to the ear-like shape of the pan.
Tsamhole wilderness area: situated on the western boundary of the park, Tsamhole is home to Reedbuck vlei, a natural spring that serves as the source of the Deka River.

The southern and western parts of the park consist primarily of thick layers of Kalahari sand and ancient sand dunes largely dominated by xerophile vegetation (tolerant of dry conditions). The Kalahari sandveld, dry acacia forests and mopane woodlands give way to large open plains dotted by vleis and salt pans and, further east, stands of Zambian teak.

Surrounding the national park are several private concessions, many of which allow trophy hunting.

Thirsty elephants

Hwange National Park is famous for its enormous elephant numbers, boasting the second largest population in Africa after Chobe in Botswana. There are no permanent natural water sources in Hwange, and it is highly likely that historically during the dry winter months, the elephants would have migrated out of the area, returning only with the rain and revitalization of the plant life. However, the installation of 60 artificial pans changed everything by providing permanent water all year round, and so the elephant population grew. And grew and grew. Even following large culling operations in the 1980s and disastrous drought in the mid-2000s, the elephant population increased from around 13,000 in 1986 to what is believed to be over 30,000 today (a 2019 game count yielded a population of over 40,000).

For conservationists, this means shouldering the responsibility of providing sufficient water to support these numbers through diesel, wind, and solar-powered water pumps, which, naturally, come at a cost. However, for visitors, the sizeable population means that a trip to Hwange is guaranteed to be shaped by memorable encounters with one of Africa’s most captivating creatures, often in “super herds” of hundreds of elephants.

Other wildlife

While elephants may be front and centre of the Hwange experience, this is not to say that other wildlife sightings inevitably take a backseat. Despite rumours to the contrary, recent game counts confirm that Hwange National Park is still home to healthy populations of buffalo, zebra, antelope species, spotted hyenas, painted wolves (African wild dogs) and lions, with the park being considered a Lion Conservation Unit by the IUCN. Encounters with cheetah, leopard, aardwolf, aardvark, and roan and sable antelopes are also a relatively regular occurrence. Unfortunately, despite concerted anti-poaching efforts, the black and white rhino numbers have been decimated, with only a handful of black rhinos alive today and no surviving white rhinos.

While the best wildlife viewing is to be had during the dry winter months, the rain of summer transforms Hwange National Park into a birder’s paradise as the year’s migrants return. Thanks to the variety of available habitats, there are over 400 recorded bird species. The pans attract hundreds of waders of every size and long-limbed secretary birds pick their way through the grasslands, showing off their ostentatious feathery crests. The park is home to large numbers of Bradfield hornbills. Keen birders should keep their eyes peeled for great painted snipes, the adorable pygmy geese, dwarf bitterns, Dickinson’s kestrels, black-chested prinias, Arnot’s chats, and, for the extremely fortunate, the yellow form of the crimson-breasted shrike.

The experience

With its relatively well-maintained road network, a self-drive exploration of Hwange is entirely possible – with picnic sites, hides and viewing platforms provide the ideal vantage points to observe the thrum of life around them. For the intrepid explorers, a multitude of campsites, many of which are close to water points, offer visitors budget accommodation options and a truly immersive wild experience. It is worth remembering that this inevitably involves exposure to the elements and, while dry season wildlife viewing is the best, the nights can be bitterly cold, and frost is not uncommon.

Naturally, a stay in one of the more luxurious lodges in an exclusive concession will add an entirely different level of luxury. Not much can top kicking back to watch a line of thirsty elephants arriving for a sneaky drink from the lodge swimming pool or sitting next to a fire under the stars, listening to the distant rumblings of roaring lions. Those tired of the seated approach to safari will also be able to embrace the opportunity to explore Hwange’s great wilderness on foot.

Want to go on safari to Hwange? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.

Confiscated parrots fly free again over DR Congo forests

By Lwiro Primate Rehabilitation Center/World Parrot Trust

39 African grey parrots were released on November 18th 2020 by Vice Governor of Sud Kivu Province Marc Malago and Director and Site Manager of Kahuzi-Biéga National Park De-Dieu Byaombe in Sud Kivu Province in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The first of its kind in the region, this project marks an important step towards permanently ending the wildlife trade for this imperilled species, threatened by decades of unsustainable trade.

The grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) were confiscated by government officials in Sud Kivu and Maniema Provinces and taken to Lwiro Primate Rehabilitation Centre. A rescue centre run by three partners: Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature ICCN + Centre de Recherches en Science Naturelles + CSRN and a team of international NGOs. When seized, many of the parrots were in poor condition, with wing feathers cut to prevent them from flying. Although Lwiro is foremost a primate rescue centre, with the support of international groups, they were able to build new facilities and provide high-quality veterinary care for the birds. Over many months the parrots were able to rebuild their strength to prepare them for their return to the wild.

“This is an important landmark in the fight to end the illegal trade in endangered wildlife in the DRC,” said Itsaso Vélez del Burgo, Technical Director of Lwiro sanctuary. “The efforts of the DRC government are commendable, and we are very pleased they are taking this strong stand on behalf of wildlife.” Velez added, “collaboration has been critical to the success of this project, and we are deeply grateful to our partners, our core partner Ivan Carter Wildlife Conservation Alliance and the World Parrot Trust who have supported this initiative financially and technically from the outset.”

The international trade in African Grey parrots has caused wild populations to plummet threatening the species with extinction. The DRC has historically been one of the primary sources of grey parrots for the international market where they are sold as pets or used on breeding farms. They are highly vulnerable to over-exploitation as they breed slowly in the wild, and populations are unable to replenish.

“This effort sends a strong message of hope that the challenges facing these birds can be overcome. It’s the sort of good news that we all need to hear right now” said Dr Rowan Martin, Director of the World Parrot Trust’s Africa programme. “We’re thrilled with the commitment being shown by the authorities to ending the trade. This shows what is possible.”

In 2017, governments around the world voted overwhelmingly to end the international trade of the species because of concerns about declining populations driven by international trade. They were transferred to Appendix I, the highest level of protection available under CITES, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. The ban prohibits trade in wild birds although trade in captive-bred parrots is still permitted under certain conditions. Before the ban, over 1.2 million wild African grey parrots have been trapped and exported from Africa. Research conducted in Maniema province showed a surge in trapping in the early 2010s, but recent reports suggest trapping has declined dramatically following sensitisation campaigns and enforcement efforts.

Read more about grey parrots here: Shades of Grey + Get to know the grey parrot

CEO note: Reality check + another ‘problem’ elephant killed

CEO NOTE: 20 November 2020

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Big elephant bulls are magnificent beasts – my favourite encounter while on foot. They are also running out of space, as two of our stories below will attest to.

After having been harassed and moved from reserve to reserve, Riff Raff the large ‘problem-causing’ elephant bull has been shot and killed. He RAN OUT OF SPACE, and his various human caretakers ran out of patience. This is a tragic story that is set to repeat itself in South Africa where many fenced reserves are home to maturing elephant bulls that will try to do what they are hard-coded to do – find new pastures and spread their genes.

Our third story below is a huge reality check. We are witnessing IN OUR TIME the systemic collapse of eco-system components due to climate change, and the impact on the many species that live in those ecosystems will be severe. Elephants are the subject matter of this important research, but what about the myriad of other species that also depend on forest fruit?

OK, that’s the two bad news stories out of the way. To counter the negative space we all live in right now, why not download some African BUSH SOUNDSCAPES and allow peace and calmness to wash over you? Here is a sample soundscape and here is the shop to buy your own. A portion of the proceeds goes to Conservation South Luangwa and Elephants Alive.

Our natural history story this week is about chacma baboons – those TOUGH-AS-TEAK fellow primates that are the subject of many an amusing tale in Africa where they flourish in all spaces – wild and human-infested.

Finally, we present the second gallery by our reigning Photographer of the Year. Jens Cullmann’s images make me FEEL ALIVE, and I hope that you too enjoy his work. And remember that our 2021 Photographer of the Year starts on 1 January – stand by for more announcements. The prizes will be exceptional …

Story 1
https://africageographic.com/stories/riff-raff-the-problem-causing-elephant-shot-and-killed/
PROBLEM: The ‘problem-causing’ elephant known as Riff Raff has been shot and killed by provincial authorities in South Africa

Story 2
https://africageographic.com/stories/chacma-baboon/
CHACMA: The baboon is one of the largest monkeys in the world, with human-like cunning and 4cm canines that rival those of leopards

Story 3
https://africageographic.com/stories/forest-elephants-going-hungry-as-climate-change-stops-trees-from-fruiting/
REALITY CHECK: Forest elephants are losing body condition – most probably due to climate impacts on forest tree fruit production – say researchers

Story 4
https://africageographic.com/stories/jens-cullmann-2020-photographer-of-the-year-gallery-two/
OUTSTANDING: This fantastic gallery by Photographer of the Year 2020 winner Jens Cullmann will have you itching to enter for 2021. Stand by for entry details

Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic

Jens Cullmann, 2020 Photographer of the Year – gallery two

When Jens Cullmann was notified that he had earned the title 2020 Photographer of the Year, he contacted us to find out why his image was selected above the hundreds of other superb images that made it to the final rounds of judging, many of which gave him ‘picture envy’.

Some images not only tell a story and invoke emotion, but they also speak of the photographer’s journey to secure that particular image – the back story. In Jen’s case, he spent months in Mana Pools during the sweltering peak of the dry season, when the bushveld was particularly ravaged after an extended drought period. His day would often involve many hours of walking in the oppressive heat and waiting patiently in whatever shade was available, while nature revealed her stories. This is a time when the bushveld is not for the squeamish, as many animals are suffering and dying due to lack of water and food. Jen’s photo gallery Circle of Life gives testament to the reality of life in drought-stricken Mana Pools at the time.

In awarding Jens this title, we recognize not only the many uncomfortable hours of patience and diligence behind his winning image but also his authentic, artisanal approach to photography.

In this second gallery (here is the first), we share a few of Jen’s favourite images. In the meantime, please visit his website and follow him on Instagram, where he regularly shares his images and thoughts.

Photographer of the Year — Mana Pools, Zimbabwe ©Jens Cullmann Canon EOS-1D X Mark II┃EF300mm f/2.8L IS II USM┃f/5┃1/1000┃300mm┃ISO 800

Mana Pools, Zimbabwe ©Jens Cullmann Canon EOS-1D X Mark II┃EF200-400mm f/4L IS USM EXT┃f/6,3┃1/3200┃560mm┃ISO 640

Mana Pools, Zimbabwe ©Jens Cullmann Canon EOS-1D X Mark II┃EF300mm f/2.8L IS II USM┃f/2,8┃1/500┃300mm┃ISO 640

Mana Pools, Zimbabwe ©Jens Cullmann Canon EOS-1D X Mark II┃EF200-400mm f/4L IS USM┃f/5┃1/2000┃400mm┃ISO 1250

Mana Pools, Zimbabwe ©Jens Cullmann Canon EOS-1D X Mark II┃EF500mm f/4L IS II USM┃f/5┃1/3200┃500mm┃ISO 1250

Mana Pools, Zimbabwe ©Jens Cullmann Canon EOS-1D X Mark II┃EF500mm f/4L IS II USM +1.4x III┃f7,1┃1/500┃700mm┃ISO 1000

Forest elephants going hungry as climate change stops trees from fruiting

Lopé National Park in Gabon is a UNESCO World Heritage site, and its Afrotropical forests provide a refuge for gorillas, chimpanzees, and forest elephants. However, a recently published study shows an 81% decline in fruiting over a 32-year-period and a corresponding 11% decline in forest elephant body condition over a decade. This fruit famine, say researchers, is mostly likely due to climate change and raises concerns over the long-term survival of the region’s forest elephants and other iconic species.

The future of Africa’s megafauna depends not only on safeguarding their habitats against threats from human encroachment and hunting but maintaining the health of the ecosystems that support them. The effects of climate and atmospheric changes can impact habitats, even in situations where direct human pressures are low. For scientists and conservationists, detecting, quantifying, and understanding these changes is a key conservation priority.

According to the study, the fruit is a keystone resource – its production is highly dependent on climatic cues, and there is abundant evidence that climate change has already caused shifts in the timing of plant reproduction. The critical minimum temperature hypothesis details how some Afrotropical plant species require temperatures to drop below a certain threshold to trigger flowering and, therefore, reproduction for these plants is cued less frequently as temperatures rise.

Automated camera trap photo of two malnourished forest elephants.

Lopé National Park hosts the longest continuous study of tropical tree phenology (the study of cyclical events influenced by seasonal variations in climate and habitat factors) in Africa. Researchers have been monitoring specific tree species important to gorillas, chimpanzees, and elephants since 1986. Once a month, the crowns of trees have been observed using binoculars and the proportions of the canopy covered with flowers, fruit and leaves have been recorded. The authors used this information to conclude that the trees in Lopé are reproducing less often and that the probability of encountering flowers and fruit has declined over time.

Observations of ripe fruits for important elephant fruiting tree species declined at an even faster rate of 87.8%. This decline translated to one in five trees being observed to be fruiting in 1987 to one in 40 in 2018, with a particularly noticeable drop between 2000 and 2003. The historical seasonality in fruit availability has disappeared in recent years with a significant reduction in ripe fruit observed from October to March, which was previously the season of abundance.

The declines in the probability of encountering flowers and unripened fruit suggest that this is not due to decreased pollination or maturation. The researchers concluded that this is most likely due to climate changes, as the minimum daily temperature has increased on average by 0.25C per decade at Lopé, with a simultaneous decrease in average rainfall (75mm each decade).

Drone photo of two researchers standing in a moabi tree crown in Lopé National Park.

To explore the effects of this reduction in fruit, researchers set about examining the body condition of the elephants. To this effect, a massive photographic database of over 2823 photos from between 1997 to 2018 was meticulously analysed. Disturbingly, the period between 1997 and 2018 saw a total decline of 5.0% in the mean body condition for all age classes of elephants. During the 2008-2018 period, the decline was particularly conspicuous, and the data from this period indicated an 11.1% decrease in average body condition.

It is uncertain whether or not the observed changes in body condition have affected the population health or dynamics in the forest elephants of Lopé, but previous studies have shown that environmental stressors have dramatic and long-term consequences for African savanna elephants.

The researchers conclude that the declines in both plant reproduction and elephant body condition are indicative of a system-wide change in the ecosystem. Given the scarcity of long-term datasets available for the tropics, the authors warn that similar changes may be occurring elsewhere, unrecorded. The study concludes: “these data are a reminder that even where direct human pressures are low, plant and animal communities may not be protected from the creeping influences of the Anthropocene”.

Fallen moabi tree fruits at Lopé National Park, Gabon.

“Large animals like forest elephants are already under severe pressure in Central Africa due to hunting, habitat loss and habitat degradation. If important protected areas like Lopé National Park in Gabon can no longer support them because there is not enough food, then we may see further population declines, jeopardising their survival in the long-term,” the co-lead author Dr Robin Whytock told the African Elephant Journal.

The full study can be accessed through a paywall here: “Long-term collapse in fruit availability threatens Central African forest megafauna”, Bush, E., Whytock, R., et al (2020) Science

Chacma Baboon

Towards the end of the 19^th century, burgeoning industry and development saw railway lines spreading across South Africa – a network crisscrossing the country, despite the rumblings of war to come. Along the Port Elizabeth mainline, at the Uitenhage train station, a signal box worker was paid 20c and half a bottle of beer a week for the nine years that he worked for the railway before his death from tuberculosis in 1890. It was said that he never made a mistake during his employment by the railroad, which is particularly remarkable given that, while exceedingly diligent, he also happened to be a chacma baboon.

The story of how Jack the baboon helped his disabled owner is just one of the many historical anecdotes that highlights the complicated (and occasionally fractious) relationships between humans and baboons throughout our history together. It also serves as a prime example of the most attractive and potentially problematic characteristic of baboons – a fierce and profound intelligence.

Introduction

Chacma baboons are one of the largest monkeys in the world, second only to the mandrill by mass, though baboons are longer and taller on average. Their scientific name – Papio ursinus – is a reference to their bear-like features (and swagger). In adult males, powerful canines can grow to a length of close to 4cm, similar in size to those of a leopard, and are used in battles for dominance and defence of the troop. Crocodiles, leopards, and lions will all prey on baboons, and some painted wolves (African wild dogs) of Mana Pools famously specialize in hunting the baboon troops of the region. Leopards, in particular, have a fierce rivalry with baboons, and certain individual leopards learn to take advantage of the diurnal habits of chacma baboons to stalk them at night while they rest in trees. That said, chacma baboons are imminently capable of turning this rivalry on its head; they have been known to grab and kill leopard cubs (and even a lion cub on rare occasions).

Chacma baboons are omnivorous, and though the bulk of their diet consists of plant material, they do eat meat and have even been known to hunt small antelope. In agricultural areas, this makes them a threat to livestock, particularly for young farm animals. Their diet can be extremely varied and includes fruits, seeds, grass, blossoms, bulbs, insects, worms, rodents, birds (and eggs) and fungi. The chacma baboons found on the coast of South Africa regularly break open mussels and feed on the fleshy molluscs.

This liberal approach to food allows baboons to occupy a wide variety of habitats, including coastal, mountainous, and forested regions, as well as woodland savannahs and semi-deserts throughout Southern Africa, extending north from South Africa to Angola, Zambia, and Mozambique. Troop numbers vary considerably, with numbers of anywhere from 20 to over 100, and consist of a mixture of related and unrelated individuals subjugated by a handful of dominant males. Chacma baboons are sexually dimorphic, with males growing to almost double the size of the females.

Quick facts

Social structure:	troops of anywhere from 20 to over 200
Size:	around 1m in length
Mass:	males between 21-45kg, females between 12-25kg
Gestation:	6 months
Number of offspring:	one, with twins a rare occurrence
Average life span:	probably around 35 in the wild, up to 45 years in captivity

Family resemblance

Baboons are found throughout Africa, with one species having an extended range into part of the Arabian Peninsula. Naturally, there has been hybridization between baboons of different species, and the distinctions are so blurred that some scientists recommended considering almost all baboon species to be subspecies of the hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas). Gelada baboons belong to the same tribe but are more distantly related and are grouped in a separate genus.

The IUCN Red List currently recognizes six species of baboon, with distinctions being largely distribution-based: the hamadryas baboon (P. hamadryas), the olive baboon (P. Anubis), the yellow baboon (P. cynocephalus), the Kinda baboon (P. kindae), the Guinea baboon (P. papio) and the chacma baboon (P. ursinus). All apart from the Guinea baboon (near threatened) are listed under the “least concern” conservation status.

There are also three recognized subspecies of chacma baboon: the Cape chacma (P. u. ursinus), the grey-footed chacma (P. u. griseipes) and the Ruacana chacma (P. u. raucana). It should be noted that although this article is dedicated to the chacma baboon, there are many ecological and behavioural similarities with other species, particularly yellow and olive baboons.

Colourful social lives

The typically large troop sizes inevitably lead to a complex arrangement of hierarchies and power-struggles, resulting in a social structure that is difficult to summarize. The troops consist of adult males, adult females, and their offspring and the females have their own separate hierarchy that is inherited in a manner similar to spotted hyenas. Females generally stay in their natal troop throughout their lives. In contrast, males often move between troops, and the status of the dominant males can be tenuous and subject to change. When a shift in dominant males occurs, a newly dominant male commonly commits infanticide to bring the female back into oestrous. As a result, females carefully foster close relationships with certain males in a manner that we would interpret as “friendship” (and is referred to as such in descriptions of baboon behaviour). Research indicates that this is most likely a counterstrategy to infanticide and that, in forming this friendship, this male may intervene to protect her youngster from another male.

The interplay of relationships, romances and the occasional ruckus makes observing baboons in the wild an imminently rewarding experience. Baboons breed all year round, and a troop will always include infants of various ages, from tiny creatures with absurdly prominent ears to the more rambunctious youngsters riding piggy-back style on their mother’s back. The infants are so childlike at times that it is almost unnerving to watch their innate curiosity as they begin to venture from their mothers to explore the world around them by mimicking adult behaviour.

Complex social structures come with complex forms of communications, and baboons interact with each other through a series of different vocalizations, as well as a range of body language subtleties and facial expressions. Their famously colourful backsides are just another tool in their spectrum of visual communication – these bald sections of skin underneath the tail are known as ischial callosities and can be used to differentiate between females and young males, as there is a clear central division in those of the females. While they do play a role in sexual signalling in mature individuals, they also aid the baboons when balanced on thin branches at night, allowing them to sleep sitting upright.

Baboons and people

Wild baboons are instinctively wary of humans but are quick to learn new tricks and pass this on to the next generation. When they learn to associate humans with free food, they can cause enormous damage and pose a potential threat to human safety, as well as their own. This is true of most monkey species but is particularly relevant to baboons due to their large size and strength – determined individuals have been known to lift glass sliding doors off their rails to gain entrance to a kitchen. It can be deeply distressing to return from a successful game drive at a lodge to discover your belongings strewn through the bushveld, a chewed tube of toothpaste and a pungent calling card in the bathroom sink for good measure.

These inconveniences can turn dangerous when humans ignore the rules and encourage this behaviour by failing to secure food or, worse, blatantly ignoring rules by feeding baboons. Those who do so tend to gravitate towards feeding the females and cute infants, rather than the males, which offends the very core of the baboon social hierarchy and can send the dominant male into fits of testosterone-driven rage. This is the case in South Africa’s Cape Peninsula, where the baboons of the area learnt to behave like thugs, opening house and car doors and physically intimidating tourists into dropping food. Due to their male-dominant hierarchy, baboons are quick to distinguish between human men and woman, showing more fear of the former and generally targeting the latter.

For farmers, baboons can cause extensive damage to field crops and orchards and are extremely difficult to deter. There are non-lethal ways of keeping baboons away, including the use of paintball guns, Anatolian shepherd dogs or even motion-triggered loudspeakers, but these require an inventive approach and commitment from the farmer concerned, as baboons are quick to learn and adapt. Behavioural biologists are constantly seeking different solutions to aid farmers but unfortunately for the baboons, they face the same threat as every other animal on this planet. Their habitat is ever-shrinking in the face of human development and those on the fringes are consistently forced into contact with people, usually to their detriment. Furthermore, in some areas, humans have dramatically reduced the numbers of the natural predators of baboons, resulting in explosive population growth.

Uncanny valley

A few years ago, scientists discovered the oldest known baboon skull – a partial cranium believed to be 2-million-years old – in a cave in the Cradle of Humankind of South Africa. It is quite possible that this early baboon displayed the same penchant for thievery as its modern ancestors, perhaps raiding the food of our ancestors sharing the same cave system. While our history together may go back millennia, many people find it much harder to like baboons or appreciate them the way they do other wildlife. Perhaps it’s our 94% shared DNA (and behavioural similarities that are occasionally too close for comfort) or maybe it’s the unfathomable but knowing look of those bright amber eyes. Either way, time spent with baboons is always guaranteed to provide entertainment.

CEO note: Captive-bred lion hunting not ‘fair chase’ + Lost & found

CEO NOTE: 20 November 2020

This is a copy of our weekly email newsletter. Subscribe here to receive the newsletter.

Let’s kick off by scrolling down to our spectacular video for today – of a huge and very special elephant named Kilimanjaro and his close encounter with a group of researchers from Elephants Alive. Note: there was no vehicle involved – they were on foot.

To set the scene, this research team collectively has more than 50 years of EXPERIENCE with wild elephants, including many encounters with the collared Kilimanjaro. On this occasion, they were guided by Alan McSmith, a man who understands the soul of an elephant. I enjoyed a similarly close elephant encounter while on foot with Alan – albeit not with a giant like this. Our group encounter (I was with our Photographer of the Year winners of a few years ago) was in the fading evening light, and the gentle giant loomed over us just meters away for a good look at this seated circle of humans (humans without legs!) before silently continuing his journey.

So, you can safely assume that this research team know what they are doing. Of course, this should not be attempted by anybody lacking the experience and permissions. Do I really need to say that? Yes, sadly, because we all have carte blanche as instant experts to attempt (or criticize) anything that we see online.

Be sure to read the text underneath the video “We were seated, rooted, grounded and trusting of this bull we had come to know. He fed closer and closer in a deliberate straight line towards us…”

Our first story below is a deep dive into those special lemurs of Madagascar. Disneyland depictions have nothing on these fascinating creatures. Our second story is important because their industry colleagues are telling the rotten South African captive-bred lion killing machine that what they do is not acceptable. I do not doubt that the EVIL ONES involved will redefine terms such as ‘captive’ and so shift the conversation.

Speaking of Madagascar, our third story below is yet another example of nature saying ‘there, see, you have no clue what you have, let alone what you have lost’. GREAT stuff!

And finally, tourism brochures will tell you that the ONLY time to go on safari is during the dry season when wildlife sightings are at their most dramatic (they are) as if that is all there is to a safari. Those of us that live in the bushveld know otherwise. Read our fourth story below to get a feel for your December safari for 2021 and beyond.

Story 1
https://africageographic.com/stories/lemurs-of-madagascar/
EVOLUTIONARY ODDITIES: The lemurs of Madagascar are a fascinating family of primates of all shapes & sizes that have evolved to fill every niche on the island

Story 2
https://africageographic.com/stories/captive-bred-lion-hunting-not-acceptable-say-dallas-safari-club-cic/
NO KIDDING!: Captive-bred lion hunting “not responsible, sustainable, fair chase … damaging the reputation of hunters” – joint statement by 2 hunting bodies

Story 3
https://africageographic.com/stories/lost-species-of-chameleon-found-in-hotel-gardens/
LOST & FOUND: ‘Celebrate! A ‘lost’ species – Voeltzkow’s chameleon – has been found in a hotel garden in Madagascar after being assumed to be extinct

Story 4
https://africageographic.com/stories/travel-december-safari-africa/
DECEMBER SAFARI: A December safari in Africa means long hot days, the odd thunderstorm, dense green vegetation and young animals and birds everywhere!

Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic

Riff Raff the ‘problem-causing’ elephant shot and killed

The ‘problem-causing’ elephant known as Riff Raff has been shot and killed in consultation with provincial authorities in South Africa.

At around 45 years old, Riff Raff was an elephant bull in his prime, driven by ancient instincts at conflict with the space available to him. Over the past few years, Riff Raff’s fence-trampling tendencies marked him as a symbol of the impact of exclusion fences, the lack of space available to elephants and the inevitable human/wildlife conflict that follows. In the end, despite desperate efforts to find him a new home, Riff Raff’s ‘problem’ status was to cost him his life, and he was ‘humanely destroyed’ this past week.

Riff Raff was declared a damage-causing animal by the Limpopo Department of Economic Development, Environment and Tourism (LEDET) provincial authority for trampling fences to gain access to land that has been his core bull zone for more than half his adult life. The fences were erected by a landowner on Riff Raff’s reserve in 2016, directly excluding him from this long-established area of land to which, as one of the oldest and most dominant bulls on the property, he was genetically hard-wired to return. As a result, Riff Raff began to explore alternative options – learning how to destroy fences along the way and earning a reputation as a ‘problem’ elephant.

HSI/Africa and its partner Global Supplies have worked for more than three years to save the dominant male elephant from destruction after a landowner applied to have him shot. They have described the decision as a ‘devastating blow‘.

To save Riff Raff, HSI/Africa and Global Supplies relocated him to another reserve in Limpopo in 2018, but it was too close to his historical range, and he walked the 64 km journey back home. When a new destruction permit was applied for, and the campaigners’ request to relocate Riff Raff to a new reserve 400 km away was rejected by the Limpopo government, they asked the High Court to intervene and review the decision. Judge President Makgoba then granted Riff Raff extended protection in 2019 at his current reserve, pending a full review in 2020.

Once again, concerted fund-raising efforts by HSI/Africa saw Riff Raff relocated to yet another reserve, this time further from home in the North West province of South Africa where he was meant to spend the rest of his life in peace. Initially, all appeared to have gone smoothly in the relocation, and he was observed feeding and moving through the reserve. Unfortunately, however, just a few hours later, Riff Raff ignored the repeated attempts of both ground and air teams to keep him inside and once again broke out and left the protection of the reserve. After consultation with appropriate authorities, the decision was made to end his life.

In a statement to Africa Geographic about Riff Raff’s death, Audrey Delsink, HIS/Africa’s wildlife director and elephant behaviourist explained that “unfortunately, despite significant attempts to mitigate the animal’s behaviour, his lack of response – possibly related to years of sustained but inconsistent management pressures at the host reserve – made for additional consideration. The factors that led to the decision were the breaching, but also the proximity to neighbouring communities, the latter being of major consequence.”

In a previous statement, Audrey, who has spent over 20 years studying Riff Raff said that “lethal management interventions, particularly in the case of human-elephant conflict, should be the absolute last resort, and never employed where any other humane alternative exists. We share this land with these magnificent giants; it should be utterly unthinkable to kill them simply because to do so is easier than managing the land in a way that considers their normal biological drivers.”

The story of Riff Raff is one which has captured the attention of thousands of people across the world – the charismatic elephant bull simply following his instincts to disperse yet at the mercy of anthropogenic restrictions. As the elephant population in South Africa grows, the likelihood is that there will be many more bull elephants that find themselves in the same situation as Riff Raff. According to an independent study facilitated through the Elephant Specialist Advisory Group to assess the situation by South Africa’s provincial authorities, up to 50 destruction permits were issued during 2016-2017 by LEDET alone to kill so-called problem elephants.

“Destroying these animals through damage-causing animal policies is a band-aid to a haemorrhage,” said Audrey. “It will not solve the problem. This elephant was a dominant and powerful individual, important in his own ecological role as well as to his herd and bull’s hierarchy, and to our understanding of elephant management in South Africa. His loss is significant on many levels and I am deeply saddened by the tragic outcome. Riff Raff is a symbol of a systemic problem, that many other bulls will face as they mature and come into contact with humans, and that requires us to consider new and innovative alternatives that promote coexistence and proactive non-lethal mitigation not hampered by the slow wheels of policy and process.”

Captive-bred lion hunting not acceptable – say Dallas Safari Club & CIC

The practice of the hunting of captive-bred lion hunting is “not representative of responsible, sustainable, fair chase hunting … against resolutions of the IUCN … damaging the reputation of hunters, and sustainable hunting” – joint statement by the Dallas Safari Club and CIC – The International Council For Game And Wildlife Conservation.

FULL STATEMENT:

The undersigned organizations, each advocating for the conservation of nature through the sustainable use of wildlife:

Recognize that the practice of shooting lions bred in captivity has otherwise been referred to as ‘canned lion hunting’, ‘captive-bred lion hunting’, or using combinations thereof;
Agree that whatever the terminology used; and whether legal or illegal; the practice is not consistent with the definition of responsible, sustainable, fair chase hunting;
Highlight that the practise is contrary to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Resolution WCC-2016-Res-013 on ‘Terminating the hunting of captive-bred lions (Panthera leo) and other predators and captive breeding for commercial, non-conservation purposes’;
Emphasize that the shooting of lions bred in captivity damages the reputation of all hunters;
Call on any Governments that allow the legal shooting of lions bred in captivity, to consider the wider implications to responsible, sustainable, fair chase hunting;
Commit to discouraging members of signatory organizations from engaging in the practice of shooting lions that have been bred in captivity;

The signatories agree that this statement may be amended, as further information becomes available, should the signatories jointly agree on and sign the revised text.

Other organizations in agreement with this statement are encouraged to join as co-signatories. Organizations are invited to contact one of the existing signatories should they be interested in joining.

Lemurs of Madagascar

Introduction

Some 135 million years ago, gradual but enormous forces broke apart the supercontinent Gondwana, and a landmass consisting of present-day Madagascar, India, Antarctica, and Australia drifted away from Africa. Then, around 47 million years later, Madagascar broke away from India and settled itself off the coast of Africa in the Indian Ocean. For the last 88 million years, life on Madagascar has been on its own, an island of evolutionary oddities that includes the family of lemurs.

The inevitable outcome of this geographic isolation is that 90% of the island’s fauna and flora are endemic, with phenomenal biodiversity that is quite literally worlds apart for anything else on the planet. The island is so large, and its environment so diverse, that some have even argued that it should be considered the world’s eighth continent. The island is home to over 300 recorded species of birds (60% of which are endemic) and 260 species of reptile – including two-thirds of the world’s chameleon species. Yet it is the primate species of Madagascar – the lemurs – that are the island’s real “flagship” species.

The IUCN currently recognizes 107 species of lemurs, but their classification is an ongoing process that incorporates new knowledge and research on a regular basis. The lemurs of Madagascar have evolved with the island, influencing the plant life, and filling every available niche to for an astoundingly diverse superfamily of multitudinous shapes and sizes.

A male red ruffed lemur (*Varecia rubra*)

Where did they come from?

Unravelling the history of the animal occupants of Madagascar has proved somewhat complicated for scientists because, despite the existence of various dinosaur fossils, there are almost no fossil records from around 66 million years ago to about 26,000 years ago. However, through a series of complex genetic studies, researchers believe that rather than already being present when Madagascar broke away, the ancestors of modern lemurs arrived sometime after it achieved its geographic isolation, probably between 50 and 60 million years ago. Since then, the family has evolved in a wide variety of diverse primates whose closest relatives are bushbabies (galagos), lorises and pottos.

The most popular theory is that early lemurs exist due to “sweepstakes dispersal” – a chance event that allowed an animal species to cross a massive geological barrier, in this case, the Mozambique channel. At some point, the lemur ancestors (which likely would have been relatively small) found themselves adrift at sea on a raft of plant material, perhaps due to a severe tropical storm or flood. Recent evidence indicates that ocean currents at the time moved towards Madagascar and the island itself would have been slightly closer than its current position, making the journey relatively easy to survive for a small primate, especially one that could have entered a state of torpor.

This particular theory is, however, far from universal and it is the aye-aye (see below) that has caused some of the controversies, as jawbones found in Africa (from a species known as Plesiopithecus) bear a very close resemblance to aye-aye morphology.

Giants of history

Assuming the early lemurs did arrive by raft, once they disembarked they set about colonizing their new home; breeding, adapting, and evolving into the many different species seen today. The lack of mammal competition allowed them to fill several open ecological niches, though the harsh climate of Madagascar shaped this evolution to include several shared traits such seasonal fat storage and strict breeding seasons (for all but two species).

While their classification is as controversial as their history, the consensus is that there are now five extant families of lemur: the Cheirogaleidae (the dwarf and mouse lemurs), the Daubentoniidae (the aye-aye is the only living representative), Indriidae (which includes the indri, woolly lemurs and sifakas), Lemuridae (which includes the “true” lemurs, the ring-tailed lemur, the ruffed lemurs and bamboo lemurs), and Lepilemuridae (sportive lemurs). The largest of these is the indri, which can weigh up to 9.5kg, and the smallest is the critically endangered Madame Berthe’s mouse lemur, which weighs around 30g.

Astoundingly, however, just 2000 years ago, there were three other families of much larger lemur species: the Arcaeolemuridae (monkey lemurs), Megaladapidae (koala lemurs) and the enormous Palaeopropithecidae (sloth lemurs). The largest of all lemurs was a member of the sloth lemur family, a species known as Archaeoindris fontoynontii or “giant sloth lemur”, which probably reached a mass of 160kg and was roughly the size of a small gorilla. While there is no conclusive proof as to why these larger lemur species died out, their disappearance coincides with the arrival of the first humans on Madagascar.

All in favour say aye (aye)

By and large, the lemur species are extremely attractive creatures, with thick fluffy coats and striking colouration. The aye-aye could be considered the exception to this particular rule – it looks a little like a creature created by an overly-imaginative fantasy writer. Unfortunately for this entirely harmless and unassuming creature, its strange looks have inspired several supernatural and superstitious beliefs. The local myths around the aye-aye suggest that it is a harbinger of evil, occasionally sneaking into people’s houses to stab them in the neck with its absurdly long finger. The unfortunate result is that the aye-aye is often judiciously killed on sight, which may well account for the extinction of its cousin, the giant aye-aye.

In reality, the aye-aye is Madagascar’s woodpecker (no, really). The tiny third finger, which has a ball-and-socket joint, is used to tap on the bark of trees, and the aye-aye listens to the resonance to locate the insect life within. Once it has struck it lucky, the aye-aye nibbles away the bark and uses the extended fourth finger to fish out the insect larvae. A sixth digit has evolved as a pseudo thumb to help the aye-aye keep its balance while feeding. This oddball design, coupled with continually growing incisors, has made the classification of the aye-aye a contentious subject but as technology has developed, it has become clear that aye-ayes are, in fact, the oldest of all living lemur species, the basal family. There are, however, biologists that contend that aye-ayes colonized Madagascar during a separate event to other lemur ancestors.

Other lemurs

Lemurs rival any other primate family in terms of diversity, and this translates into many different shapes, sizes, behaviours, dentitions, diets, and habitat usages.

Cheirogaleids: the dwarf and mouse lemurs, as their name suggests, are the smallest of all lemurs and, in fact, the mouse lemurs are the smallest primates in the world. These tiny primates are nocturnal and arboreal and move through the trees like bush babies. Their diet consists primarily of fruit and some insects. Available research suggests that these lemurs tend to be solitary, though they have occasionally been found in pairs. Members of this family can spend several months in a state of torpor.
Indriids: there are ten different medium- to large-sized lemur species belonging to the Indriidae family, with the woolly lemurs being the smallest and the indri being the largest of all lemur species. They are all arboreal, though some occasionally descend to move from tree to tree or forage. Sifakas, in particular, are known for their bipedal “dancing” when moving on the ground. Most species live in small groups which are mostly female dominant, and all species are almost entirely herbivorous.
Lemurids: one of the largest families of medium-sized lemurs, this family includes the famous ring-tailed lemurs, “true” lemurs, ruffed lemurs, and bamboo lemurs. All are primarily herbivorous and highly arboreal.
Lepilemurids: the sportive lemurs are strictly nocturnal, and most are solitary and territorial. Their hind legs are considerably longer than their front legs, making them ideally designed for leaping from tree to tree but restricting quadrupedal movement.

Conservation crisis

As fast as new lemur species are being described, so their conservation status becomes more precarious. Some may even go extinct before scientists identify them as a separate species. Where once the lemurs were found throughout Madagascar, they are now believed to be restricted to less than 10% of their original distribution. Due to slash-and-burn agriculture and deforestation, lemur populations are now forced into highly fragmented patches of ever-shrinking forest (Madagascar has lost more than half of its forests in the last 60 years). This, coupled with bushmeat hunting and the illegal pet trade, makes lemurs one of the most at-risk animal families on the planet. In a recent announcement, the IUCN revealed that 31% of all lemur species in Madagascar are now listed as critically endangered, and 98% of them are threatened in some way.

The Verreaux’s sifaka (*Propithecus verreauxi*) is now listed as critically endangered.

Since the arrival of humans on Madagascar, all mammals over 10kg (including a pygmy hippopotamus species) have gone extinct, as have unknown numbers of bird and reptile species. Ring-tailed lemurs still give off a false alarm call for the long-extinct Malagasy crowned eagle, which once would have been one of their main predators. Despite extensive conservation efforts from dedicated individuals and organizations, Madagascar is one of the poorest countries in the world, and only 3% of the island’s land area is protected. Without severe and immediate intervention by the international community, it is a sobering reality that the haunting calls of lemurs echoing through Madagascar’s forests may be silenced forever.

For accommodation options at the best prices visit our collection of camps and lodges: private travel & conservation club. If you are not yet a member, see how to JOIN below this story.

“Lost” species of chameleon found in hotel gardens

The last official sighting of the Voeltzkow’s chameleon (Furcifer voeltzkowi) was in 1913 in Madagascar, earning it a spot on the Top 25 Most Wanted taxon in Global Wildlife Conservation’s Search for Lost Species initiative. A two-week expedition to north-western Madagascar resulted in not only the rediscovery of this unique chameleon but the very first description of the colourful females.

The Voeltzkow’s chameleon was first described from a male specimen collected by German biologist Alfred Voeltzkow in 1893. Little was known about this cryptic species, and no female specimens had ever been described. The expedition to find the Voeltzkow’s chameleon ran from the 25^th of March to the 3^rd of April 2018 (during Madagascar’s rainy season) and, according to the biologists, yielded nothing but frustration until the final few days. Angeluc Razafimanantsoa, a professional Malagasy guide and member of the expedition, was the first to spot one of the mysterious chameleons in the wild gardens of Chez Madame Chabaud hotel.

One explanation behind the difficulty in finding the Voeltzkow’s chameleon lies in its close relationship to the Labord’s chameleon (Furcifer labordi), which lives for just a few months every year. The eggs of the Labord’s chameleon hatch in November and the young chameleons reach sexual maturity extremely rapidly (within two months). Once the mature individuals have had the opportunity to mate and lay their eggs in January and February, they will die just a month or two later. Biologists believe it highly likely that the Voeltzkow’s chameleon follows a similar lifecycle which has made finding them a challenging task. This has been exacerbated by the fact that adult chameleons are active during Madagascar’s rainy season, where parts of the island become almost inaccessible.

Nevertheless, the team managed to find three males and 15 females – numbers which, according to the researchers, suggest the possibility of a healthy population for a short-lived species. They also discovered just how colourful the females, particularly gravid (pregnant) females, can be. The newly released paper on the discovery describes how the Voeltzkow’s chameleon is a sexually dimorphic species, with the males observed to be significantly less colourful than their female counterparts (though both are primarily green in colour when relaxed). Like all chameleons, the female Voeltzkow’s chameleons change colour according to their moods, particularly when antagonized in some way, displaying vivid and highly variable colour patterns of purple, orange, red, green, black, and white.

The newly published study released in Salamandra, the German Journal of Herpetology, the researchers detail the findings of the 2018 expedition, providing the first new information on the little animal’s genetics, morphology, and behaviour in over a century.

Madagascar is home to around half the world’s chameleon species, over 100 of which are endemic. Of these Malagasy chameleons, 52% are threatened, and 70% are considered threatened or near-threatened. Habitat loss and deforestation are some of the main threats facing most of the island’s endemic wildlife – it is believed that less than 10% of Madagascar’s natural forests remain.

“The Voeltzkow’s chameleon is a powerful flagship species for conservation in the region,” said Carlos Zanotelli, a member of the 2018 expedition. “It is imperative that we protect nature and treat natural habitats as if we would like to live there. Only in this way can we ensure the future of the incredible species, like the Voeltzkow’s chameleon, we share this planet with.”

Along with the rediscovery of the Somali sengi announced earlier this year, the Voeltzkow’s chameleon is the sixth species on the Global Wildlife Conservation’s 25 most wanted list to be confirmed as having been rediscovered. As the study on the Voeltzkow’s chameleon succinctly explains, “rediscoveries of “lost” species are important as they provide crucial data for conservation measures and bring some hope amidst the biodiversity crisis.”

The full paper can be accessed here: “Rediscovery, conservation status and genetic relationships of the Malagasy chameleon Furcifer voeltzkowi”, Glaw, F., et al., (2020), Salamandra

CEO note: Perfect storm alert + Mana Pools

CEO NOTE: 13 November 2020

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“Right now it’s sweltering hot, and I am sitting in the shade of a tree as I watch a drying pool of water for signs of life. Early this morning I managed to get some wifi at reception, and heard from home that Germany is about to go into another LOCKDOWN! My thoughts are with my family and especially my grandmother, who turns 95 soon. Lockdown means no family gathering for her.” – Jens Cullmann via Whatsapp.

Jens, our reigning Photographer of the Year, is in Mana Pools as you read this, doing what he does – an annual immersion into this ICONIC protected area to get the best possible images as Mana transitions from dry to wet season. The above image was taken by Jens.

Our first story below provides useful info about Mana Pools (which I hope is on your SAFARI bucket list) accompanied, of course, by excellent imagery from our talented Photographer of the Year entrants. Speaking of which, our 2021 Photographer of the Year kicks off on 1 January and we have lined up the best ever prize of a safari to Khwai Private Reserve in Botswana! Start searching your image archives and watch this space for further announcements.

As you know, things are pretty DIRE in the safari and conservation industries right now. Our second story below explains the impact of Covid-19 on protected areas and the people who depend on them.

We also revisit a fantastic book CELEBRATING painted wolves in our third story below, where your purchase (as a festive season gift!) will help to keep these iconic predators safe. Our fourth story is a fascinating look at how good intentions can have bad consequences. I wonder how often this happens as humankind tries desperately to right the wrongs?

Thanks for all the emails responding to my question last week about the killing FOR FUN of ocean predators versus land predators. Every one of those who wrote to me stated unequivocally that there is no difference – each is as morally bankrupt as the other.

Story 1
https://africageographic.com/stories/mana-pools/
ICONIC SAFARI: Mana Pools is Africa’s iconic park for bushwalking without a guide – renowned for encounters on foot with wild dogs & relaxed elephant bulls

Story 2
https://africageographic.com/stories/covid-19-perfect-storm-threatens-conservation-in-africa/
PERFECT STORM: A new report examines just how bad COVID-19 is for Africa’s wildlife and protected areas and what needs to be done to save our wild spaces

Story 3
https://africageographic.com/stories/africas-wild-dogs-a-survival-story-part-2/
GET INVOLVED: ‘Africa’s Wild Dogs – A Survival Story’ is a photographic book celebrating these charismatic predators and telling their story. Proceeds go to saving them

Story 4
https://africageographic.com/stories/saving-rodents-losing-primates-we-need-tailored-strategies-to-manage-bushmeat-trade/
SAVING RODENTS TO LOSE PRIMATES: Bushmeat trade: Viewing all bushmeat trade through one lens over-simplifies the complex situation and could lead to accelerated disappearance of some species

Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic

COVID-19 ‘perfect storm’ threatens conservation in Africa

Much has been said and written about the devastating effects of COVID-19 on global economies, with the inevitable socio-economic impacts on all sectors of life and industry. The situation is not projected to improve any time soon, and for the already underfunded conservation industry in Africa, it spells disaster. A new report by renowned conservationists and scientists examines just how bad COVID-19 could be for Africa’s wildlife and protected areas and what needs to be done to save our wild spaces.

According to the report, Africa has nearly 2000 Key Biodiversity Areas and supports the world’s most diverse and abundant large mammal populations, with wildlife-based tourism generating over $29 billion every year and employing 3.6 million people. 7,800 terrestrial protected areas cover some 17% of the continent, most of which are state-owned but with considerable support from conservation NGOs and the private sector. Expanding conservation efforts on private and community land has seen increased available habitat for wildlife while simultaneously creating buffer zones. Vast transfrontier conservation areas protect wilderness areas across national boundaries.

From bad to worse

Even before COVID-19, Africa’s conservation industry was facing a crisis. The report states that state-owned protected areas with lions are repeatedly faced with budget deficits of $1.2 billion every year, with most other protected areas likely faring no better. This, in turn, renders these regions susceptible to the main threats facing wildlife today: habitat loss, degradation, fragmentation, encroachment, poaching and climate change, which, combined with poor governances, poverty, climbing human populations and the illegal wildlife trade, are driving wildlife declines. And the authors believe that this current pandemic could amplify this crisis to catastrophic effect.

While there have been limited positive environmental benefits to the global shutdown, these are temporary, and the ultimate impact will be strongly negative, with reduced funding, lower conservation capacity and increased threats to wildlife and ecosystems.

The effects

Reduced conservation funding:

As governments are faced with having to make severe budget cuts, there is a strong likelihood that wildlife authority budgets (already underfunded) are going to be substantially reduced. The impact of COVID-19 on the tourism industry is being felt on an unprecedented scale, and 90% of African tour operators have seen an over 75% decline in bookings. For most countries, tourism is the most significant contributor to protected area financing, and the loss of this revenue is going to have major ramifications. Aside from the day-to-day conservation activities, the lost revenue threatens jobs and livelihoods for some of the most impoverished communities on the continent.

Reduced donor funding is also inevitable, as economies struggle to recover, and corporations, private donors and foundations are unable to provide or may shift their focus to humanitarian causes. During the financial crisis of 2008/9, conservation endowments declined by 40%.

Impaired conservation operation

Reduced funding will restrict the capacity of conservation and management authorities to manage protected areas as necessary, as well as forcing the loss of staff members and preventing the purchase of necessary equipment and supplies. In areas where movement has been strictly restricted, rotating staff and supplying field rangers has proved difficult, resulting in exhausted staff and poor morale.

Increased conservation threats

The disastrous effects on tourism and the overall negative economic impact will increase rural poverty. The authors expect increased poaching, tree cutting, artisanal mining, encroachment, agricultural conversion and even the degazetting of severely affected protected areas.

Risk of future outbreaks due to human impacts on nature

The report suggests that the combination of reduced conservation efforts and increased poverty could create a positive feedback loop where increased reliance on natural resources increases encroachment, exposure, and consumption of wild animals, ultimately increasing the risk of future pandemics.

What can be done?

The authors emphasise that a long-term perspective is essential – supporting conservation efforts will help local economies recover and create employment, especially as the tourism industry begins to bounce back. The report highlights three significant actions needed to mitigate these effects:

Manage the immediate crisis

The international community needs to intervene to provide crisis funding by recognising conservation as an essential service, and, realistically, this primary source of funding needs to be the developed world, as many governments in developing countries lack the capacity. This could involve donors creating an emergency fund for wildlife authorities, communities, private landowners, and conservation NGOs. The tourism industry, which underpins the conservation industry, needs support both in terms of tax breaks and direct financial assistance.

Defend against future disease outbreaks by regulating wildlife trade and minimising habitat loss

Governments and organisations across the world need to improve regulations and improve the enforcement of existing laws to curb unsafe wildlife trade practices that jeopardise either human health or conservation objectives. The authors do warn against undermining the legal, regulated wildlife trade that supports millions of livelihoods.

The report also suggests that efforts should be made to tackle other drivers of infectious disease such as habitat destruction, logging, and mining.

Address systematic flaws in the structure and function of conservation in Africa

Here the report suggests that COVID-19 has exposed the multifaceted shortcomings of conservation efforts in Africa, starting with the fact that funding is inadequate and reliance on short term, external funding streams is not sustainable. While tourism plays an enormous role, some countries are over-reliant on it for conservation funding, which makes efforts vulnerable to stochastic events such as pandemics. In areas where tourism does flourish, the communities that carry the cost of wildlife generally receive negligible benefits.

Increasing conservation resilience

The report suggests that this is an opportunity to rethink and restructure conservation funding in Africa to promote long-term resilience, with suggested solutions that would need to be tailored depending on the specific situation:

Recognise the reliance on the development of natural assets – that is, aligning conservation and development interests to build political and public will.
- Quantify the value of natural assets and ecosystem services and incorporate those values in national budgets
- Position protected areas as hubs for local development and service provision
- Properly engage local people as stakeholders in conservations – allow communities to participate in protected area governance and ensure that communities benefit from tourism.
- Encouraging conservation organisations to work with development specialists on visible support for communities

Support African civil society conservation efforts

Given that travel restrictions currently limit international conservation organisations, they should be supporting local conservation organisations by providing funding and sharing expertise which will increase local conservation capacity.

Diversify revenue-generating options from wildlife areas

The demonstrated volatility of international tourism, as well as the decline in trophy hunting, illustrate the need to create local revenue streams more resilient to global shocks. For some countries, that means fostering domestic tourism to increase resilience to global shock and build longer-term public support for conservation. The report also warns that, given current deficits, the collapse of the trophy hunting industry would have grave ramifications for conservation.

Increase domestic expenditure

African governments need to invest in protecting their assets – this could entail setting aside a budgetary allocation for the protection of nature.

Increase international funding

There are emerging mechanisms for international governments, organisations, and individuals to provide funding, including investment in land, payments for ecosystem services or debt-for-nature swaps.

Improve revenue distribution mechanisms

Africa needs to improve the mechanisms used to generate and disburse wildlife-related revenue in a way that recognises the role of governments, private landowners, and communities as custodians of wildlife.

Conclusion

The authors of this report are some of the most prominent coal-face conservationists and scientists in the industry, and their sombre warnings carry significant weight. They conclude that the international community needs to act fast to protect and support Africa’s wildlife and protected areas, as well as the people who depend on them. This concerted effort will need the support and collaboration of the developed world, African governments, donors and conservation practitioners. “At this critical juncture, business, as usual, could be catastrophic, but decisive and collaborative action can ensure that Africa’s wildlife survives COVID-19 and that more resilient conservation models benefit humans and wildlife for generations”.

The above is a summary of an extensive report, and the full article can be accessed here: “Conserving Africa’s wildlife and wildlands through the COVID-19 crisis and beyond”, Lindsey, P., Allan, J., Brehony P., et al (2020), Nature Ecology & Evolution

Mana Pools

The allure of a safari adventure in Mana Pools is about far more than seeing lions, elephants and wild dogs; it is an experience that transcends spiritual barriers to create a sense of resonance with the land and her unique creatures. This connection is hard to find in our frenetic day-to-day existence, bombarded as we are by narrow information from brightly lit screens; which is why unfettered time spent in the wilderness acts as such a catharsis for the soul.

While there are many options available that offer this deliverance from daily reality, it is Zimbabwe’s Mana Pools National Park that truly epitomizes the salubrious and grounding effects of Africa’s untamed influence.

The Park and surrounds

Mana Pools National Park is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that encompasses 22,000km² (220,000 hectares) of pristine African wilderness on Zimbabwe’s northern border, nestled between the Zambezi River to the north and the Zambezi escarpment to the south. The name ‘Mana’ comes from the Shona word for ‘four’, in reference to the four largest oxbow lakes – Main/Mana, Chine, Chisambuk and Long – remnants of a time when the mighty river flowed along a different route. On the floodplains, groves of Ana trees (Faidherbia albida) create the perfect photographic backdrop against which bull elephants stretch up to reach the nutritious seedpods, sometimes balancing on their hinds legs. The many islands, channels and sandbanks set the scene for the inevitable primordial battles for survival on their banks.

As one of the least developed parks in Africa, Mana Pools forms part of an enormous ecosystem and is contiguous with:

Zambia’s Lower Zambezi National Park (400, 000 hectares) – on the opposite bank of the Zambezi River
Sapi Safari Area (118, 000 hectares) – included with Mana Pools NP as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Chewore Safari Area (339, 000) – included with Mana Pools NP as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Hurungwe Safari Area (287, 000 hectares)
Dande Safari Area (52, 300 hectares)
Doma Safari Area (76, 400 hectares)
Charara Safari Area (170, 000 hectares)
Chiawa Game Management Area (approximately 234, 000 hectares)

The total protected area equates to almost 1.7 million hectares of some of the most remote wilderness in Southern Africa. Some of the areas outside of the national parks are utilized for trophy hunting.

Close encounters of the (somewhat) dangerous kind

There are many safari locations where the iconic wildlife is accustomed to the presence of humans, or at least humans in vehicles, but the animal occupants of Mana Pools take this relaxed approach to an entirely new level. None of the camps are fenced, and the park’s animal occupants are quite content to stroll through, at any hour of day or night. It is not uncommon to awaken in one of the more remote campsites to discover that a buffalo has decided to spend the night resting up against the side of your tent.

The wildlife viewing is spectacular, particularly during the dry season when large herds of elephants, buffaloes, zebras, waterbucks, and even eland and sable antelopes are drawn to the more permanent water sources. Naturally, the park supports the expected predators such as lions, leopards, cheetahs, and spotted hyenas but there is also the possibility of a rare glimpse of the shy brown hyenas. When it comes to predators, however, it is the painted wolves (African wild dogs) that have garnered the attention of regular safari-goers (more below).

Exploring Mana

Only a small area of the park is covered by the road network, the rest can only be explored on foot or by canoe. In fact, Mana is the only national park in Africa with large dangerous wildlife where you are permitted to walk without a guide. Zimbabwe is home to some of the best-trained and most experienced (and possibly eccentric) guides in Africa, and it is in Mana that they truly come into their own.

With over 12,000 elephants in the greater Mana ecosystem, an encounter with these giant, sentient beasts on foot is almost inevitable, and there is nothing in the world that genuinely compares to looking up into an elephant’s dark, heavily-lashed eyes when all artificial barriers are removed. It is a moment when time stands still, a heart-pounding combination of hyper-awareness, awe and a small (mostly healthy, certainly rational) dose of terror. Fortunately, these elephants are so used to the almost reverential attention of tourists that they are mostly content to ignore the somewhat physically inept primates around them. However, like any wild creature, elephants have the potential to be exceptionally dangerous, and it is incumbent on the tourists that visit to ensure that they are treated with the respect that 6 tonnes will otherwise demand.

Quite aside from heart-pounding encounters with Africa’s deadliest, walking is possibly the best way to get the most out of a safari experience, especially in Mana, where its wide-open spaces and rich diversity of habitats make it a playground for adventure. Long-neglected senses suddenly come into play as the human body quickly reverts to instinctive alertness, with tracks crisscrossing the earth like a wilderness newspaper. This extraordinary freedom was once nearly lost thanks to the foolhardy and arrogant behaviour of a handful of inconsiderate tourists. Fortunately, though, sense prevailed, and Mana remains available for bushwalking. However, a self-guided walk on the wild side is not for the inexperienced and, in most cases, it is more advisable to secure the services of a professional guide. This is partly due to the dangerous nature of the surroundings but, more importantly, because a wealth of knowledge is essential to experience the nuances of a walking safari.

Dogs, dogs, dogs

OK, so painted wolves are not really dogs. Or wolves. Read more about the name here. For our purposes, though, we will call them painted wolves. The painted wolves of Mana Pools are perhaps one of the park’s best known and loved aspects. There are two main reasons for this (apart from their documentary fame). The first is that, like the rest of Mana’s wild creatures, the painted wolves tend to be extremely comfortable with the company of humans, either on a vehicle or on foot. Nowhere else in the world is it possible to spend time at eye level with one of the planet’s most endangered carnivores at this proximity. Once again, this privilege is not one that should be abused.

The second reason is that by Southern African standards, the vegetation of Mana is relatively sparse, especially on the floodplains. This is ideal when viewing these lithe little predators because, once they get going, they can be extremely difficult to follow as their tireless lope eats up the ground ahead of them. It is only truly possible to appreciate their extraordinary athleticism out in the open.

Their unexpected and unexplained tendency to hunt baboons is also a significant factor in their popularity, as this is behaviour rarely seen outside of the Mana Pools environment.

Waterways

As the drought of the last few years has demonstrated, life in the national park is inexorably linked to water – whether the Zambezi River itself or the pools dotting the wetland region. The four pools that give Mana its name are found inland from the river, across the flood plains, and are filled with water long into the start of the dry season. The river itself teems with hippos, crocodiles, and sharp-toothed tigerfish and for those for whom that kind of thing holds some sort of appeal, it is possible to secure some of the best tiger fishing spots in Africa. Those who would instead do something more enjoyable can travel Mana’s waterways on a river cruise or even take the intimate approach of a canoe. This is a great way to explore the park from a different perspective, paddling peacefully past pods of hippos or perhaps watching elephants feeding peacefully on a nearby bank.

This is also an excellent way to enjoy some of Mana’s 380 bird species and, as carmine bee-eaters hawk overhead, keen birders can scour the banks for rufous-bellied herons and long-toed lapwings, or perhaps even spot a Pel’s fishing owl or African skimmer.

The experience

Want to go on safari to Mana Pools? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.

Remote and unspoilt though it may be, Mana Pools is not without luxury for those who would appreciate some pampering with their adventure. For those less luxury-minded (and possibly budget-restricted), there are several campsites to choose from, some of which are even positioned on the banks of the river itself. Booking ahead for the more private campsites is essential, as there are limited spaces available.

Mana Pools is a summer rainfall region, and many camps (and plenty of the roads) are closed during the peak of the rainy season from November until around March. The best time to visit (in terms of wildlife viewing) is during the dry season (between May and October) as animals congregate around the river and the remaining water in the main pools.

ALSO READ: Chitake killing fields

Africa’s Wild Dogs – A Survival Story

All funds and royalties raised from the sale of Africa’s Wild Dogs – A Survival Story will go into the non-profit organisation: Africa’s Wild Dog Survival Fund

Their tails are up, their spirits elevated and their eyes bright – light-footed and eager, the adult African wild dogs are off on the hunt…
Africa’s Wild Dogs – A Survival Story documents my adventures with one of Africa’s most successful predators, my insights into their lives and the outlook for their future.

Historically, African wild dogs have been poorly understood, and it is only in the past 20 or so years that scientific revelations have started to unravel the nuances of their complex lives. Yet there is still so much to learn. Where do they go and how far do they travel when they are not denning? How will climate change affect the dogs’ hunting and pup rearing abilities? What made the Nagasanga pack in Mana Pools develop a taste for baboon? These are just some of the questions currently under investigation as scientists work to build upon our understanding of these enigmatic animals.

In studying wild dogs, researchers may sit for hours, watching a pack sleep, and drawing the patterns of their black, white, and tan coats for future identification. Even the smallest body language movement could be relevant, and scientists note every twitch of their satellite-dish shaped ears to keep track of their ongoing communication with each other.

It is these scientists and on-the-ground conservationists who also work tirelessly to keep the dogs safe – from engaging with enraged farmers who have lost livestock to educating local communities. As a photographer, I wanted to find a way to support this work, to capture and share the spirit and essence of these charismatic creatures.

We humans would be well-served to learn a thing or two from African wild dogs. They are forever celebrating; dancing and greeting each other with absolute exuberance, even on simply waking from an afternoon nap.

Wild dogs are naturally curious, and during my time spent observing different packs, individuals regularly approached to investigate. No record of a wild dog attacking a human exists either in folklore or in a document. Whenever pups or adults have come over to ‘talk’ to me, I have always welcomed them in silence without any sense of fear. Instead, I have always felt an overwhelming sense of excitement and privilege.

All funds raised from the sale of my Wild Dog images and all royalties from the sale of Africa’s Wild Dogs – A Survival Story will go into the non-profit organisation: Africa’s Wild Dog Survival Fund and from there to the following organisations across southern Africa in appreciation of their participation in the book:

Dr Harriet Davies-Mostert, Head of Conservation – Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT) South Africa and Chair of WAG – Wild Dog Advisory Group.

Dr Tico McNutt, Botswana Predator Conservation Trust.

Reena Walker University of Idaho – who conducted her Sneeze to Leave research together with the Botswana Predator Conservation Trust.

Prof Scott Creel, Zambian Carnivore Programme.

Dr Rosemary Groom, African Wildlife Conservation Fund (AWCF) – Zimbabwe.

Dr Dave Druce, KZN Wild Dog Management Group

Nick Murray, Bushlife Conservancy: Painted Wolf Conservancy, Bushlife Support Unit Trust, Zimbabwe.

BUY THE BOOK HERE: Amazon or Random House (South Africa)

About the author

Jocelin Kagan’s passion for wildlife crystallised when she saw her first wild dog in 2010. ‘It was love at first sight’. Since then, Jocelin has been photographing and tracking wild dogs in Mana Pools in Zimbabwe, Botswana, the Timbavati in South Africa, and the Selous Game Reserve in Tanzania. Jocelin has embarked on an ambitious undertaking to make known the plight of this most successful strategist of all predators. She holds Higher Primary Teacher’s Diploma with specialization in Speech & Drama from the University of Cape Town, a Master Practitioner Certification in Neuro-Linguistic Programming and a Henley Management College MBA, and is the published author of four books, an educator, and a public speaker.

Saving rodents, losing primates – we need tailored strategies to manage bushmeat trade

While there is a tendency to view the bushmeat trade as a homogenous process with the animals as the generic resource, researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research propose a different approach. They suggest that understanding the drivers of hunting and trading in bushmeat is essential in developing a multifaceted strategy in managing and mitigating the effects on species numbers, especially in areas where consuming bushmeat is a vital aspect of everyday life.

While unsustainable hunting of certain species has had a devastating effect on species throughout the world (and continues to do so), viewing all bushmeat trade through one lens has the potential to over-simplify the complexity of the situation. For example, different approaches are needed for rodents as opposed to primates, since rodents have high reproductive rates and their populations are more resilient when hunted, whereas primate populations are less resilient, and their consumption is associated with increased risks of disease. Researchers set out to understand why certain species are selected by conducting interviews with the people around Taï National Park in Côte d’Ivoire.

Because bushmeat trade is largely illegal, the researchers were initially met with a certain hesitance to provide information but, through careful work with local informants, they were able to interview 348 hunters, 202 bushmeat traders and 985 bushmeat consumers.

They identified several different motivating factors for each member of the trade chain from hunters to consumers and traders: financial gain, nutritional necessity, and cultural reasons. There are over 500 bushmeat species in Sub-Saharan Africa alone, and according to previous research, around 80% of bushmeat in West and Central Africa comes from fast-reproducing generalists such as rodents and small antelopes. These species can be a vital component of food security and livelihoods in certain areas. Interestingly, the research indicated that where hunters or consumers were aware that unsustainable hunting would have negative ecological effects on primates, they responded positively by avoiding hunting or consuming primates. Bushmeat traders, on the other hand, showed no such change in behaviour.

In situations where access to alternative protein sources was restricted, hunters and consumers generally targeted rodents. In contrast, hunters looking to make money from trading in bushmeat either targeted duiker or primates, and primates (7% of the analyzed trade) were almost invariably consumed as a “luxury” meat. Thus, the researchers point out, addressing a shortage of proteins through development-related projects could mitigate one of the main drivers of bushmeat trade but, at the same time, increased economic development could see an increase in primate hunting to feed a growing market for meat seen as a luxury. So, this approach would need to be complemented by educational strategies. Poorly planned interventions could have disparate and even unintended consequences at different stages of the bushmeat trade, as well as for the multiple species affected by it.

The study suggests that while the development, educational and cultural strategies currently broadly applied to control bushmeat consumption have the potential to be effective, they need to be directed at the correct groups of people in the correct manner to avoid wasting scant resources. While there is an understandably urgent need to protect certain species from unsustainable hunting, policies need to be tailored for each specific species. The authors emphasize that there is no “one-size-fits-all” solution to bushmeat consumption and strategies that aim to have conservation benefits need to be based on research that provides a clear understanding of the process within each community.

As Hjalmar Kühl, one of the leaders of the research team explains: “If we really want to solve the problem of the overexploitation of wildlife and reduce the threats associated with it, for species conservation and human well-being, we need to tackle it at its roots. We cannot continue ignoring this problem, but we need to invest resources and develop strategies that really help to create a more sustainable human-wildlife co-existence.”

The full study can be accessed here: “Saving rodents, losing primates – Why we need tailored bushmeat management strategies”, Backmann, M., et al (2020), British Ecological Society

CEO note: Strawberry leopard + here be dragons + living next door to a poacher

CEO NOTE: 06 November 2020

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Interesting question: Is there any difference ethically in the KILLING FOR FUN of an apex predator of the oceans versus a free-roaming lion or leopard?

I ask because of my confusion stemming from a recent Facebook post by a respected wildlife activist. She posted a photo of herself triumphantly holding up the bloodied carcass of a yellowfin tuna she had just killed. She referred to the kill as a ‘bucket list’ moment, and she was clearly very enamoured with herself. Her friends were ecstatic and heralded her achievement as something quite extraordinary. The post and reactions were reminiscent of a trophy hunting post – based on the imagery and energy of the subsequent praise. Hence my confusion and question.

Note that I am NOT addressing sustainable harvesting arguments in this instance, nor the eating of the fish. Yes, I do eat fish and venison – when I know that they are sustainably harvested. My question is specific and relates to the selective way we experience and express our moral outrage over the killing of animals – what with her being a wildlife activist and all. I would welcome constructive and thoughtful responses to ceo@africageographic.com.

Our first story below will have you develop a new respect for ‘flatdogs’. Those of us who spend extended time in the bushveld know better than to hang about on the banks of water bodies, but few appreciate just how SPECIAL this prehistoric survivor is. In our second story, we provide rare images of a gorgeous STRAWBERRY leopard. Please note the bit at the end about protection against poachers and trophy hunting (sigh). And last in our list of specially-prepared stories (just for you) is an excellent question that could have some of you feeling a shade uncomfortable. Cycads are extremely popular garden features, and there is a massive COLLECTOR demand for large and rare individuals. You may be surprised at how many cycads in your neighbourhood were poached…

Story 1
https://africageographic.com/stories/here-be-dragons-the-nile-crocodile/
HERE BE DRAGONS: The Nile crocodile has evolved over millennia to be a cunning, patient and ferocious predator that is capable of taking down large prey – including humans

Story 2
https://africageographic.com/stories/strawberry-leopard-a-first-for-gauteng/
WOW ! The ‘strawberry leopard’ is a genetic rarity that seldom occurs, and is almost never seen. Well, one has now been seen and photographed in South Africa.

Story 3
https://africageographic.com/stories/cycads-are-you-living-next-door-to-a-poacher/
WELL, ARE YOU? Are you living next door to a poacher? The most endangered living organisms in the world today are not rhinos, elephants, or even pangolins …

Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic

Strawberry leopard – a first for Gauteng

Note: See our editorial comment below if you are concerned about the possibility of this leopard being trophy hunted or poached.

Just 35 minutes from Pretoria you will find Gauteng’s first and only free-roaming Big 5 game reserve open to the public – Dinokeng Game Reserve. The reserve grew from a concept into reality through a partnership between local government and landowners/farmers and conservationists. September marked its 9^th Birthday; in this time, it has come a long way from being the home of a few species of plains game and small predators to a fully-fledged and recognised Big 5 tourist location.

The past 9 years have seen the introduction of many species including lion, elephant, buffalo, black rhino, spotted hyena and cheetah. Although we have a great diversity of species, the lack of substantiated leopard sightings was a concern for us.

Leopard Conservation Project joined forces with Dinokeng management to track and trace leopards within the reserve – using a variety of methods ranging from trail cameras through to physical tracking of scat and spoor. 19 months into the project, and we had minimal success; only logging spoor and scat but no physical sightings or trail-cam photos. The elusive leopard had remained very secretive and evasive.

This all changed in late August during an aerial census of the reserve. During a routine grid flight taking photos of wildlife within the reserve, management team member Boshoff and his rangers flushed what they presumed to be a lion from the bushes within the wilderness area. Several photos were taken during this period, and when reviewing the photos, the management team noticed that this was a huge male leopard and that he had a rather strange colouration.

This was exciting for us – considering this was the first official documented leopard in the reserve. We subsequently met with reserve management and reviewed the photos. We had no doubt that this was a massive male leopard, and after further research and consultation with various parties, we confirmed that this rather special individual was an erythristic leopard – an extremely rare genetic trait.

The strawberry/golden/red leopard or pink panther was first seen in 2002 and only photographed for the first time in 2012 in Madikwe Game Reserve. To date, there have been fewer than a dozen sightings – predominantly within the North West, Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces of South Africa. Erythrism requires the mating of two individuals carrying the rare genetic trait – at extremely low odds. The erythristic mutation causes the normally black pigmented rosettes to change into a reddish-brown colour. There is usually a total absence of black pigmentation on these rare leopards. As a result, these leopards appear pinkish in colour; hence the common names previously mentioned.

The fact that this leopard was found in the Dinokeng Game Reserve is especially important as it offers the reserve the opportunity to boast all of the BIG 5 as well as the fact that this specific mutation within the leopard population may be spreading beyond the previously documented range.

Dinokeng Game Reserve and Leopard Conservation Project believe this to be a unique opportunity to increase our research into this extraordinary leopard. We are expanding our operations in and around the reserve and would like to embark on a project to collect DNA samples from this particular leopard and from those in and around the greater Dinokeng area – to find if this mutated gene is being carried by more individuals in this range. It is our hope that we can collectively play an active role in protecting the leopards within our reserve and surroundings and hopefully increase the likelihood of having the strawberry leopard successfully increase its numbers.

As a footnote, since the initial sighting, he has been photographed on a trail cam within the reserve and, excitingly, there has been a second leopard photographed.

Mike Braun

Director: Leopard Conservation Project

Editorial comment: We have confirmed with both the authors and Dinokeng management that in publishing this article, there is no increased risk to the safety of this leopard and no trophy hunting of the individual will be permitted. Their statements through direct correspondence are included below:

“Dinokeng is 100% committed to the conservation of animals in the reserve and not trophy hunting. We are a Game Reserve dedicated to the Conservation of Wildlife. We have specifically looked at various species that are key to building healthy gene pools and active populations within the Reserve and the Leopard is a key species we wish to protect within this Reserve”. – Mike Braun

“We can assure that the leopard is protected within the reserve.” – David Boshoff (Reserve General Manager of Dinokeng Game Reserve)]

HERE BE DRAGONS – The Nile crocodile

When watching any animal in Africa smaller than a rhino approach the water’s edge, there is an almost palpable sense of terror to their body language. Slender limbed antelope skitter backwards and forwards before barely touching the surface with their lips, zebra snort and startle and even the ferocious lions snarl pre-emptively before quenching their thirst. Wildebeest driven to cross East Africa’s mighty rivers pile up on the banks, worked up into a frenzy of fear, too afraid to be the first to make the plunge. And for good reason. Crocodile!

Beneath the murky waters of Africa’s rivers and dams lurk prehistoric predators – lumbering giants whose presence is revealed only by an insidious ripple, waiting to explode in a fury of teeth and water. The wild animals of Africa know this. Stamped across their internal maps over every water source is the message: here be dragons.

Quick introduction

Neither dragons nor dinosaurs, crocodiles are the paradigm of an evolutionary recipe that proved successful – little about them has changed in the last 100 or so million years. They are perfectly designed apex predators with potentially massive bodies powered by robust muscles, covered in armoured scales and driven by clinical, calculating instinct. Crocodilians are also the ultimate masters of the ambush approach, drawing on their innate reptilian capacity for absolute stillness until launching an assault.

Of the five recognised crocodile species in Africa, the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) is by far the most common and one of the largest crocodilian species in the world, second only in size to the saltwater crocodiles of Asia, Micronesia, and Australia. They have a life expectancy of up to 80 years and range in size from 30cm hatchlings to adults weighing over 500kg, with the largest ever recorded individual measuring 6.45m from snout to tail and weighing 1,089kg. Somewhat unexpectedly, they are more closely related to birds than they are to other reptiles.

Evolution

It is common to hear crocodiles described as “living fossils”, but this is not entirely accurate. Their ancestors successfully survived a mass extinction event around 250 million years ago. From there, the surviving evolutionary line branched into the Archosaurs (“the ruling lizards”) – with one earlier branch leading to the crocodilians and the other later branch leading to the dinosaurs (and, ultimately, birds). Unlike their dinosaur cousins, however, the crocodilian ancestors were destined to survive another mass extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous.

Fossils of these crocodilian ancestors indicate a far greater variety in terms of size, shape, and hunting styles than seen today. Some were terrestrial and predatory and bounded across land to chase down their prey, whilst others were predominantly herbivorous or omnivorous. For those that took to the water, all weight restrictions lifted and, for a time, mega-crocs the sizes of buses haunted the oceans and deep rivers of early Earth. From the Late Cretaceous and with the extinction of the dinosaurs, through ice ages, and the subsequent rise of the mammals, the surviving crocodilians have barely altered.

Perfect predators

The lack of evolutionary action can be at least partly explained by a successful foundation for exceptional hunting abilities. While younger Nile crocodiles are primarily reliant on regular meals of invertebrates, amphibians, and fish, those that survive to adulthood will attain the status of apex predator, capable of ambushing large prey twice their size including buffalo, giraffe, humans and even young elephants.

Unique among reptiles, crocodiles have a four-chambered heart, improving the efficiency of the transportation of oxygenated blood around the body which, combined with extremely high lactic acid levels, allows them to stay submerged for up to 2 hours at a time (provided they remain inactive underwater). Specialised muscles attached to the lungs, liver and pelvis can contract to pull the lungs backwards into the body cavity, changing the crocodile’s buoyancy and allowing it to submerge without creating ripples and alerting potential prey to their presence.

It is relatively well-known that Nile crocodiles have one of the strongest bite forces in the animal kingdom – some 30 times that of a human at 5,000 pounds per square inch. This is powered by enormous muscles that attach behind the skull and wrap around the lower jaw, allowing the jaw to close (and stay closed) with tremendous strength whilst still maintaining a low profile in the water. There are between 64-68 basic and cone-like teeth rigidly fixed into the jaw, designed to withstand considerable force from every direction. These may be replaced throughout the crocodile’s life. When a crocodile pulls its prey into the water, these teeth maintain a grip as the crocodile goes into a “death roll”, using its powerful tail to spin the prey underwater until it drowns.

Unspecialised teeth mean that crocodiles cannot chew or bite off chunks of meat so, for larger meals, they tear chunks of flesh away before swallowing them whole, hooves, horns and bones included. Their tracheas are reinforced to avoid being crushed when swallowing large portions of food and their stomachs distend in every direction to accommodate awkwardly shaped meals. To complete the process, crocodilians produce stomach acid some ten times the strength of a human’s gastric acid.

Like all reptiles, they are ectotherms, meaning that their metabolisms are slow and large crocodiles can survive for months without a meal.

Doting mothers

While their approach to hunting is silent and deadly, crocodiles are surprisingly vocal animals and never more so than during the breeding season (the timing of which varies depending on the area). Males show off by “roaring”, slapping their snouts on the water and exhaling sharply, intimidating rivals, and attracting females.

Two months after mating, the female selects a suitable nesting site on the shore or in a dry riverbed and digs a hole in which to lay her eggs. The clutch size will vary depending on the size of the female but is usually between 25-80 eggs. Unlike other crocodilian species, the female Nile crocodile does not use moribund vegetation to incubate the eggs so she will be selective in ensuring that the nest receives adequate sunlight to maintain the temperature. Like several other reptile species, crocodiles have temperature-dependent sex determination – if the temperature is between 31.7˚ and 34.5 ˚C, the offspring will hatch as males, anything above or below that range will hatch as females.

The mother guards her nest, often aggressively, for the three-month incubation period until the hatchlings begin to make bird-like chirps to indicate their readiness to escape the nest. The female then carefully digs open the nest and may even take the hatchlings in her mouth to water. For up to two years, she will stay close to them, defending them (though the hatchlings hunt for themselves immediately upon leaving the nest).

Despite the best efforts of the mothers, the mortality rate of hatchling Nile crocodiles is exceptionally high. Until they reach a comfortable size, baby crocodiles are faced with a multitude of potential predators: from monitor lizards to birds, and any number of opportunistic mammal species. In some areas, studies indicate that only 10% of the eggs survive to hatching, and just 1% of those will reach adulthood.

Maneaters and monsters

The young crocodiles approximately double their length during the first two years, spending almost as much of that time on land hunting invertebrates as they do in the water. However, as they grow, their hunting habits become almost entirely aquatic, and they become more dangerous to people.

According to the IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group, Nile crocodiles are responsible for more attacks on humans than any other species of crocodile, including saltwater crocodiles. This is easy to understand in context, given their massive size and widespread distribution throughout the various waterways of much of the African continent. In areas where human populations are reliant on this water for fishing, drinking, and bathing encounters with crocodiles are inevitable and, on most occasions, fatal. There are no reliable estimates as to the number of people killed by Nile crocodiles every year (in many circumstances, the victim simply disappears or the attack goes unreported). Still, experts estimate that the number of attacks on people exceeds 300 per year. According to the most recent research, 63% of these attacks are fatal. Almost all of these attacks occur near the edge of or in the water.

While their lives are water-dependent, large crocodiles may cover large distances in search of new territory or better resources. They may choose to occupy unlikely-looking wallows or dams in the process. When in doubt, throughout most of southern and East Africa, bodies of water should be treated with caution.

Conflict and consumerism

Naturally, this propensity for grabbing imprudent visitors to the water’s edge has not served to create a particularly positive reputation for the Nile crocodiles of Africa. This, combined with the use of their skins for high-quality leather, led to widespread persecution of the Nile crocodile across most of its natural range, particularly during the 20^th century. Given their low survival rates and slow maturation, populations that have declined due to human impact are often slow to recover. However, with the increasing number of crocodile farms, the IUCN Red List currently classifies wild Nile crocodiles as being of “least concern”, with the most recent estimate putting their total number somewhere between 250,000 – 500,000.

This is not applicable across their entire range however, particularly in Central and West Africa, where their numbers are far less stable. In some areas, they have been eradicated entirely. Conflict with people, loss of suitable wetland habitats, bushmeat hunting and even entanglement in fishing nets are all potential threats to the future of the crocodile species in Africa.

Conclusion

There can be no question that Nile crocodiles have acquired a particularly sinister reputation, despite the best efforts of certain conservation television and YouTube personalities. In many ways, they are difficult to sympathise with – powerful, self-contained, and entirely expressionless (with somewhat graphic table manners), they are a throwback to a time when reptiles ruled the planet. Yet while they may be prehistoric, that does not equate to primitive, and it is this ancient combination of brawn and stealth that has kept the Nile crocodile at the top of the food chain for millions of years.

Cycads: Are you living next door to a poacher?

The most endangered living organisms in the world today are not rhinos, elephants, or even pangolins – they are plants called cycads, and they are worth millions of dollars annually in a thriving illegal market.

Specifically, many species of the Encephalartos family of southern African cycads are either extinct or on the brink of disappearing from the wild thanks to the same human emotion behind the threat to Africa’s mega-fauna – greed.

Cycads are being loved to death.

Albany Cycad – *Encephalartos latifrons*

Passionate collectors are fuelling an illegal market which sees increasingly rare plants stolen from the wild and exported worldwide. It is estimated that about 15,000 rare cycads, worth more than US$600 million, have been illegally traded over the past 20 years.

Unlike the trade in rhino horn and elephant ivory, there is no particular race or country for armchair experts and xenophobes to point the finger at in this racket – the person responsible for the demise of these national treasures could be your next-door neighbour in Johannesburg, Los Angeles, Sydney, Dubai or Kuala Lumpur.

With their long spikey leaves, cycads might resemble palms, but they are actually gymnosperms, ancient seed plants most closely related to conifers. Like pine trees, they produce cones, often large and garishly coloured, which adds to their appeal to collectors. They are also known as the broodboom, or “bread tree” in Afrikaans, because in times of famine the woody core of the caudex (as the stem or ‘trunk’ is known) could be boiled, fermented and ground into meal. Cycads also have a place in African traditional medicine.

Suurberg Cycad – *Encephalartos longifolius*

This, however, is not the primary threat they face, according to Phakamani M’Afrika Xaba, Conservation Research Horticulturalist at Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden in Cape Town.

“It’s bragging rights,” Xaba said of the real danger to cycads. Extremely wealthy collectors from around the world compete to see who can show off the biggest or most valuable collection of cycads. Fortunately, Xaba added, there are several cycad enthusiasts and farmers who are interested in the conservation of cycads and contributing to cycad research, such as the Cycads Society Branch in the Western Cape.

Collectors pay for cycads by the seed or centimetre of caudex length. With some plants fetching US$1000 per seed, a plant no more than a metre high could be worth US$100,000 – the value of a decent-sized rhino horn. Unlike rhino poachers, however, cycad smugglers are rarely up against armed rangers, and their crime has so far attracted a fraction of the media coverage devoted to iconic mammal species. And nor are the middlemen doing the dirty work, according to Xaba.

“People are poor here in South Africa, and in developing countries globally were cycads occur, and it’s very easy to exploit that,” he said. “You can go into a village and offer someone less than US$6 to dig up a plant from the wild, which you can sell for US$3000. Collectors should put more positive energy into conserving the cycads in habitat, or restoration of population, rather than removing them from the wild.”

Alexandria Cycad – *Encephalartos arenarius*

Even though the cycad trade is legal and regulated, this does not stop the plants from being taken illegally from the wild. In fact, the opposite is true – the rarer the plant becomes in nature, the greater its value to collectors. The cycads most in demand by collectors are those that are already extinct in the wild, or very close to extinction. Among those most in demand, due to their rarity in the wild are the Venda cycad (E. hirsutus) and Heenan’s cycad (E. heenanii), while others in the high-value bracket include the Kaapsehoop cycad (E. laevifolius) and the Albany cycad (E. latifrons).

It is also easy for illegal dealers to get around the existing system, which requires permits for the trade and export of cycads. Cycads can survive weeks without water, so smugglers will sometimes simply drive their plants out of South Africa and export them from neighbouring countries with even fewer regulatory checks. Seeds and suckers (young cycads, also known as pups) and even medium-sized stems are also simply posted out of South Africa.

Eugene Swart, Deputy Director, Biodiversity Enforcement, with the Department of Environmental Affairs, makes the point that much of the damage to wild populations was done many years ago.

However, it’s not all bad news for cycads.

White-haired cycad – *Encephalartos friderici guilielmi*

“During the past year or two, great strides have been made in combating illicit activities, which results in the successful prosecution of offenders with unique sentences,” Swart said. “For example, one convicted landowner had to forfeit 400 hectares of land which was donated to conservation.”

There have been fines issued ranging from R40,000 to R400,000, and in 2015 a trio of cycad poachers was imprisoned for a total of 25 years. The penalties are still well-short of those meted out to rhino poachers, and it’s fair to say awareness of the plight of cycads is not as high as for mammal species, but there are moves afoot to change that in South Africa.

Dedicated cycad champions are doing good work. At Kirstenbosch, Xaba and his team are working on artificial pollination techniques to help restore numbers of the rare E. latifrons, which numbers fewer than 70 in the wild.

Meanwhile, botanist Michele Hofmeyr has set up the South Africa Plant Conservation Trust, whose aim is to protect, research, conserve and support the management of rare and endangered plants.

Winterberg Cycad – *Encephalartos cycadifolius*

The trust, established in conjunction with the NGO Conservation Outcomes, will also focus on training of a new generation of young botanists to fill a gap in the market.

“We need to combat ‘plant blindness’,” Hofmeyr said. “People look at the bush and think there are plenty of trees and flowers and it’s hard for them to get excited or passionate over a plant that’s missing because it has been collected to extinction from the wild.”

Allied to this blindness is a misconception peddled by collectors and middlemen that they are actually doing a service to rare plants by taking them from the wild, ‘protecting’ them in their gardens and producing seedlings. This ignores the fact that it was many of these same collectors who were responsible for the removal of cycads from the wild.

“Ecosystem services need to stay intact to maintain their integrity. If you take a plant out of its ecosystem, it’s like taking a tiny cog from a watch. You might not notice it missing initially, but it will not work properly, and then it’s too late.” Hofmeyr said.

Tony next to the loneliest plant in the world

“We all need to work towards conserving and appreciating our green heritage and creating an awareness of the value of all our indigenous plants. Cycads are the most vulnerable of all of these, so think twice before you are tempted to buy a cycad from an unknown or unreliable source.”

See Tony Park’s profile below. His latest novel, Last Survivor, deals with the illegal trade in cycads. For more information on the South Africa Plant Conservation Trust email michele@auroraafrica.co.za

The Colours of Salt

When the billowing plumes of Atlantic mist part to reveal the enchanting Dorob coastline, expanses of vividly coloured water sprinkled with thousands of lesser and greater flamingo appear in a mesmerizing kaleidoscope of colour. Flying this section of coastline is in short, an aerial photographer’s and nature lover’s paradise and will take your breath away.

Sinuous inlets and waterways meander across the mudflats of the large saltwater lagoon of Sandwich Harbour. Namib Naukluft.

An artist’s palette, the colours of salt adorn the coastal flats in a profusion of crusts and ruddy blotches. Skeleton coast.

To the north of the Dorob coastline, brine pans line the shores in a display of colour, shape and texture that leaves one’s heart racing with the ethereal beauty of it all. Further south a patchwork series of lime and raspberry saline lakes, edges encrusted with crystals, sparkle against a treeless landscape until they reach the shores of the Walvis Bay Lagoon.

Pale flocks of flamingo adorn the emerald brine pans south of Walvis Bay.

Serpentine streamers of turquoise stand out in vivid contrast to the pale low tide sandbanks. Walvisbay Lagoon.

The cold Benguela current and its nutrient-rich waters, the commercial saline lakes and the Walvis Bay lagoon collectively made the area famous for the incredible profusion of birdlife it attracts each year. In this saline ecosystem, vast quantities of phytoplankton are produced which support other marine organisms such as algae and brine shrimp, food for many hundreds of thousands of resident and migratory birds including cormorants, terns, avocets and a profusion of shorebirds.

An upwelling of nutrients from the sea floor provides sustenance for a psychedelic algal bloom on the Atlantic Ocean.

Like a giant marine lung; turquoise bronchi branch out through russet alveoli bringing with them the nutrients and habitat required by vast flocks of lesser and greater Flamingo that grace these shores. Walvisbay Lagoon.

According to Birdlife South Africa, the mudflats and lagoons sheltered from the open ocean by a sand spit at Pelican Point make this the most important coastal wetland in southern Africa and is one of the three most important coastal wetlands in Africa in terms of numbers and species of birds.

Seeming to float on an ocean of pinks, coastal rock outcrops emerge from the brine ponds north of Swakopmund.]

So how is it that these saline lakes display such gaudy colours? From lime green, clear turquoise to bright red these variations are caused by fluctuating concentrations of salinity and minerality and the various organisms that flourish in each. Cyanobacteria create the blue-green tones, and an algae called Dunaliella salina produces the rich pinks and reds. Brine shrimp rich in beta carotene are responsible for the rosy pink colour of the flocks of flamingos that forage this watery wonderland.

Serpentine streamers of pink stand out in vivid contrast to the dark shores of the Atlantic coastline.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Flying thousands of hours in their specially modified aircraft, aerial photographers Jay and Jan Roode have spent more than a decade photographing some of the most remote and spectacular wilderness areas of Southern Africa from above.

The continent of Africa has always held an irresistible allure and fascination for them, and they seem content only when free to roam the skies, capturing awe-inspiring images of the natural wonders of the region from above.

Their photography communicates their passion and reverence for the vast wild spaces of the region. As it allows us to start seeing whole ecosystems as entities in their own right; ecosystems that hold within them hundreds of thousands of expressions of life that need to be conserved.

Ruaha

Legend has it that there was once a young baobab, the first of its kind, growing near a small waterhole. The baobab spent many hours admiring its attractive neighbours – the elegant, fanned palms and luscious green fig-trees, verdant sausage trees with their bright profusion of pink flowers and darkly mysterious jackalberry trees. Finally, the day came when the young baobab was tall enough to spy its reflection, and it was horrified by what it saw. Instead of the lean, sophisticated figure it had imagined, it was bulbous and bulging, with wrinkled bark and tiny, nondescript flowers. Offended by this perceived injustice, the young baobab complained and complained to the creator until its perpetual whining reached a fever pitch and the tree found itself ripped from the ground and flung back into the earth, head first, far from water, never to see its reflection again. Nowhere else is this more evident than Ruaha.

Looking upon the baobabs scattered across the plains of Ruaha National Park in Tanzania, it is not hard to see why these mysterious “upside-down” trees have been the inspiration for countless such legends. The ancient baobabs are just part of the scenic beauty of Ruaha; an untamed wilderness that is perhaps one of Africa’s best-kept secrets.

The National Park and the larger ecosystem

Ruaha National Park is now over 20,000km² (2 million hectares), thanks to the inclusion of Usangu Game Reserve and important wetland spaces into the park in 2008. The semi-arid park is one of the largest protected areas in East Africa and is just part of a vital ecosystem in central Tanzania which includes Muhesi, Kisigo and Rungwa Game Reserves, as well as surrounding Wildlife Management Areas and community regions. The entire Ruaha landscape extends close to 50,000km² (5 million hectares) and, according to the Ruaha Carnivore Project, is home to around a tenth of the world’s lions, as well as the largest elephant population in Tanzania. The unfenced landscape and large numbers of wildlife have resulted in some of the highest levels of human-wildlife conflict in Africa, with several organizations working to mitigate these effects.

The park is named for the Ruaha River which flows through the Great Rift Valley and, along with a few larger tributaries, this river is one of the only permanent water sources in the park. No doubt the existence of this central river system is just one of the reasons why the greater Ruaha ecosystem has a rich and complex history. The first trade routes used by Arab caravans travelled through what is now the park, and, in later years, early European explorers followed these paths as well. In the late 19^th century, the celebrated Chief Mkwawa of the Hehe people resisted German attacks before eventually fleeing to the rocky outcrops in the park.

Scenery and seasons

These rocky outcrops are just one aspect of the dramatic scenic variety of Ruaha, which straddles the transition between open East African savannahs and Miombo woodland. The rivers are probably the main attractions, flowing through steep rocky gorges in sections before stretching out lazily to create wide, sandy beaches fringed by towering palm trees. There are two rainy seasons in Ruaha, similar to the seasons in the Serengeti and Maasai Mara, with ‘short rains’ falling during November and December and the much heavier downpours of the ‘long rains’ occurring in March and April. During some years this distinction is quite blurred and the rainy season extends from November until April. The dry season runs from June until October, and it is during this period that the rivers become all-important to the wildlife of Ruaha and large herds of elephants, giraffe, buffalo, kudu and impala are drawn to the water, trailing predators in their wake.

Away from the rivers, the Ruaha scenery is no less impressive. The ancient baobab trees are among some of the largest in Africa and are essentially self-contained ecosystems in their own right. Fruit bats pollinate them, and their hollows serve as nest sites for anything from owls to ground hornbills and are home to countless reptiles, insects, and bats. The succulent-like capacity for water storage in the bark of the baobab, and their delicious, nutritious fruits makes the baobabs truly irresistible to elephants. Even these giants of Africa are dwarfed by the massive trees towering over them. Some of these baobabs even have old spikes driven into their bark to make ladders for the previous human occupants of the park to harvest honey from beehives.

Wildlife abounds

As already mentioned, Ruaha is said to be home to some 10% of the world’s lion population and is listed as one of Tanzania’s Lion Conservation Units, with regular sightings of large lion prides of 20 or more individuals. Leopard, cheetah, spotted hyena and painted wolf (African wild dog) sightings are also frequent, especially when the prey species are forced to congregate close to water. Lucky visitors might even have a chance to spot the elusive striped hyena. Elephant sightings are a given and, though they tend to be more dispersed during the drier months (probably to avoid over-utilizing an area), the rainy season can see combined herds of hundreds of elephants moving together. Ruaha National Park is also one of the few places where greater and lesser kudu occur together.

Not to be outdone, the birdlife is equally varied, and over 570 different species have been recorded in the park due to the diverse habitats of the ecosystem. While the dry season may be the best time for mammal sightings, the rainy months offer the best birding opportunities as seasonal migrants like the sooty and Eleonora’s falcons move through the area. Black eagles, ashy starlings, black-masked and yellow-collared lovebirds and the Ruaha hornbills (Tanzanian red-billed hornbill) are all resident in the area; and the inclusion of the Usangu swamps means exciting new opportunities for enthusiastic birders. Those that do wish to visit the swamp need to do so by arrangement with the park management, as most of it is still inaccessible for now.

Best of all worlds

As is the case with most national parks, there are a wide variety of accommodation options to suit most budgets, with the added appeal that the park rates are lower than the more popular reserves of East Africa. While it is possible to self-drive through the park, the more exclusive lodge options will offer more ways to explore the extraordinary landscape, including providing expertly guided drives, night drives, photographic guidance and walking safaris. The park’s proximity to the enormous Selous Game Reserve also makes it possible to combine trips into one all-encompassing safari experience.

While names like Serengeti and Maasai Mara may dominate the safari scene in East Africa, Ruaha National Park is perhaps East Africa’s best-kept secret. Those who go to the effort of travelling slightly off the beaten track are well rewarded with a truly wild, untouched piece of Africa at her finest and, best of all, very seldom have to share with others. For those searching for a pure safari experience, unsullied by modern development and crowds of tourists, Ruaha National Park offers the perfect combination of breath-taking beauty, a profusion of predators and an unparalleled sense of isolation and peace.

For accommodation options at the best prices visit our collection of camps and lodges: private travel & conservation club. If you are not yet a member, see how to JOIN below this story.

Trophy hunting – how do African people feel?

Much of the scientific understanding of the public perception of trophy hunting is based on the views of the Western public, while most existing studies tend to overlook the opinions of African people. One researcher set out to analyse the responses of three social media pages with predominantly African followers to understand better how African people view trophy hunting.

Mucha Mkono of the University of Queensland focused her research on the Facebook pages of BBC News Africa, News24.com and NewsDay-Zimbabwe, exploring and categorising the responses to posts relating to trophy-hunting subjects (1,070 posts in total).

She identified the prevalence of three major patterns and themes in the responses of African readers:

The neo-colonial privileging of the Western elite;
animals being valued over human lives; and
the perceived greed of African politicians allowing the exploitation of wildlife resources.

The first of these – the neo-colonial character of trophy hunting – was one of the dominant patterns in the analysed social media responses, with 70% of African participants viewing trophy hunting as a privilege given to rich Westerners, economically excluding Africans. Many of the objections to trophy hunting were based not on animal welfare concerns but rather on the more complex historical and postcolonial associations surrounding it. Mkono points out that this pattern of responses resonates with the concept of “distributive (in)justice”, which centres around concerns related to whether monetary gains from the system flow back to local communities. Where this fails to happen, accrued revenues re-enact economic imbalances of the colonial past.

Around 80% of posters also criticised the Western community for championing animal rights causes while overlooking the suffering of African people living in proximity to the wildlife – and questioning the West’s assumed moral authority. From the analysis of the social media comments, the suggestion is that many African people feel that Westerners fail to appreciate or understand the impact or cost of co-existing with wildlife. Many of the responses also indicated a general dismissal of the West’s criticism of violence against animals as being exaggerated.

The final major criticism of trophy hunting was directed at African politicians and leaders, characterising them as greedy and lacking a moral compass. 60% of the responses indicated a feeling that elite groups were taking advantage of both the economic climate of Africa as well as the corrupt politicians, with trophy hunting resulting as a product of this complicity.

Naturally, there are acknowledged limitations to some of these results, not least of which is that it excludes by default the opinions of Africans not active on social media, particularly in areas where internet access is non-existent. The opinions of those living on the boundaries of protected areas or employed by the trophy hunting industry may not have been expressed. Mkono also suggests the possibility that sensationalist stories and bias in the original articles may also have directed the nature of the responses. There are also outlying views of certain responses by African people, including those who objected strongly to the animal welfare aspects of trophy hunting and the potential ramifications to the tourism industry.

Mkono’s study offers a different perspective on a debate that tends to centre around the moral acceptability of killing animals and the links between trophy hunting and conservation. The critiques of trophy hunting presented by African opinions on social media come from an alternative standpoint – one which observes a neo-colonial distribution of power, wealth, and access to resources. The study concludes that regardless of the conservation aspects of trophy hunting, “it is crucial to continue to interrogate consumptive forms of tourism such as trophy hunting, not only in terms of their economic value but also concerning their moral integrity, and from the perspective of local communities. In that endeavour, Africa’s leaders are likely to have more support if they find meaningful ways of engaging their citizens in wildlife policy decisions.”

The full study can be accessed here: “Neo-colonialism and greed: Africans’ views on trophy hunting in social media”, Mkono, M., (2019), Journal of Sustainable Tourism

The Power of Unity – Cheetah coalition in Maasai Mara

The five striking and powerful cheetah males sit motionless, shoulder to shoulder, staring at grazing antelopes on a sun-drenched grassland in the Maasai Mara National Reserve. Suddenly, their attention is drawn to another cheetah, sitting at a distance in the shade of a bush. Driven by instinct, all five set out at speed to investigate the intruder, intent on discovering which cheetah has wandered into their territory and confident in their own size and strength. The female, seeing the huge males approaching, dashes for the slim protection offered by a nearby thicket, followed by her tiny cub. It is Nora with her 2-month old daughter, and she has suddenly found herself facing five male cheetahs: the largest known male coalition in the Maasai Mara.

An extraordinary coalition

This coalition of five male cheetahs has been named the Tano Bora coalition, meaning ‘The Magnificent Five’ in the local Maa language of the region. Each male has also been given a local name: Olpadan (‘Great Shooter’ in Maa), Olarishani (‘Judge’ in Maa), Leboo (‘The one who is always within a group’ in Maa), Winda (‘Hunter’ in Kiswahili), and Olonoyok (‘The one who puts efforts to achieve better results’ in Maa). Since they arrived in the Maasai Mara, the five have proved to be an extraordinary force to be reckoned with and turned people’s understanding of cheetah behaviour on its head. So how did such a coalition come to be?

A female cheetah typically leaves her cubs when they are around 20 months old, and siblings will stay together in a group for several months. Once they reach sexual maturity, female and male siblings separate. Cheetah males can either become solitary (if there was the only male in the litter) or form coalitions – lifelong unions, formed by the males-littermates, which in some cases, may accept unrelated males into the fold, or even temporary groups of unrelated individuals.

Cheetah litters may be large, but the mortalities rates for cubs are extremely high

The group of five young males came into the Maasai Mara National Reserve from the adjacent Naboisho conservancy at the end of 2016. Based on what we observed at the time, we believe that the coalition is made up of three separate parts, as two of the males were initially larger, and the three others were smaller and, therefore, most likely slightly younger. We do know that one of the smallest males at the time – Olpadan – split from his sister in November 2016 before joining four other males in December 2016. (His sister, Siligi also gained notoriety in 2019, when she emerged with 7 cubs, the largest littler recorded in the Maasai Mara.) Within a few months, Olpadan grew and established himself as the dominant male of the coalition.

Life in a group provides several benefits to its members: males can hold a “better” territory with more access to favourable habitat and prey; they can take down larger prey; they care for each other by sharing responsibilities in terms of vigilance and territorial patrols, and numbers provide better defence against rival males and kleptoparasites. The Tano Bora males are no exception to this rule and cooperate in everything, apart from breeding.

Breeding rights

The described encounter with the five males was not Nora’s first. Four of the males encountered her in December 2017, and Olarishani used his chance to mate with her while other members were off hunting. When the other three noticed the courting couple, they immediately rushed back and, not to be outdone, started mounting the pair. When in February 2019 the coalition again encountered Nora, she was with her single cub. Interestingly, although the males attacked Nora, they did not touch her cub, who fearlessly defended herself from approaching males by howling loudly, hissing, and growling at them. After investigating Nora’s reproductive status, all males lost interest and left her and the cub in peace. The same situation played out with another female – Rani. In March 2018, Olpadan mated with her, while two other males made attempts to mount. When the coalition next encountered Rani in June 2019, she was with a 4-month-old single cub. Again, the males were only interested in Rani and did not attack the cub. In August 2018, Olonyok mated with Nashipai, and 11 months later, all five males came across Nashipai with her two 2.5-months old cubs. Of all five males, Olonyok was the most persistent and interested in the female. He did not give up and returned to the female twice even after all the other males had left the spot.

The most likely explanation is that, along with the successful mating with one male, the attempts of the other coalition members to mount the female (but in fact mounting other males) helped to prevent an attack on the cub. Each of the males could have thought they had sired the cub. On the one hand, by mating with multiple males, females gain benefits including confusing paternity and thus avoiding infanticide, or else increasing the genetic diversity of offspring within a litter. On the other hand, competition among males for a female in oestrus reduces chances for all of the members of a male coalition to mate. Sometimes, only one dominates and gets the opportunity to mate successfully, which can be particularly problematic for unrelated males in a coalition. To mitigate this, the Tano Bora males implement useful tactics – one male separates from a group for a day or two, following and mating with a female and then re-joins his coalition-mates. Each member of the Tano Bora coalition has been observed mating with different females.

Who’s in charge?

Social animal groupings typically have a hierarchy with a linear or near-linear ranking and with expressed leadership of one of the members. In well-maintained cheetah coalitions, members share responsibilities, the level of affiliative behaviours between members is high, and aggression is low. However, in cases where the group consists of unrelated members, cheetah males face hierarchical instability. Olpadan became the leader of the coalition soon after he had joined the other four males. He would initiate hunts and lead the group across large distances, often walking for hours at a time. He was also the most successful hunter. By mid-2017, another big male – Olarishani – became co-leader, and both males began taking turns to decide when and which direction to move, where to cross rivers and how to approach a hunt. Interestingly, Olarishani also played the role of peacemaker during intragroup fights. The unfortunate Olonyok was often the target of Olpadan’s reverse aggression (aggression seen in a situation where, for example, groups of tourists disturb the cheetahs) and often these fights would escalate to involve all males. Under these circumstances, Olarishani would always step in to protect Olonyok.

Indications of leadership can be subtle, such as choosing the direction that the group moves in

In most cases, the dominance hierarchy is relatively stable, and members usually step aside when confronted by the leader. However, suppose the leader is weakened by injury, disease, or senility. In that case, the shift in ranking may occur, and the individual with the highest rank will move down to the lowest position. During intraspecific fights, cheetah males target anogenital area of rivals, and there have even been cases where males have bitten and cut off the testicles of intruders. That is what happened to Olpadan. His dominant status began to waver around the beginning of 2019, when two members of the coalition, Winda and Leboo, began to attack him regularly. In two cases, the fight happened during the courtship with different females. One fight in mid-March 2019 resulted in a serious injury to one of Olpadan’s testicles.

A fall from grace for Olpadan

After the necessary veterinary intervention and orchiectomy surgery, Olpadan lost his leadership position entirely, and Olarishani and Winda stepped forward to become the dominant members of the coalition. From being the most dominant, Olpadan became the lowest-ranking male in the group, the last in all joint activities from moving to feeding and was often the target of aggression when the coalition fed on smaller prey. Interestingly, Olonyok, whom Olpadan had targeted, became the one who tolerated Olpadan feeding next to him and who engaged with the ex-leader in mutual grooming after eating.

Cheetah social life is complex – unrelated males form alliances and maintain bonds for as long as it benefits all members of a group. Under certain circumstances, one of the members may start looking for an alternative group to join. In mid-February 2019, Olpadan tried to join another coalition, after the Tano Bora males chased two young males: Mkali and Mwanga, who had strayed into their territory. The ensuing pursuit saw the two intruders fleeing into a thicket, closely followed by the intimidating five. For some time, all seven disappeared deep inside bushes on the bank of a river, making sounds indicative of aggressive and defensive behaviours. After a few hours, four of the Tano Bora males departed, leaving Mkali, Mwanga and Olpadan. Instead of looking for his coalition-mates, Olpadan started following two males trying to sniff them and rest nearby, without making any attempt to harm them. When the two males responded with defensive behaviours, Olpadan would respond by displaying submissive behaviour – just sitting with his back to them.

By the next morning, Olpadan had abandoned his efforts and was desperately looking and calling for his own coalition-mates. When in the afternoon three males (Leboo, Winda and Olonyok) appeared in the area, Olpadan did not attempt to approach them, and over an hour later, they slowly approached the insecure Olpadan. While in the past, Olpadan had met returning males with aggression, this time, three males accepted him peacefully, and all set off to hunt together.

Cooperative Hunting and Cofeeding

Large groups of predators require more food, and each member must contribute to the hunt. It took five males over a year and a half to learn the necessary strategies for cooperative hunting. Initially, all members would chase different animals in a herd but, with time, developed an effective style of hunting where four would expose themselves to grazing antelopes, and the fifth would slowly stalk the prey. Group hunting by male coalition cheetahs has typically been associated with enhancing confidence among members. This we observed during the long rainy season of 2019-2020 when one male would confidently chase and tackle a bigger prey thrice its weight such as topi or even wildebeest (six times the weight of a cheetah!) Others will join the hunter when the prey is captured. Single cheetahs hardly ever hunt such big prey, unless they have recently lost coalition-mates.

When taking down large antelope, all five divide duties and act quickly and efficiently to feed as much as possible before the arrival of kleptoparasites. Cheetahs often lose their prey to larger predators – sometimes to lions and, more regularly, to hyenas. However, the Tano Bora males stand out in their relationship with other predators as well. On several occasions, they have chosen not to argue with a hyena but rather to share their kill with it instead! In both recent cases, cheetahs had made large kills (an adult topi and a wildebeest), and in both instances, Olpadan refused to feed alongside the hyena. In the first instance, all the other males were fed on the carcass from the opposite end to the hyena, while Olpadan watched from a distance. In the second instance, Olarishani and later Olonyok fed fearlessly next to a hyena while the three other males waited to the side.

Choosing to feed next to a competing predator is relatively unusual

A coalition like no other

The Tano Bora coalition is 4 years old, and it is developing through time – the relations between individuals (who are now around 5,5 years old) are undergoing dynamic changes that we never tire of watching. Nature is fraught with a variety of mysterious and amazing things, and in observing her creatures, patiently and with respect, she reveals her secrets.

About the authors

Dr Chelysheva is a renowned cheetah expert, with over 30 years experience of working with cheetahs in captivity and the wild. She is a PhD holder in cheetah ecology and behaviour and a member of the IUCN Conservation Planning Specialist Group. In 2001, Elena developed a cheetah identification method which helps to identify individuals from a month old. Using this method, she was able to determine kinship between individuals over the years and is now monitoring the fifth generation of some cheetahs. In 2011, Elena started cheetah research and conservation study in Kenya as a founder of the Mara-Meru Cheetah Project and here she shares her amazing discoveries.

Jeffrey Wu is a Canadian professional wildlife photographer based in Toronto, Canada. He is a judge of the Nikon Photo Contest and Nature’s Best Photography Africa and is also a Nikon China contracted photographer. He leads professional photo tours in Africa for ten months every year, mainly in the Masai Mara in Kenya. He is an expert on photographing cheetah hunting; he has photographed more than 300 cheetah hunting scenarios since 2013. His works have been published more than 50 magazines and newspapers internationally, including the Times, Outdoor Photography Canada, and Chinese National Geography.

POACHERS – the people behind the statistics – a reality check

Quotes from poachers:

“I just wanted to send my first-born child to school so that he could get an education and be different from me. I wanted him to have the opportunity which I was denied as a child.”

“What attracted me most is that they were living a good life, they had nice houses, and they could afford anything they wanted, whenever they wanted it. I wished for that. One day I went to the tavern with a person who poaches rhinos. We met some other people there. The way they were behaving made me look like I am not man enough because I couldn’t afford what they could. I was turned into a laughingstock in my community.”

“But you know, if I were working, I would not have gone and done this. It’s just sometimes when you are in [a] tough situation; you resort to desperate measures.”

Who are the poachers feeding the illegal wildlife trade and what motivates them? These are fundamental questions that should shape the policies surrounding the fight against illegal wildlife trade but are often dismissed or overlooked. Calling for increased security measures and harsher sentences is the inevitable rallying cry but understanding what motivates a person to enter the world of wildlife crime is equally vital. Now a new report by TRAFFIC investigates the driving factors of poaching activities and how policymakers might go about addressing them, introducing a more nuanced perspective of the first step in the trade in animal parts.

The report indicates that over the past ten years in South Africa alone poachers have taken over 8,000 rhinoceros for their horns, illegally harvested 96 million abalone between 2000 and 2016, and that the illegal trade in cycads is considered the main threat to their survival in the wild. TRAFFIC’s investigation focussed on incarcerated individuals convicted of crimes in the illegal wildlife trade (mostly poaching) in South Africa, a country considered to be key in the illicit trade in wildlife due to the role it plays as a source, transit and destination country. Of the 73 interviewed individuals, 54 were serving sentences for rhino-related offences, 10 for abalone related crimes and 9 for roles in the illegal cycad trade. Of those poachers interviewed:

97% were male
48% were South African (the remainder were Mozambican, Zimbabwean and Chinese)
5% were aged between 29 and 35
83% did not have secondary education
38% were unemployed, and 36% had informal employment
54% were influenced by peer pressure
78% had at least one dependent
66% had sufficient income to cover only the day-to-day basics of food, water, and shelter

The report goes on to identify several factors that emerged as a common thread during the interviews with poachers.

Income generation: Every single person interviewed pointed to income generation as a major influence in persuading them to participate in the illegal wildlife trade. For 70% of interviewees, this pressure related to providing for their families, in terms of either the basics such as food and schooling or more expensive hobbies or interests. Worryingly, the authors of the report note a trend to view “successful” individuals in communities as those who have accumulated wealth through involvement in poaching activities.
Opportunism: 80% of the offenders point to opportunity was a factor, usually through meeting another person actively involved in illegal wildlife trade.
Skewed perception of risk: While most of the interviewees were aware of the illegality of their actions, less than half of the interviewed individuals were aware of the seriousness or severity of the legal consequences, especially given that many members of the community were observed to be participating without consequences.
Normalisation (contested illegality): 75% of the offenders suggested that using natural resources was a normal and acceptable way to earn a living – as legitimate as fishing or harvesting plants. There were no social deterrents at play and no concerns related to retaliation or ostracisation from their communities, or even a risk of being reported by those community members.
High value of and demand for the commodity: Nearly 70% of the offenders referred to the high values of, and demand for, wildlife commodities and the fact that illegal wildlife trade was far more lucrative than other legitimate ways of earning money.
Lack of viable economic alternatives: 65% of the offenders pointed to a lack of alternative ways to improve their financial and social circumstances. Most of the interviewees from Mozambique and Zimbabwe came to South Africa to search for employment opportunities, but the official unemployment rate in South Africa is 29.1%. This is predicted to increase due to the economic fall-out from the pandemic.
Peer pressure: 44% of the interviewees indicated that they were influenced by peer pressure, almost invariably by family or close friends.
Lack of state legitimacy: 40% of the offenders made some reference to dissatisfaction with legal authorities, whether related to a lack of basic service delivery, lack of sufficient job opportunities, wasteful expenditure, or corruption. There was particular frustration with corruption linked to the illegal wildlife supply chain.
Omission: This category relates largely to those offenders that played a role in the supply chain, rather than active poaching. These interviewees perceive their activities to be distanced from the illegal wildlife trade.
Provision of employment for others: A small proportion of interviewees employed individuals involved in illegal wildlife trade and claimed that they were responsible for putting food on the table for their “employees’” families.

These factors can be roughly divided into societal, community, and individual motivating factors. Naturally, any individual could be influenced by any combination of particular factors. Therefore, the TRAFFIC report suggests that a combination of collective strategies would be needed to increase compliance and prevent engagement in the trade.

Recommendations

The authors of the TRAFFIC report put forward several recommendations based on the outcomes of the interviews with poachers and the larger socio-economic context in South Africa.

The first is that concerted effort should be placed on investigating, arresting and prosecuting individuals that occupy the higher levels of illegal wildlife trade, rather than simply arresting and prosecuting poachers and drivers. The aspects and strategies outlined by the National Integrated Strategy to Combat Wildlife Trafficking need to be approved and implemented by the South African government as a matter of urgency.

The second recommendation is that the provision of public services such as health care, quality education, employment opportunity, food security and infrastructure are provided to those communities most at risk of being exploited by criminal wildlife trade syndicates.

The third recommendation involves local community-based interventions and initiatives (such as the Black Mambas Anti-Poaching Unit), which may include increasing incentives for wildlife stewardship; supporting livelihoods unrelated to wildlife; decreasing the costs associated with human-wildlife conflict; increase the costs of participating in the illegal; or education and awareness-raising.

The final recommendation is for the development of social intervention strategies that emphasise personal and familial consequences (rather than legal ones) and equip individuals with knowledge and tools necessary to resist peer pressure. This could potentially involve the sharing of previously unreported personal consequences experienced by offenders.

Conclusion

While active measures to safeguard South Africa’s precious wildlife resources are essential, the incarceration of ground-level participants such as poachers will have little impact if societal factors continue to motivate their replacements. Addressing some of the economic and social drivers is a significant aspect of the battle against illicit wildlife trade, and this is only possible with a holistic understanding of these drivers. As such, TRAFFIC’s report has wide-reaching ramifications that extend beyond its South African context into the wider world of illegal wildlife trade.

The full report can be accessed here: “The People Beyond the Poaching: Interviews with Convicted Offenders in South Africa”, TRAFFIC (2020)

Ignorant complicity amongst some safari guides

At 20 years old and new to the guiding fraternity, I followed the lead of more experienced safari guides, quickly adopting the conduct status quo of the time. For years there was an attitude of “almost anything goes” when it came to finding and getting close to as many of the Big 5 as possible on every drive. Little to no consideration was given to consequences of this attitude of impulsively taking from nature, as and when the opportunity or desire arose. And no one asked questions…

At the time (28 years ago), as safari guides, our knowledge and communication skills were of primary concern and not once, at any of the numerous camps I worked at, was ecologically sensitive conduct a topic for discussion amongst guides (bar extraordinarily callous extremes). We did what was expected to get our job done. From suspending my Land Rover on shrub mopane trees in an attempt to access a pride of lions to the constant hounding of a female leopard just to witness her hunt an impala, this was all in a day’s work. Indignation, outrage, and disgust are all eagerly employed when condemning “others” from a self-proclaimed moral high ground. Yet, it was a far less comfortable retrospective awareness that forced my ignominious personal admission of ignorant complicity.

The gradual awakening from my ignorance was born of guiding burnout which led to a hiatus. For 12 months, I exchanged my Land Rover for a tractor and launched myself into “habitat management” on the reserve. This comprised of road relocation to combat accelerated erosion, alien-plant control, the creation of firebreaks, and encroachment control on artificial clearings.

Observing how the scars from indiscriminate off-road driving at a leopard sighting, months earlier, had eventually deteriorated into accelerated erosion and deep dongas made me think twice about the impact of vehicle traffic on various soils. Simultaneously, my new-found mindfulness prompted an awareness of the subtle (and occasionally not-so-subtle) body language cues of the animals being viewed or pursued by vehicles on a game drive. From the slight flattening of the ears towards a perceived threat (such as a vehicle following too closely) to the flicking of a tail or stern stare when annoyed at the unnecessary close proximity of a vehicle – these indications of unease became increasingly apparent until, eventually, I was unable to unsee or ignore them.

Though I did return to lodge guiding, these revelations had an indelible impact on my convictions and would eventually lead to a parting of ways with the private lodge industry. The following are examples of some of the experiences at camps, ranging from rustic bush camps to 5-star lodges, that prompted my somewhat abrupt departure.

During my induction drive with a head-guide at a new camp, a large elephant bull came into view. It was clear from his body language that he was entirely relaxed and could not have cared less about our presence. Slowly, we made our approach until we reached the point that I felt was the perfect spot to stop. But we didn’t – onwards we continued, ever closer. I was shocked as my legs involuntarily kicked against the floor in an attempt to stop the vehicle. I felt deeply uncomfortable with our imposition on the bull’s personal space. The realisation that many guests had previously suffered similarly under my own “guidance” left me embarrassed and disappointed…why had it taken so long for me to become sensitised to the consequences of my actions?

Eventually, we stopped a mere 15m from the bull, who was still feeding placidly. I started questioning my violent reaction to the proximity, given that the elephant was not bothered by it. What has changed within, I wondered, to render previously acceptable conduct suddenly so upsetting? An evolution was afoot, and it was becoming more about my relationship with my surroundings than just outright impact.

During that same drive, someone found a female cheetah with three sub-adult cubs. They were walking across a clearing only 15m from the road. Sticking to the road on the edge of the clearing would have given them the requisite space and avoided unnecessary off-road impact. Instead, the three vehicles went off-road onto the clearing, following so closely behind the cheetahs that they were walking with their ears turned back towards us. The herd of impala they were stalking way up ahead noticed the line of vehicles driving slowly and paid closer attention, saw the cheetahs, and darted off…

The next incident took place with another guide when we encountered three rhinos only 20m from us on a shrubby open area. As the guide saw the rhinos, he immediately turned the steering wheel without slowing down and veered straight towards them off-road. The crashing and twanging of whipping twigs on the suspension sent the cow and two calves scrambling… “Tsk…these rhinos are very skittish today,” is all the guide uttered before returning to the road and continuing.

Another incident occurred on a concession inside Kruger Park, where off-road driving is forbidden, and sensitive soils are prevalent. On a guide training drive during the rainy season, we noticed the stunning yellow flower of a mouse-whisker plant (Cleome angustifolia) about 5m off the road. The deputy-head guide stopped the vehicle, reversed, turned, and drove the 5m off-road on soggy soils to park next to the blossom. No one, not even the head guide sitting next to me on the rear seat, said anything. Disbelief and anger started welling up inside me like a brewing volcano. Then he leant over and plucked the flower, laid it on his camera bag next to him, snapped a photo, picked it up, said “wow, this is really stunning”, before chucking it overboard and driving off.

Recounting these details is not so much a criticism of the conduct of other guides as it is an indictment of my very own behaviour until then. I too, for many years, was asleep at the wheel. There are also untold accounts of disrespectful guests asking/demanding to get closer for that perfect picture or sensationalist experience. This induced pressure, especially on younger guides, is unjust and can manipulate their still pliable resolve.

However, we should never outsource accountability when it comes to ethical conduct, and it is incumbent on every person to take a respectful stand. In many lodges now, there is a strong ethos of ethical behaviour and ecological sensitivity, with guides responsible for holding themselves and each other to high standards. Pragmatically, mistakes happen, and lines of acceptable behaviour can be blurred. Still, open conversations are the only way to redefine what is appropriate and prompt an evolution in the approach taken by guides and guests.

If necessary, guests need to be able to speak up when they are uncomfortable with a situation and would prefer to adopt a more sensitive approach or leave the sighting altogether. Guides, in turn, need to be comfortable enough to declare that there is a line they are not willing to cross due to ethical considerations, where respect for wildlife is paramount to sustainable guiding as well as conservation as a whole. Guest experience and ethical guiding are not mutually exclusive, but finding the balance is everyone’s responsibility, and this cannot be done under a cloud of ignorant complicity.

Marius Swart

About Marius Swart

A passionate naturalist and consummate enthusiast, Marius has been sharing his wonder through guided adventures, since 1992. Spending the first decade working in the private lodge industry in the Timbavati and Sabi Sands (among others) provided a solid foundation which prompted personal growth, awakening and evolution. With a penchant for the visceral experiences afforded by on-foot explorations, he truly believes that being out in the wilds allows us to see rather than look, hear rather than listen and feel rather than think.

“If what a tree or a bush does is lost on you…you are surely lost” – Robert Wagoner.

“Please join me on a journey of discovery, not only of Nature’s treasure-chest…but of yourself!” – Marius Swart

Bee wise

On the south-western tip of Africa, a bee-conservation group has spent the last seven years discovering the wisdom of our wild honeybees.

I make it to Simon’s Town to meet Ujubee’s Jenny Cullinan and Karin Sternberg just before the Covid-19 lockdown is enforced in South Africa. The national parks are already closed and the wildlife in Cape Point, Ujubee’s primary research area, has the place all to itself and is probably giving a big sigh of relief.

As bottles of sanitiser fly off the shelves faster than they can be reordered and customers are sanitising hands as they enter and leave shops, the Ujubee pair tells me that wild honeybees have a similar cleanliness procedure which ensures the health of the colony. I have never thought of bees as having a similar lifestyle or behaviour pattern to human beings, but I am soon to learn otherwise. These small social creatures have been around for about 80 million years and apparently have quite a lot to teach us.

Jenny explains that because wild honeybees live in such close proximity to each other, hygiene is of utmost importance as viruses and bacteria are their biggest threat. “The foraging bees that exit the nest to engage with the outside world disinfect themselves regularly,” she says. The key is in the propolis, the dark resinous substance that often acts as an enclosing entrance wall in a wild honeybee nest. “The bees maintain the essential oils in the propolis, continually bringing back resins to add to it.” These antibacterial and antifungal essential oils are applied whenever they leave the nest or on their return when they can be seen wiping themselves down.

Bees pollinate about 85% of fynbos, playing an important role in the Cape’s floral kingdom, one of the most diverse and richest floral kingdoms in the world. A colourful sour fig (vygie) flower provides a shower of pollen for this wild Cape honeybee.

bee — Jenny sitting in the fynbos at Cape Point observing the small creatures around her that form part of this incredible ecosystem.

The wild Cape honeybee, Apis mellifera capensis, immediately has my attention. And as the dogs curl up in their baskets and the first of the winter rains shower down peacefully outside, I listen to Jenny and Karin’s fascinating story. Before they teamed up in 2013 and went for their first walk in SanParks’ Cape Point Nature Reserve, there was little information about wild honeybees. Although there was a lot of material about apiarists’ box-hives, the information about bees in the wild was virtually non-existent. When Karin did some research, the only information she could find was from a scientist by the name of Anderson done in the 1980s when Cape Point was being proclaimed as a sanctuary. “He maintained that there were very few colonies in Cape Point. He thought that there was possibly a maximum of five colonies of wild honeybees,” she tells me. “Seven years down the road we have found 94 nests, about 83 occupied. Back then, we had to start from scratch.”

While discovering the world of the wild honeybee, the Ujubee team has learnt about many other creatures that are at home on the Cape peninsula.

At the time Jenny, who had moved to Cape Town from Kwazulu-Natal, was eager to meet up with the Cape wild honeybee, a different subspecies to the wild honeybee, Apis mellifera scutellata, that she was accustomed to further north in the summer rainfall areas. She had grown up on a farm, respecting the wild bee colonies that had made their home in the shed, in an old drum outside and under the bath. “I remember the honey-waxy smell when I bathed,” she says, reminiscing about the comforting fragrance that is happily intertwined with her childhood memories. Her father kept several beehives, and when Jenny arrived in the Cape and started to learn about wild honeybees, she soon realised that she had to quickly discard all that she had learned as a beekeeper. She discovered that honeybees live a completely different life in the wild than when managed in hives. The team started to collect data from hours of observation in the field, learning to record it scientifically with the assistance of entomologist Geoff Tribe. Their findings would intrigue conservationists worldwide. And, as South Africa, thankfully, still has a healthy wild honeybee population, Ujubee (Uju meaning ‘honey’ in Zulu) focuses on collaborating with and giving presentations to conservation bodies around South Africa, increasing the resource of knowledge about our wild honeybees, an important part of our indigenous wildlife.

A male carpenter bee (*Xylocopa capitata*), which as its name suggests, lives in tunnels it excavates in dead wood.

Karin and Jenny, under the umbrella of the self-funded Ujubee project, have been absorbed for the last seven years locating the wild honeybee nests that are found in hollows, crevices and under boulders in the reserve and learning about the resident colonies, as well as the many solitary bees that reside in the area. Not using any protective gear, they get up close and personal with the bees, so it’s vital to tune into the bees’ world and to learn how they communicate and live. Several years ago when I first heard them give a talk about how the wild honeybee colonies survive the fires that sweep through Cape Point, I was amazed at the photos of them lying on the ground right next to a nest, a far cry from the heavy protective gear I had always associated with working with bees in boxes.

bee — Karin among a bevy of beautiful watsonia blooms that emerged after a fire.

“Because we’re unprotected in front of the bees, and we’re up close, the senses are heightened in the presence of a colony. You smell everything more intensely, you look more intensely at the behaviour, you listen so intensely,” Karin explains, transporting me to the place of their fieldwork on the often-windy Cape peninsula. Jenny adds, “Their language is so different to ours; it’s in vibrations, and it’s in chemicals, and it’s in dances – that’s how they communicate. We have to translate the bee language through ourselves into the human language – so humans can understand the bee world.”

Karin and Jenny have discovered on their journey of becoming wild-honeybee behaviour specialists that the bees co-exist harmoniously with other species. “By watching honeybees, it has opened the world to everything else around the colony,” Karin says. “Because you become a part of their world, you also look at how other species are interacting with the bees.”

A nest of wild honeybees (Apis mellifera capensis) under a boulder on the ground.

Karin in the Rooiberg, Klein Karoo, one of the Ujubee research sites.

They explain that although people think of bees as pollinators, they’re actually an essential part of the food web. What’s really interesting is that beekeepers always try and get rid of ants, wax moths and larvae, hive beetles etc., but in nature, they co-exist because they each have a function in the nest.

For example, I learn that the tiny pseudoscorpions – with their hairy pincers that enable them to pick up vibrations – sit on flowers and wait for the bees, catching rides on their legs to the different nests. There the bees feed the extraneous wax-moth eggs to them, thus managing the number of eggs that are allowed to hatch in the nest. The bees even ensure this happens in an organised manner by bringing the eggs out onto a feeding station and dropping them there for them to eat. The wax moths’ role in the nest is to eat the wax when it is damaged and old, cleaning out the nest so the bees can rebuild it, so each species benefits the other. The wax moth larvae eat the leaf litter, which collects under the colony, doing their bit to help maintain the environment and hygiene of the colony. Lizards play their part by eating the dead bees that are deposited outside the nest. All the various species survive the fires that routinely rage through the peninsula because they live with the bees.

Leafcutter solitary bees (*Family Megachilidae*) often nest in wood, lining their nests with small pieces of leaves.

The Ujubee women tell me how they are absorbed by this small, multi-layered and complexed world and the many interactions between the species. Jenny laughs, “When we come home, we watch ‘bee’ movies, quietly focusing on what’s going on between the species. They all need each other, and they all realise that – and function well together. And that’s something that our species needs to understand, that there’s strength in diversity.”

Unlike some countries in Europe, South Africa still has a healthy population of wild honeybees.

The discoveries that Ujubee has uncovered in their studies are mesmerising. The project has extended its range over the last few years, with research also being done in Scarborough, Noordhoek, on organic farms in the Klein Karoo, the area around Porterville (which has very few wild colonies left) and it is moving further afield into Limpopo to use the information it has gleaned over the years to aid conservation efforts. Their helpful team of Ujubee volunteers in the different areas provides valuable assistance with data collection and understanding bees in different biomes.

The humidity and climate inside the wild honeybee nest are maintained at a healthy constant by the bees.

Ujubee realises that an important part of their work is raising awareness about the wild honeybee and making the knowledge available for conservation purposes. The presentations they offer are intriguing, with their excellent photographs and the incredible footage of bee dynamics, as is the information about the synergy in the wild honeybee colonies – and dare I say – the intelligence of the bees.

Wild honeybees seem to be one up from us on quite a few other things as well. Karin and Jenny explain how they are always in sync with the natural environment, regulating the number of eggs they lay according to the plants that are flowering at that time. “They take all things into consideration before a new colony is created. This includes all the other pollinators – butterflies, bees, birds, rodents, moths – the food availability and the nest site availability. The solitary bees, like the honeybees, invest in the home they make for their young. They are future thinkers – they invest in their children.”

A tailless black girdled lizard investigates Ujubee’s gear as the Ujubee team becomes familiar with the lizards around the wild honeybee nests.

When I hear about life in the wild honeybee colony, I can’t help thinking that If these small creatures are aware of all this, can you imagine what we human beings can accomplish.

New comb under construction in a wild Cape honeybee nest.

Jenny sums up her years of experience with these small creatures that have changed her life immensely. “The wisdom that they have about living on this planet has profoundly influenced who I am and how I move around. It has changed an enormous number of things in my life, and I’m truly grateful to be around a species that’s much older than us and which understands what it means to live in the community of life. An evolved species that lives healthily on Earth, it has learnt to fit in with everyone else. And doesn’t damage or destroy. It has taken millions and millions of years of refinement to understand that you don’t live on this planet by taking too much or by taking more than what you need.”

Pseudoscorpions are one of the species that harmoniously co-exist with the wild honeybees.

Karin and Jenny at a wild honeybee nest in the tangled roots of a Namaqua fig growing on the cliffs along the Berg River.

Although I could stay and listen to them talk about the bees for hours, the light is dimming outside, the dog is asking for its supper, and there are arrangements to be made for the pending lockdown. As I drive off, looking down onto the Simon’s Town harbour below, I think of what they said in terms of what Covid-19 has to teach us, from what they have learned from the wild honeybees. “We have to go back to first principles. We have to go back to what we have done, what we are doing and look at how we can do it differently.”

Up close and personal. Without protective gear, Karin and Jenny rely on their senses to accurately read the signs and signals of the bees.

And many of the answers we can find by looking at this ancient species and gleaning the wisdom garnered over the centuries.

www.ujubee.com

Photos by Ujubee and supplied (Geoff Tribe & Fiona Anderson)

A wild Cape honeybee with a hefty pollen sac visits a flowering bietou or tick-berry bush on the Cape peninsula.

About the author

Freelance writer, Ron Swilling’s work is regularly featured in travel and outdoor magazines in South Africa and Namibia. Her work has also appeared in books Wild Horses in the Namib Desert: An equine biography, Road Tripping Namibia and the children’s story The World Famous Sunbeam Collector. Ron’s travels lead her off the beaten-track to discover diamonds in the dust, wild desert horses, unspoiled nature and freedom in never-ending landscapes. When at home in Scarborough, Cape Town, she delights in finding wonders in her very own back garden, like the Cape’s wild honeybees.

Tembe elephant bull relocated to community-owned reserve

In a historic translocation in 2016, Somkhanda Community Game Reserve welcomed a herd of 13 elephants donated by Nambiti Game Reserve – the first time two community-owned reserves had successfully worked together to extend elephant range and distribution. This illustrated the importance of community conservation, not only in fostering local economic development and social upliftment, but also in conserving iconic and endangered African wildlife.

Now, these elephants have been joined by a 20-year-old bull elephant from Tembe Elephant Park, owned by the Tembe Traditional Authority. The successful translocation to Somkhanda Game Reserve was a joint operation between WILDLANDS – a programme of the WILDTRUST, the Aspinall Foundation (in partnership with Albus Environmental), and Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife and Conservation Solutions.

Tembe Elephant Park was established in 1983 to protect some of the last remaining free-roaming herds of elephants in South Africa, including ‘tuskers’ (large elephant bulls, some of whose tusks touch the ground). Historically, these elephants would migrate between Mozambique and Maputaland in the extreme north of KwaZulu-Natal. During the Mozambican Civil War, those that escaped the rife poaching found sanctuary in Tembe and settled in the dense sand forests of the reserve. While the dream of reuniting the elephant population across the international border remains, until that is a viable option, management has to implement creative solutions for a growing elephant population in a relatively small reserve. Some of these solutions include the contraception of female elephants and the translocation of surplus elephant bulls.

Somkhanda Community Game Reserve, the new home of the large young bull elephant (yet to be named) is owned by the Emvokweni Community Trust (ECT), which was established in 2005 through formal land claims and declared a protected area in 2011.

Eco-tourism has been earmarked as an important vehicle for economic growth in the country, and the introduction of this new bull will strengthen the reserve’s offering. However, it will also strengthen the genetic diversity of the current elephant population in Somkhanda. According to Roelie Kloppers, the CEO of the WILDTRUST, “The Great Tuskers of Tembe are known all over the world as majestic giants. Bringing a Tembe elephant into Somkhanda’s herd will enable the continuation of the Tembe Tusker lineage in this reserve. This will not only be a massive boost for tourism here but also contribute to conservation efforts of Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife in Tembe Elephant Park. We are very proud to play a little role in support of this.”

As noted above, the introduction of this bull is seen as a strategy to contribute to the conservation of these giants. Elephant populations across Africa and Asia are under threat due to the illegal ivory trade driven by devastating effects of poaching, human-elephant conflict, and habitat destruction. It is up to collaborative efforts of these organisations that stand united behind conservation strategies that will end this crisis.

The translocation was facilitated and funded by the Aspinall Foundation, which is an internationally renowned animal conservation charity that is dedicated to protecting endangered animals around the globe. Dereck Milburn, Regional Director at Aspinall Foundation comments, ‘’I am absolutely thrilled to see this giant in his new home. I want to thank the Emvokweni Community Trust and WILDLANDS for their willingness to accept the responsibility of securing the life of this bull and the tusker genetics for the benefit our future generations’’. The Aspinall Foundation partnered with Albus Environmental in delivering this project.

Translocating big game requires a lot of patience, skill and technical support which was provided by Conservation Solutions. With 25 years’ worth of experience, Conservation Solutions has developed unique translocation systems to move elephants across Africa. “Community-driven conservation plays an essential role in the protection and restoration of flagship species such as elephant. A project like this highlights the potential for communities to collaborate towards the restoration of wildlife biodiversity. These species are ambassadors for the ecological systems in which they live – protecting them justifies the protection of their natural habitat, and all the thousands of other species which occupy the same space,” comments Founder Kester Vickery of Conservation Solutions.

The Somkhanda team on the ground have reported that this bull is settling in well in his new environment. Tembe is home to some of the biggest elephants in Africa, and the team are hopeful that he will soon interact with the Somkhanda herd to infuse the population with the genes of the ‘Tembe Giants’ for generations to come.

Etosha

Etosha offers that iconic image of Africa: a waterhole surrounded by animals, the very epitome of an oasis teeming with life beneath the merciless sun. Thousands of hooves of every shape and size scrabble over the rocky ground as their owners seek out the life-giving water, while opportunistic predators eye the crowds in anticipation. Long-limbed giraffes assume their awkward straddle, reflected in the shimmering pan, and the imposing figure of a statuesque white elephant looms large, dwarfing the slight springbok in comparison. It is a wildlife photographer’s dream – a scene shimmering in the heat where Africa’s quintessential creatures assemble in numbers that boggle the mind.

Namibia’s Etosha National Park offers this visual overload in abundance, a special kind of wildlife opulence where visitors are spoilt by the opportunity to wait for the animals to come to them.

The Park

Situated in northern Namibia, Etosha National Park is a fenced reserve that is one of the country’s most popular safari destinations, with the stark otherworldly scenery and spectacular wildlife viewing being the park’s two major drawcards. Proclaimed as a protected area in 1907, Etosha was once the largest game reserve in the world and estimated to cover around 80,000km² (8 million hectares), four times the size of South Africa’s Kruger National Park. Significant boundary changes throughout the 20^th century eventually reduced the park to its current size of just over 22,000km² (2,2 million hectares). The park’s eastern side is dominated by the enormous Etosha Pan, while dolomite hills are the main geographical feature of the western half of the park. This western region has only recently been opened to all visitors – it was previously only accessible by local tour operators or guests at Dolomite Camp.

There are six main camps within the park:

Okaukuejo Camp – the oldest of the camps in Etosha, Okaukeujo (‘the woman who has a child every year’) is famous for spectacular sightings at the floodlit waterhole, particularly of black rhino. This is the busiest of all the camps, both in terms of functioning as the administrative centre of the park, as well as attracting the most visitors.
Halali Camp – situated halfway between Okaukuejo and Namutoni, Halali offers both chalet accommodation and camping. The floodlit waterhole is the central feature of the camp.
Namutoni Camp – situated in the eastern half of Etosha, this camp offers chalet accommodation and camping, and there is a raised walkway around its waterhole. However, it is the white crenulations of Fort Namutoni that give the camp a unique and historical character. The Fort was constructed in 1897 as a German military outpost to help control the spread of rinderpest, foot-and-mouth, and other cattle-related diseases. The fort was razed to the ground by an attacking Ovambo force in 1904 but later rebuilt.
Dolomite Camp – located in the western half of the park, this is an unfenced camp with chalets dotted in the rocks of the dolomite hills. No camping is allowed.
Onkoshi Camp – along with Dolomite Camp, Onkoshi is the second of Etosha’s more luxurious accommodation options and is entirely solar-powered. The camp is situated on the edge of Etosha Pan itself, and there are no campsites or self-catered accommodation options.
Olifantsrus Camp – a dedicated campsite without chalet accommodation, Olifantsrus is the newest of all Etosha’s camps and located in the north-western section of the park. The campsite sports a double-story, glass-fronted hide that looks over its manmade waterhole. The elephant information centre bears testament to its history as an elephant abattoir during the 1980s, when elephants were culled by managers concerned about the destruction of biodiversity. Hence the name Olifantsrus translates as ‘elephant’s rest’.

Outside of the park, there are several private game reserves where visitors can enjoy a range of accommodation from luxury, fully catered lodges to budget self-catering and camping options.

The Pan

The park is named for Etosha Pan – an enormous 4,760km² salt pan – visible from space – which makes up nearly a quarter of the national park. The desiccated and bleached soils of the pan are dry for most, if not all, of the year. The word ‘Etosha’ is said to have originated from the Ndonga word for “great white place”, an accurate description of the chalky and desolate landscape.

The original human inhabitants of Etosha were the Hai//om Bushmen people, and they have their own legend as to the history of the pan. According to their mythology, there was once a small village at the centre of the pan that was raided by a rival tribe. All of the village inhabitants were slaughtered but for one woman, who was so grief-stricken that her tears created an enormous, salty lake. The lake dried eventually, but the salt of her tears remained. The likely scientific explanation for the formation of the endorheic basin is that tectonic shifts redirected the flow of the Kunene River and the lake dried up over time – probably around the same time as the formation of the Okavango Delta.

A honey badger feasts on his scorpion meal

Now, only the Ekuma and Oshigambo Rivers feed the pan with seasonal water and in years of high rainfall, parts of the pan fill to a depth of around 10cm. The pan becomes a breeding ground for thousands of flamingos, and great white pelicans – a spectacle of pink that varies depending on rainfall and reaches its zenith around January and February.

A huge elephant bull looms over this herd of dainty springbok

Magic pools and a fairy-tale forest

Life in arid Etosha revolves around the waterholes dotted throughout the park. Many of these are fed by natural artesian springs, but others are manmade, and it is for good reason that the road network in the park is centred around these pivotal features. Apart from the height of the rainy season during the summer months, these waterholes offer the only available water for the park’s multitudinous animal species. As a result, remarkable sightings at the water’s edge are inevitable. For eager photographers and predators alike, the waterholes guarantee a gathering of animals unlike any other.

Regular visitors to the park naturally develop a preference for certain waterholes, and each has something unique to recommend it – whether it is the surrounding scenery, positioning for the best morning or afternoon light, or even the repeated visits of a ‘resident’ leopard. It goes without saying that a good lens (and a familiarity with camera settings) will do wonders to enhance the experience. Still, it’s always important to remember to set the camera aside for a brief period, to soak up the atmosphere. It is also well worth investigating the etymology of the waterhole names, which provide a fascinating insight into the area’s history. For example, Natukanaoka Pan translates roughly as “you need to take long strides to walk here”, or Gobaub which comes from the Hai//om word for a loincloth, supposedly after a man who lost his while beating a hasty retreat from an angry elephant.

Sprokieswoud, meaning “fairy-tale forest”, is also appropriately named for its unearthly scenery. Here thickset Moringa trees (Moringa ovalifolia), usually found on rocky hillsides, dot the landscape and their strange bulbous shapes in the otherwise barren scenery create a dreamlike and surreal atmosphere.

A white elephant

As is so often the case in Africa’s treasured protected areas, Etosha’s animals are a testament to natural resilience. By the late 19^th century, the region’s large mammal species, including elephant, rhino and lion had been all but exterminated. Still, mammal life has bounced back over the last century. There are two near-endemic antelope – the black-faced impala (a subspecies) and the minuscule Damara dik-dik with its piercing whistle alarm – not to mention an assortment of other antelope species. Black-backed jackals haunt the waterholes, exploding into action whenever the delicately coloured flocks of sandgrouse arrive to drink, while larger predators like lions and spotted hyena follow similar tactics with bigger prey in mind. Endangered mountain zebra can be found on the slopes of the dolomite hills of Ondundozonananandana (try saying that five times fast – or even once slowly).

The looming figures of the elephants at the waterholes look enormous, and this is not just due to a trick of perspective – Etosha is home to some of the largest elephants in the world. When covered in the white clay soils from around the waterholes, they look like giant grey ghosts, which only adds to their gravitas. While physically enormous, their tusks are generally far smaller than other elephants in different parts of Africa, which may be due to genetics or the mineral balance in their diet, or a combination of both.

Yet is the black rhino that truly steals the show in Etosha. Famously myopic and short-tempered, the park is a stronghold of the world’s black rhino population. Though there are no official published numbers, Namibia is home to around half of the world’s black rhino, and many of these are found in Etosha. Their nocturnal social gatherings around certain waterholes have become almost legendary, turning the myth about black rhino being cantankerous and solitary on its head.

Etosha waterholes are a treasure-trove of sightings for the patient

The experience

The Etosha National Park experience is unlike any other safari experience in the world – nothing quite compares to the vast abundance of animals of every shape and size, gathered together in one place at one time. For those for whom a trip will be a once-off treat, it is essential to visit during the dry season, when the waterholes are critical to the life of the park and wildlife viewing is at its best. That said, this is also when the park is at its busiest, and it may well be worth seeking private accommodation in a private reserve outside of the park if large crowds are an unattractive prospect. For those fortunate to return regularly, the park has something to offer all year round, with the added advantage of quieter periods and lower rates during the rainy season.

For camps & lodges at the best prices and our famous ready-made safari packages, log into our app. If you do not yet have our app see the instructions below this story.

Regardless, Etosha National Park is guaranteed to furnish her fortunate visitors with something spectacular – from prime wildlife viewing, to entirely unexpected animal behaviour or, just simply, an insight into Africa’s inimitable seasons and how life adapts.

Further reading: ‘Exploring Etosha’ and ‘Etosha Through My Eyes’

The great elephant balancing act

By Gail Thomson

Originally published in Conservation Namibia

Elephants are amazing animals. Besides being the largest land animal on our planet, they have relatively complex societies and appear to have individual personalities. Watching elephants in their natural habitat is a joy for those of us who can do so at our leisure, from a safe distance or with a knowledgeable guide. For those who face the real danger of meeting an elephant on foot at night while walking home, elephants can be terrifying.

It is no wonder that the idea of hunting elephants is a sensitive one, and that the people who spend much of their time observing these ponderous, loveable beasts want to do everything in their power to protect them. There is also little wonder that people living with elephants want them to be more controlled – to stay away from their crop fields and houses. Yet, as with many things, how you see an elephant is a matter of perspective and managing this species must take vastly different perspectives into account, along with the relevant science.

The topic of elephant management requires a book (or several), and I am not an elephant expert, so I will leave that task to others. My primary interest lies in the field of human-wildlife conflict, which affects humans in every part of the world and a dizzying array of species, including elephants. So these observations are not limited to elephants, although popular opinions about elephants and the intense conflict among different interest groups over whether or not they should be hunted make this species a great case study.

There are two sides to human-elephant conflict, and both sides have been studied in Botswana and elsewhere. We will dive into some of the science of these two sides first, before considering how these two sides should inform the tricky business of elephant management.

The Elephant Dimension

Elephant hunting is the most controversial aspect of elephant management, particularly when it is for ‘sport’ or ‘trophies’, whereby hunting clients pay large amounts of money to hunt large male elephants. Elephants may also be hunted due to human-elephant conflict – whereby a particular individual is earmarked because it causes repeated damages to crops or infrastructure, or for killing people. Hunting an older male elephant for ‘sport’ is more controversial than hunting in response to conflict. Scientific studies of male elephants thus elicit popular attention and are frequently used in hunting debates.

A recent study by Allen et al. entitled Importance of old bulls: leaders and followers in collective movements of all‑male groups in African savannah elephants discovered that mature elephant bulls play a role in leading younger bulls, particularly when travelling to the Boteti River in central Botswana. They found that adolescent males (< 20 years old) rarely travelled to the river alone, but preferred accompanying mature bulls. Additionally, in groups of males, the older ones were most likely to take the lead. The oldest age category they used was over 26 years, which is really just the age of maturity, rather than an indication of particularly old individuals (elephants can live up to 60-65 years).

The authors conclude that older male elephants are therefore important for determining movement patterns for younger males in the landscape (they go further than that, to be discussed later). Other elephant biologists have noted that older males function as “disciplinarians” for younger ones – teaching them appropriate behaviour within elephant society and even towards other species. The latter observation is supported by the experience in Pilanesberg National Park, South Africa, where male elephants that were orphaned due to historical culling operations were released into the Park without older elephants. These traumatised young males caused havoc by killing rhinos and attacking tourist vehicles. The introduction of older males into this population caused the troublemakers to calm down.

Another line of scientific evidence that emphasises the importance of male elephants is from a paternity study in Amboseli National Park, Kenya. This study revealed that male elephants reach their breeding peak (i.e. number of calves they father) between 45-53 years old and they can still reproduce in their late 50’s, although their numbers of offspring decline sharply in these later years. The conclusion one can draw from these results is that male elephants should ideally not be hunted before or during their prime reproductive age of around 40-50 years old. Elephants older than this have already contributed a great deal to the population; their genes will therefore not be lost if they are hunted when they are past their prime (more about age-related hunting can be found here).

Allen et al. also point out that male elephant society differs from female society in a number of important ways. First, males will group together or split with others over time, while female breeding herds stay together and do not randomly split up and regroup. Second, the matriarch walks at the back of her herd and to keep a watchful eye on those in front of her, thus actively caring for her group. Meanwhile old males walk at the front and seem unconcerned about whether or not they are being followed by younger males. Finally, adolescent females do not travel large distances anywhere on their own (unless something is seriously wrong), while adolescent males do, even though they prefer the company of older males.

In terms of their function in elephant society, then, it is reasonable to say that older females (matriarchs or soon-to-be matriarchs) are more important than older males, although it is certainly not advisable to remove all older males from the population. The scientific evidence showing that older male elephants have a role to play is important, and should certainly be incorporated in elephant management plans – no subpopulation of elephants should be left without mature elephant bulls.

Yet Allen et al. do not stick to their scientific findings in the concluding remarks of their paper, as they state: “We argue mature bulls occupy a similar role in male elephant society as old female matriarchs in breeding herds and require equal protection” (emphasis mine). They further argue that the quota of 400 male elephants set by Botswana for 2020 “would not be sustainable”. With that, they stepped out of elephant biology and into the human realm of policy.

The Human Dimension

While the practice of science – creating and testing hypotheses, gathering and analysing data, drawing conclusions and suggesting real-world applications, and finally submitting it all for peer review – is designed to reduce our inherent bias as much as possible, the fact remains that scientists are humans too. People who study animals, particularly animal behaviour (which requires many hours of watching them) naturally become attached to their study species. Indeed, they probably had a natural affinity for those species before they even started their studies, which was why they became biologists in the first place.

I can empathise with this – the reason why I chose to study carnivore conservation biology is because I have always loved cats of every kind. Yet I have an issue with the conclusions reached in this paper. First, the conclusion that male elephants should have equal protection to matriarchs is an over-reach, as even in the paper itself they describe how older males are less important to younger males than matriarchs are to younger females.

Second, the elephants they are concerned about (>26 years old) represent 19% of the males in their sample of 1,097. If one considers that there are 130,000 elephants in Botswana, let’s say half of which are male (65,000), then we have roughly 12,000 mature males in the country (this is a rough estimate, based only on their reported demographics and a 50:50 sex ratio – quota setting is a much more complicated business in reality). A quota of 400 adult male elephants thus equates to about 3% of the available males (note that 400 is a maximum, actual numbers hunted are likely to be lower). If only 3% of the older males are removed from the population, will male elephant society break down such that younger males start behaving badly like those in Pilanesberg where no older males were present? Or will young males have no older males to follow to the river, as they did in this study? The numbers just don’t add up, revealing that their conclusions stem from an understandable desire to protect the elephants that they have spent so much time studying, rather than the results of their study.

While the results of good biological research such as those summarised above must be incorporated into animal management, the views of animal researchers must be considered alongside the views of other stakeholders. The conclusions regarding elephant hunting (but not the results or other conclusions based on their data) of Allen et al. are clearly personal views, and should be considered as such. Furthermore, biological science is not the only scientific discipline that should inform animal management policies. After reading the article by Allen et al. on male elephants near the Boteti River, I looked for an article on people living near the same river to get the other side of the story. Interestingly, both studies included one author (a different person in each one) from the non-governmental organisation Elephants for Africa, which is working to reduce human-elephant conflict in this area and clearly understands both the elephant and human dimensions of this situation.

The study by Mayberry et al. is entitled Well-being impacts of human-elephant conflict in Khumaga, Botswana: Exploring visible and hidden dimensions. Khumaga is a village located on the Boteti River, which is associated with several smaller farming settlements that stretch either side of the village along the riverfront. The Boteti River is also the boundary between farming areas and the Makgadikgadi Pans National Park, which supports over 2,000 elephants (most of them male, for as yet unknown reasons). At the time of this study, the boundary fence of the Park was in severe disrepair so the elephants regularly crossed the river into the farming areas and back into the Park.

The researchers wanted to know how the presence of elephants impacted the people living along the Boteti River. They went deeper than the usual tallying up of elephant damages (e.g. destroying crops or breaking fences) and also asked their 61 respondents about the impact of elephants on their personal security and freedom, physical and mental health, and relations with their families and the government.

They found that 72% of their respondents felt unsafe around elephants and that the presence of the elephants limited their freedom of movement, especially at night. Even more worryingly, 90% reported that the damages caused by elephants to crops threatened their food security. Food is expensive Botswana relative to the earning power of rural people, so not having a good yield from their crops means that these subsistence farmers may not have enough to eat, as their sources of cash income are limited. Nearly two-thirds (63%) of interviewees said that their access to water was hampered by the presence of elephants at the Boteti River. While limiting their access to food and water was a clear physical health concern, a quarter of the interviewees also reported an intense fear of elephants – thus affecting their mental health. Also read Life with Elephants, in which Africa Geographic Simon Espley spent time in two known human-elephant conflict zones and interviewed community members.

Balancing the dimensions – the tricky issue of management

Unsurprisingly, the people living near the Boteti are frustrated; their main request was that the Park fence be reinforced. Given that the river is the boundary and people also need access to the river, they want the fence to be reinforced on the Park’s side of the Boteti River. Yet, as the elephant study showed, this river is a critical resource for elephants, so any fence blocking their access to the river is likely to be broken down by elephants desperate to quench their thirst. The government suggested moving the boundary of the Park such that the Boteti is within the Park and human communities are fenced out and therefore safe from elephants. Yet the river is a key source of water for these farming communities, so they were unwilling to give up their land and this critical resource to the Park.

Considering this local situation gives us an idea of the complexity involved in managing elephants, and all other animal species that conflict with humans. While the area around the Boteti is a hotspot for human-elephant conflict, it is certainly not the only one in the country. If trying to please its citizens while simultaneously conserving its large elephant population was the only struggle the Botswana government had to deal with, that would be difficult enough. Recent media furores over their decision to allow elephant hunting and some mysterious (likely natural) elephant deaths, however, reveal that Botswana is being watched and judged internationally. Namibia has experienced its share of international judgement over its wildlife management policies, so we can commiserate with our neighbour.

Both countries allow elephants to be hunted (along with several other African countries), much to the dismay of people who love elephants, yet don’t have to compete with them for food and water. Hunting permits are invariably granted for male elephants, particularly older ones that bear larger tusks. The quota in Botswana is set at 400 adult male elephants. “Yet scientists say that older male elephants are critically important, so we cannot allow this!” Cry the activists from afar. Very rarely does anyone stop to critically assess the differences between what scientists actually found and what they recommend, as I did above.

Studies like the one by Allen et al. are used as a club by international media to batter Botswana and other elephant hunting countries into submission. This article was popularised by no less than the New York Times and the BBC, among numerous others. Yet the findings of Mayberry et al. – that 90% of people living alongside the Boteti River are food insecure as a result of elephants, not to mention the other impacts – remain tucked away in a scientific journal article, to be read only by scientists interested in the topic of human-elephant conflict. The next time someone says that elephants should be managed based on science, ask them what science – just the science focusing on the elephant dimension, or all of the science?

What are we trying to achieve?

Besides using science to guide management, one also needs to ask a critical (but often overlooked) question – what is the ultimate objective for management in this particular area? The answer to this question then guides how the science should be used. The objectives for National Parks are usually to conserve plant and animal species, although they may also include generating income for Park management and the country. Yet on the edges of Parks and outside them, either in buffer zones or on farmlands, the objective may be different. Particularly in areas where people are present, the objectives have to include their needs – ignoring them is both a violation of their rights and a recipe for disaster.

Around the world, in nearly every human-wildlife conflict situation, whenever people feel that the authorities tasked with managing wildlife are ignoring them or trampling their rights, conflict intensifies. Anger and frustration generated by such intense conflict can reveal itself in a multitude of ways, including public protests, increased poaching, and a distrust of conservation officials generally. More often than not, the animals are used as a pawn in a greater conflict between different groups of people, with sometimes devastating results.

I hope we can all agree that no one wants human-wildlife conflict to escalate to the point of no return. If so, some compromises between the different human interest groups must be made. Within strictly protected National Parks, elephants and other animals should be allowed to continue their lives as unimpeded by human activities as possible (tourism can, and does, cause some issues but this should be minimised by managing the humans, rather than the animals). Outside the Parks, we need to be more flexible.

The existence of wildlife in human farmlands relies directly on the level of tolerance farmers have for it. Our efforts should therefore focus on maximising tolerance, which is achieved primarily through listening carefully to the concerns raised by the people in question and genuinely making an effort to address these. As a rule of thumb, we should aim to reduce the costs people experience and increase the benefits they derive from the presence of wildlife.

Achieving either or both of these goals may require the sacrifice of a few individual animals – e.g. killing or translocating particular individuals that habitually cause conflict (reducing the cost), or allowing a few older males to be hunted by foreigners and thereby generate income and meat for the affected community (increasing the benefit). There is much scope for further research into the long-term impacts of removing individual elephants (either as ‘problem-causing’ or for income generation) on the level of human-elephant conflict, and we hope to pose some of these pertinent research questions in a future article.

This is not to say that non-lethal efforts should not be attempted – they are needed just as much. Around the Boteti, education regarding how to behave when seeing elephants will reduce fear, better fencing around crops will reduce damages, and providing piped water near settlements can reduce direct competition for water. Elephants for Africa is heavily involved in helping this community live with elephants using an array of non-lethal methods – this article in no way criticises their efforts. In terms of income generation, finding different sources of revenue to incentivise tolerance for elephants and other wildlife that do not rely on foreign visitors (with cameras or guns) would increase the resilience of African conservation and is therefore a welcome endeavour.

The various different actions one can take to reduce human-wildlife conflict are often likened to a ‘toolbox’, with each tool being needed for a different task and under different circumstances. Precluding the use of lethal methods reduces the size of the toolbox and may even render our non-lethal tools less effective. If people ask for a particular elephant to be removed, yet conservation authorities respond with an educational talk on the importance of elephants without explicitly addressing their request or trying to understand their point of view, the effort may be seen as patronising – at best! In practice, government conservation authorities need to implement policies regarding elephant management (either in terms of identifying and removing individual ‘problem animals’ and/or granting quotas for hunting elephants) that include the needs and perspectives of their citizens who live alongside elephants.

Striking the balance

Elephant behaviour and society are complicated things that will no doubt continue to attract the attention and fascination of many scientists. Yet understanding and mitigating human-elephant conflict is more complicated still. Countries that must find the delicate balance between the rights of their citizens and their responsibility for conserving biodiversity should be supported, particularly by providing sound scientific evidence on both the elephant and human dimensions of the problem.

Scientific findings should not be used as a club to beat countries into making policy changes, and scientists must realise that their perspectives on elephants are not the only ones that matter. Constructive engagement between policymakers, affected communities and scientists cannot happen if we ignore each other’s perspectives and real concerns. While the international media is partly to blame for making a difficult situation worse, each party can choose to either stoke the fires of conflict or douse the flames by trying to understand the other side’s point of view. Perhaps the proverbial question should not be “how do you eat an elephant?” but “how do you see an elephant?”

Nyungwe NP in Rwanda under African Parks management

African Parks has announced the signing of a 20-year agreement with the Government of Rwanda to manage Nyungwe National Park in Rwanda. The national park is home to the largest expanse of forest in the country, and the agreement is intended to preserve the park’s biodiversity to secure last benefits for Rwanda’s people and wildlife. It comes after a successful 10-year partnership which resulted in the ecological and economic revival of Akagera National Park.

Nyungwe National Park is located in the south-west of Rwanda on the border with Burundi and covers a total area of 1, 019km² (over 100, 000 hectares) including large tracts of montane forest interspersed with marshland. As part of the Albertine Rift, the park is home to 13 species of primate including chimpanzees and Hamlyn’s and L’Hoest’s monkeys. Among the more than 1,000 plants, over 90 mammals and 300 bird species recorded, many are endemic and found only within Nyungwe. The park is a critical catchment area that feeds both the Congo Basin to the west and the Nile Basin to the east, as well as providing 70% of Rwanda’s water.

African Parks will work with the Rwanda Development Board (RDB) to secure the sustainability of the park through improving law enforcement; investing in and stimulating local enterprise, and optimizing Nyungwe’s potential for conservation-based tourism. Commenting on the partnership, Clare Akamanzi, the RDB Chief Executive Officer, said that the agreement with African Parks “is testament to the good partnership we have built with African Parks over the last ten years. We look forward to making Nyungwe National Park an even more spectacular place to visit”.

In turn, Peter Fearnhead, CEO of African Parks added that “by investing in the long-term protection of Nyungwe National Park, one of Africa’s biodiversity hotspots, the Government of Rwanda has continued to demonstrate global leadership in taking action to preserve ecosystems which sustain human health, local livelihoods and economies”.

DID YOU KNOW that African Parks offers safari camps (lodges and campsites) where 100% of tourism revenue goes to conservation and local communities? Find out more and book your African Parks safari.

Nyungwe National Park is the 19th park to join the African Parks portfolio, made possible thanks to the support of the Rwanda Development Board, The Wyss Foundation, Rob and Melani Walton Foundation, the players of the People’s Postcode Lottery and Fondation Segré. African Parks now manages 19 national parks and protected areas covering over 14.2 million hectares in 11 countries: Angola, Benin, Central African Republic, Chad, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Republic of Congo, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Zimbabwe and Zambia.

Lion farming – Lord Ashcroft submission to South African High Level Panel

Presentation by Lord Ashcroft KCMG PC to the High-Level Panel examining the policies, legislation and practices related to the management of elephant, leopard, rhino and lion in South Africa. Delivered on Wednesday, 07 October 2020.

Earlier this year, I sent each of you a copy of my book, Unfair Game, in which I expose the appalling truth about South Africa’s captive lion industry.

I have no doubt that you are all busy people, but I sincerely hope that you found some time to look at it.

If you did, you’d know that lion farming is a four-stage process. As cubs, these animals are taken from their mothers and used as tourist magnets. When older, they entertain tourists on “lion walking” excursions. Later, they’re shot in a “canned hunt” – a hunt in an enclosed space from which a lion cannot escape. Either that or they’re slaughtered for their bones and then stripped for their parts much as a thief might plunder a car. These bones are then sold for large sums of money in Asian wildlife markets.

Between being born and dying, some of these creatures are drugged and beaten to make them behave. They exist on a very limited diet. They carry diseases. They’re emotionally damaged. The abuse they suffer is unimaginable.

But it’s not just the appalling cruelty to the lions themselves that is harming South Africa’s reputation around the rest of the world.

The business of lion farming surely ranks as a prime example of how quickly profound wickedness can take root and then wreak havoc on a thing of beauty in a civilised country – a country that I love, by the way.

My research suggests there are now about 12,000 of these animals now being held in pens around South Africa. They outnumber wild lions by four to one.

These animals are bred in the name of profit. A lot of the money generated by these lions is the product of illegal activity, making these gains truly ill-gotten. In my opinion, this puts all of the beneficiaries of the captive-bred lion industry on a par with drug dealers.

In a world whose animal population is diminishing, and whose human population is growing, the problems associated with the lion industry are complex.

And yet, as my lengthy studies of this trade demonstrate, it really does seem that South Africa’s authorities have so far had no interest in tackling this hateful situation in earnest.

Arguably, the authorities have become the enablers of all of this, overseeing lion hunting regulations and awarding licences for the export of lion bones with what appears to be the lightest of touches and wilfully ignoring wrongdoing when they learn of it.

At the moment, this is largely restricted to South Africa. But once the international criminal syndicates have worked out how to create greater demand for the body parts of lions, wild lions right around Africa will become increasingly heavily poached – just like rhinos and elephants.

Then there is the health aspect to consider.

As my book shows, thousands of lion bones are smuggled out of South Africa each year to feed the Asian market for big cat products and so-called “traditional” medicines. Experts quoted in the book say a major public health incident will occur in Asia as a result of its people’s rampant consumption of lion bones – bones which are harvested in South Africa. It could be a serious infectious disease or a new disease we’ve never heard of, just like Covid-19. Lions also carry TB, which killed 1.5 million people in 2018. Any sense that South Africa failed to act when it had due warning would be disastrous for your people and their livelihoods.

So what can be done to solve this problem? I would urge you to recommend that the South African government bans captive-bred lion farming.

I would ask that you ensure airlines, shipping firms and freight companies operating in South Africa are heavily penalised if they are caught transporting the trophies or bones of captive-bred lions.

And ‘voluntourism’ holidays, lion cub petting and ‘walking with lions’ experiences must also be outlawed. Editorial note: Lord Ashcroft subsequently clarified that he was referring to voluntourism associated only with the lion-breeding industry, and NOT other forms of voluntourism.

One of the most shocking aspects of the recent investigation into lion farming that I launched was that when it ended, my team took their findings to a senior police officer in Pretoria who specialises in wildlife issues. Not only did he not read the evidence file they gave him, but having rejected it, he also threatened to put them in prison.

I don’t believe that the members of this panel hold this unsympathetic attitude. I am certain you know right from wrong.

I wrote Unfair Game because I wanted to help end lion farming in South Africa for once and for all.

I hope that you will all share this aim. I will help you in any way I can to bring about its demise.

Thank you very much.

LORD ASHCROFT, KCMG PC

Kruger waterhole problems

Editorial note: Kruger National Park management has embarked on a long-term management plan that includes closing certain human-made waterholes (some permanently and some seasonally) to ensure more natural movement of wildlife, in particular elephants and other large herbivores. One regular Kruger visitor endured a rather stressful and confusing time as she encountered waterholes that appeared open and yet not functioning. Our attempts to obtain clarity from SANParks, detailed at the end of this story, did not yield the hoped-for results and our hope is that this story sparks better communications between SANParks and interested parties.

Kruger waterhole problems- by Shirli J Carswell

Late afternoon and the elephants are arriving from all directions, the zebras and wildebeest have scattered and are standing to the side, waiting patiently. A small herd of buffalo move in and try to find a space between the giants spraying the water. Warthog families criss-cross, looking for a spot to get a drink. Dust devils move across the landscape in the background, sending the dust into the air as more bull elephants saunter in with their askaris – for a photographer, this is magic unfolding.

The Middelvlei waterhole is in full swing when there is water available; a steady parade of wildlife.

Middelvlei is one of my prime waterholes in Kruger. I have sat there for hours, in the early morning and late afternoons when I know there will always be something to see. The landscape is open to the horizon with stunted Mopani bush in the background. For years, northern Kruger has been my pilgrimage, once or twice a year.

In October 2018, I spent two weeks there. The park had no rain yet, and already the temperatures were reaching over 37 °C. I had spent some blissful time driving around the park, always ending up at Middelvlei or the next waterhole at Malopenyana, which is about 23 kilometres from Tsendze camp. Every day was a hive of activity, on one occasion there was a civet lying in the shade across the road, perhaps waiting for a quieter hour.

The demeanour of elephants changes when they close-in on the water; they start running and kicking up more dust in the afternoon light.

Two days before leaving, I realised that there was something wrong at Middelvlei – the animals were arriving and departing without drinking. The two troughs seemed to have very little water, and some of the animals were climbing right into it. The bigger elephant bulls, who would typically ignore the troughs and stand at the cement reservoir using their trunks to splash and suck up the water, were coming up with nothing but puffs of dust, no matter how they stretched.

I am no expert on windmills, but the process seems pretty simple: the blades catch the wind, turning the rotor which drives the pump rod up and down. Although the windmill was rotating, the rest was motionless. Every day the weather seemed to be getting hotter and drier. Before leaving, I drove to Mopani to report it. The reception ladies were as helpful as possible, getting the sector ranger on the phone for me. I described the problem, and he assured me that the following day his team would see to it. I could go home with the knowledge that the wildlife would have water in their troughs.

A dagga boy is tired of waiting and challenges the giants by pushing in—the water in the trough is low.

Two months later, I was back in Kruger. I left early morning for Middelvlei to get the golden light. There was nothing. The water troughs were empty and catching dust, and the mid-December temperatures were over soaring over 40 °C. It was clear that it had been dry since October. Again I reported it to the section ranger, and he promised he would see to it the following day. Still, nothing the next morning. So began a relentless campaign, driving back and forth on my holiday to get the waterhole operational again.

I lost faith in the assurances of a sector ranger who seemed irritated by my calls for help. Eventually, I insisted on a time to meet the maintenance people at the waterhole. We met early morning, and I watched the team fixing the problem for over two hours until they announced that the water would be full by that afternoon. Was the water pumping? Yes. I need to be patient; the reservoir would fill first then start filling the troughs. Finally, over a week of my holiday had already passed. My victory dance was short-lived. There was no water in the afternoon, nor the following morning. There was some blockage in the pipes.

Once again, with feeling, back to Mopani camp to speak to the section ranger, who I now found out had gone on ‘long leave’. The hospitality and duty manager I met was concerned but said, in all honesty, he had no idea who to contact and would investigate and call me at Tsendze. True to his word, he got back to me, and the next day I met the team at Middelvlei. With the blockage cleared, the water was now flowing, and in a couple of hours, the troughs were full again.

At Malopenyana the bulls congregate around the reservoir, drinking and splashing.

The midday temperatures were insane, climbing to over 46 °C. Driving around the northern area, I noticed a number of the waterholes had problems. At Mooiplaas there was a swampy area of mud. I watched as some elephants used the clay for their skin then run to the water troughs and reservoir only to find them empty. It was heartbreaking. During one conversation, a section ranger had advised me to go to the Tihongonyeni waterhole for photography. It was a dust bowl with the same conditions; mud but no water. Animals can’t drink mud. I began to wonder when last anyone checked this waterhole.

The report of 20 roan antelope dying of dehydration in northern Kruger came as no surprise to me. Instead, it angered and motivated me to write about my scenario, which seems to follow a repeating script. Comically, some visitors even asked me if I worked for SANParks; they’d seen me drive up and down, talking and watching crews fix windmills. Who looks after the waterholes? Who inspects them to see they are in working order? Why is there no standard route of reporting a problem at a camp, where it can get the responsive traction it deserves without a visitor having to go to these measures?

The Tihongonyeni waterhole is a virtual dust bowl, the windmill scrunched up, and some of the blades were lying below.

The Biodiversity department determines which waterholes are dismantled or remain active, but I doubt they are the people who carry out maintenance. I stand to be corrected. The sector ranger had gone on leave, and nobody seemed to know who to contact, which seemed absurd.

I asked a SANParks ranger what a ‘sector rangers’’ job description entails. “He is the ‘senior farm manager’ in charge of all the field rangers that patrol and carry out conservation work in each of Kruger’s 22 sections. It takes 15 years of field ranger experience before consideration as a sector ranger position,” was the response. Certainly one of the essential tasks is to appoint field rangers to inspect the waterholes regularly where there is no natural water source, given that they are a lifeline for wildlife.

That roan antelope perished through thirst was undoubtedly criminal. In my opinion, the stated ‘action plan’ should include the entire Kruger because it seems to be occurring throughout the national park. There seems to be complacency rot in high and long-held positions, without accountability.

Kruger National Park belongs to the people of South Africa, and we have layers of histories and memories through generations. Every one of us is a custodian. As a visitor if you see a waterhole not working, use your voice for those that can’t; it is your right.

[AG Editorial note: We reached out repeatedly to relevant SANParks officials to request a response to Shirli’s article submission. The initial response, from a senior member of the Communications and Marketing team, was that “there are millions of visitors to KNP who request information from the source and don’t run off to sympathetic media for attention”.

When we pointed out that this was precisely what Shirli had done, he responded by saying that “four years ago SANParks embarked on the decommissioning of artificial water points. This was informed by research undertaken by the Conservation Management team. We did release a statement on the subject matter.”

Again we questioned why, if this were the case, it had no been communicated at the time and why maintenance teams were sent to repair the waterhole pumps. When we received no response to this line of questioning, we approached other contacts within SANParks, reiterating our initial questions and requesting a list of decommissioned waterholes or perhaps a rotational schedule. The only response that we have received to date was that our “queries around the decisions informing the water policy, concerns around the maintenance of the KNP waterholes, and concerns around communication, is noted”.]

SUGGESTION: SANParks to place an information sign at each waterhole – explaining the closure strategy and the status of each particular waterhole. Also a phone number/email address for reporting problems.

About Shirli Jade Carswell

Born in South Africa, Shirli’s career and passion revolve around the African continent and its wildlife and cultures. She cut her teeth on advertising after art school and eventually moved into photography. She periodically packs her 2004 Defender, known affectionately as Tintin, and heads out to some remote location to capture a library of images for her fine art portfolio. Recognized for her wildlife and landscape photography, Shirli is a passionate conservationist and steward of Africa. She co-authored the book, Africa’s Ultimate Safaris, an extraordinary photo journey through the continent showcasing some of its most beautiful and wild destinations. She is currently working on a series of books which will take her into Africa once again.

KHWAI

Visitors to Khwai in northern Botswana enjoy the luxury of game drives, bushwalking and gliding down water channels in a mokoro – the best of everything in one of the most scenic reaches of the Okavango Delta.

Make no mistake, experiencing a safari by vehicle is an extraordinary experience. As Africa’s wild animals have come to accept these peculiar moving parts of their everyday landscape, excited passengers have the opportunity to view them at close proximity. Which is perfect. That said, there is nothing that quite compares to the silent glide of a mokoro through the thick reed beds of Botswana’s pristine waterways.

Surrounded by lilies and with only the gentle splash of the expertly guided pole, these traditional dugout “canoes” follow ancient elephant and hippo paths through the reeds and grasses at a sedate pace that makes the experience even more absorbing. Brief flashes of colour draw the eye to tiny, flamboyant malachite kingfishers and dancing dragonflies hovering over the surface. And the occasional elephant could loom large from a neighbouring bank or wade through the shallow floodplains in front of view. Exhilarating. As the mokoro cuts through the water, its motion is almost hypnotic, yet the soothing effect is undercut by a profound sense of excitement as to what lies around the next bend in the watery pathways. Video: Mokoro magic in the early evening.

This languid pace contrasts beautifully against the heart-pounding adrenaline of viewing a buffalo herd or lion on foot, or perhaps the frenzied excitement of following (at a discreet distance) a hunting pack of painted wolves (African wild dogs) in a game-drive vehicle. This is Khwai – a Botswana safari gem.

Basic facts

The 200,000 ha (2,000 km²) Khwai area consists of the small Khwai Community Concession (NG19) and the larger Khwai Private Reserve (NG18). The tourism core of this area lies along the banks of the Khwai River and its tributaries with associated floodplains and woodlands – much of the area north of the rivers is remote and dominated by mopane woodlands and open floodplains.

Khwai comprises the north-east fingers of the Okavango Delta and lies between two of northern Botswana’s world-famous parks: Chobe National Park and Moremi Game Reserve. There are no fences restricting animal movements between these protected areas, so the wildlife viewing experience in Khwai is equal to the spectacular standards of anywhere in northern Botswana; possibly even more so due to its ideal geographic positioning.

Botswana, and particularly the Okavango Delta, can be a seasonal safari experience for those seeking big cats – based not just on the rains themselves but also the rise and fall of Delta water levels. The dry (no rain) season in Botswana runs from about April until October, which coincides perfectly with the arrival of the Angolan floodwaters to the Delta’s many waterways and swamps, and to Khwai. As a result, many herbivores that spend the rainy summer months in search of nutritious green grass deep in Chobe/Savute move towards Moremi and the Delta during the dry season, in search of a more reliable source of water and nutritious food. There are no fences to restrict animal movements, and Khwai lies directly along this seasonal migratory route. As the annual flood arrives during the dry (no rain) season, the Khwai River levels rise in turn, and mokoro safaris are once again possible in the many channels.

Visitors to Khwai are guaranteed the full Botswana wildlife viewing experience – resident lions, leopards, cheetahs and hyenas revel in the opportunities afforded by a rich abundance of prey, herds of hundreds of buffalo regularly stream through the waters on their way to fresh grazing grounds and naturally, given northern Botswana is the population stronghold, there is an elephant around every corner. Hippos eye passing mekoros with a degree of suspicion by day and wander the camps at night, and massive crocodiles silently slice through the permanent waterways. Khwai is renowned for its wild dog sightings, and these lithe, athletic canines regularly give birth in known den sites in the area during the dry winter months. Naturally, herds of ubiquitous waterbuck and red lechwe dot the floodplains and healthy populations of rare roan and sable antelope regularly leave the surrounding mopane forests to quench their thirst. Despite the seasonal fluctuations described above this smorgasbord of wildlife is viewable all year round, though naturally, the dry season offers better sightings due to the lack of dense vegetation.

The diversity of habitats found in Khwai automatically translates into impressive birding opportunities, with over 500 different species recorded in the area. An added advantage for keen birders is that the best time for birding is during the summer months when visiting migrants have arrived in full force which also happens to be the low tourism season in Botswana – which means fewer visitors and cheaper rates.

Unlike the (unfenced) neighbouring national parks and reserves, the Khwai concessions allow night drives, meaning that guided visitors to Khwai have the opportunity to search for leopard, serval, porcupine and honey badger, as well as the elusive and mysterious aardwolf. This flexibility also allows off-road driving (with rules) and guided walking safaris.

Most of the Khwai Community Concession is open to the public and to mobile safari operators, and so wildlife sightings can be crowded during the prime safari season of July to September. This concession hosts numerous lodges and campsites, and prices range from budget to luxury. On the other hand, the larger Khwai Private Reserve has a few mid and upmarket lodges, and access is restricted to guests.

For camps & lodges at the best prices and our famous ready-made safari packages, log into our app. If you do not yet have our app see the instructions below this story.

Community benefits

Most importantly, Khwai Community Concession – which receives the majority of visitors – is owned and run by the local community, with camps and lodges renting the privilege of operating in this exquisite space. For visitors, that means knowing that the proceeds of their trip directly benefit the local people in the area, which in turn is vital for the survival of any conservation area. A visit to Khwai village, situated in the concession itself, also offers the opportunity to meet some of Botswana’s charismatic citizens and to appreciate their history and culture that is so intricately entwined with the wilderness around them. Khwai Private Reserve also pays concession fees which benefit the local community.

Further enjoyment:

Kwaai Khwai – a travel diary

Khwai, photographer’s paradise – Our 2021 Photographer of the Year winners’ safari

Human-lion conflict in a key lion population area

By Gail Thomson, with input from Lise Hanssen, director of Kwando Carnivore Project.

Originally published in Conservation Namibia.

Human-lion conflict is a major issue for the conservation of wild lions. The Zambezi Region (formerly the Caprivi) is a small strip of land that fits like a Namibian key in a lock made of four other countries – Angola, Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe. This strip of land is near the centre of the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA).

The KAZA landscape comprises fully protected National Parks, community conservation areas and mixed-use areas around towns and villages in all five countries. The Namibian component of KAZA has all of the same features of the broader landscape, only on a smaller scale. Most of the large carnivores and herbivores inhabiting this strip of Namibia don’t stay here their whole lives, or even for a year at a time. These animals move from country to country unencumbered by border controls that restrict human movements.

The Zambezi Region of Namibia (highlighted) sits at the heart of the Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA TFCA, blue outline) that spans five countries in southern Africa. © Rob Thomson

While small, the slender Zambezi Region (called the Zambezi here) is critical for conserving wildlife in KAZA – for a number of reasons.

The Zambezi provides an important connection for animals moving north to south (e.g. Zambia to Botswana) or east to west (e.g. Zimbabwe to Angola) and vice versa;
If wildlife populations decline in this area, it will create a “sink” or vacuum that will affect wildlife in all of the neighbouring countries;
Lessons learned from conservation actions within the Zambezi, which is a microcosm of KAZA itself in many ways, can be useful for neighbouring countries.

Land use zones in the Zambezi Region are a heady mix of three National Parks, one State Forest, seven community forests, 15 communal conservancies (the community forests and conservancies often overlap), numerous villages and one major town – Katima Mulilo. With over 90,000 inhabitants in 2011, the Zambezi is one of the more densely populated parts of Namibia. Nearly 70% of the human population here is rural. While conservancies generate income from wildlife-based activities to spend mainly on community development projects, the average household relies heavily on farming activities like planting crops and raising livestock for their livelihood.

Human-lion conflict — The Kwando Carnivore Project works with several different communal conservancies in the Zambezi Region. Note the frequency of conflict with lions is particularly high in the west where conservancies lie between National Parks. © Kwando Carnivore Project

Into this milieu walks the lion; particularly the dispersing young male lion who is trying to find a pride in one of the five KAZA countries and pass his genes onto the next generation. Within a few days, a young male lion can move from Botswana to Zambia, walking right through Namibia. Young males tend to avoid the best lion habitat found in protected areas, because dominant pride males and their prides reside in these areas and will chase young interlopers out. This means they spend much of their time in farming areas and marginal habitats during their wandering adolescence. Then there are the established prides that spend most of their time in the National Parks, yet still make occasional forays into livestock farming areas nearby.

These movements inevitably bring conflict, as lions and cattle come into contact frequently and losses are suffered on both sides. According to conservancy Event Book records, 196 cattle were lost during 2012-14 leading local farmers to kill 20 lions in retaliation. One particular pride of 15 lions in 2012 had only three left by the end of 2014. Given the importance of this region within KAZA and the global importance of the KAZA lion population (one of the largest remaining strongholds for the species in Africa), the escalating human-lion conflict could not be left unchecked.

The Kwando Carnivore Project therefore established a human-lion conflict mitigation project in 2013, focusing initially on conservancies near Nkasa Rupara National Park (NP) that experienced the highest level of conflict. Given their initial success, they expanded their efforts to conservancies north of Mudumu NP in 2016. In 2017, they expanded yet again to include Namibian conservancies near the Chobe River floodplains lying to the north of Chobe NP in Botswana.

Given that lions usually attacked cattle at night while they were in makeshift traditional enclosures (“kraals”), the first order of business was to upgrade kraals in conflict hotspots to make them predator-proof. The conservancy Event Books were particularly useful in identifying where these hotspots were and the Project staff work closely with the conservancies to plan where to put kraals and then monitor the results. A total of 170 kraals have been upgraded to predator-proof status since the project began, resulting in cattle losses from kraals declining by 90% and lion killings being reduced from 20 in 2013/14 to one or two per year for the period 2015-19.

These are excellent results, but the work is far from over. Protecting cattle at night is just one part of the solution that needs to adapt with the lions’ response to cattle protection. If cattle are more difficult to prey on in one area that used to be a conflict hotspot, the lions may just move on to another area where the kraals have not been upgraded yet. If cattle are only protected at night and allowed to roam unattended during the day, then the lions adapt to target cattle during daylight. Lion behaviour changes with the seasons, as their natural prey gets easier (dry season) or harder (wet season) to find, thus making cattle more or less attractive for lions at different times of year.

The seasons also affect how people farm their livestock, which in turn affects losses to lions. Farmers allow their cattle to graze on harvested fields during the mid-dry season to help them survive until the rains come, often leaving them out there at night. Crop farmers in the Zambezi are especially busy during ploughing season, so they leave their cattle unattended more often in these times. Cattle on the Chobe floodplains are more vulnerable in the late dry season when the Chobe River almost dries up, thus allowing crocodile-free passage for lions coming from Chobe NP in Botswana. Finally, kraals that are filled with cattle dung become muddy havens for disease in the late wet season, so farmers prefer to let them roam outside to protect their health. All of these factors make cattle more vulnerable to attack by lions at certain times of year.

Due to the complexities of lion and human behaviour in response to climatic and ecological conditions, building predator-proof kraals is only part of the solution. While the project has reduced lion attacks on cattle, the issues of cattle not being brought into the kraal at night during certain times of year and not being herded during the day led to 67 cattle losses to lions during 2019.

In the coming year, the Kwando Carnivore Project will continue building kraals where they are needed but will add a few more tools to its conflict mitigation toolbox by collaborating with other conservation organisations. With Integrated Rural Development and Nature Conservation (IRDNC) and WWF-Namibia, they want to investigate employing “Lion Guards” to protect cattle during the day. Meanwhile, the Namibia Nature Foundation (NNF) and IRDNC have ideas for introducing conservation agriculture and better rangeland management practices.

Besides suffering fewer livestock losses to lions, it is important that people living with lions see a real benefit to their presence. In this way, a species currently seen as a liability can become a valued asset. The project thus assists with a Wildlife Credits scheme in Wuparo Conservancy that links lion sightings by guests at Nkasa Lupala Lodge to direct payments to the conservancy. These collaborative efforts will provide more holistic solutions to a complicated problem in a complex landscape.

How much water should lodges be using?

Picture the typical lodge scene: a sparkling pool surrounded by lush gardens, overlooking a dry riverbed. Behind the scenes, the housekeeping staff are working their way through the laundry, cleaning linen and towels for a fresh contingent of guests, while the trackers and guides are hard at work cleaning the dust and dirt from the safari vehicles. Lodges are entirely dependent on a constant supply of water, which, given their rural locations, is usually sourced from rivers, dams and boreholes that tap into the underground water supply.

The wildlife tourism industry is a significant income generator in southern Africa and supports the livelihoods of many individuals in rural communities. Yet in an area where water resources are scarce, how much water are the lodges in southern Africa using, how much should they be using and how does this compare to the consumption of surrounding communities? These are the questions that researchers from the Department of Environmental Sciences at the University of South Africa set out to answer in a new study that analyses the water quantity used at 31 wildlife lodges in South Africa, Botswana and Namibia and provides a baseline and water usage benchmark for the wildlife lodge industry in southern Africa.

There are existing international guidelines for sustainable water use and consumptive quantities in the tourism industry, but these cannot be applied to the wildlife lodge industry for one fundamental reason: most employees at a lodge reside on the premises, rather than returning home every day. Creating a baseline for lodges would need to consider daily staff water usage as well.

The researchers partnered with andBeyond and Wilderness Safaris, two companies with multiple lodges across South Africa, Namibia, and Botswana, for assistance in their research. Lodges with a variety of locations and geography (from desert to permanent swampland) were selected, and these were allocated codes to ensure anonymity. The majority of the lodges had complete water consumption records, and the study utilizes data from March 2015 until February 2017.

The researchers focussed on direct water usage, which includes all water used for bathing, gardening, laundry, cleaning, wash bays, kitchens, swimming pools and staff quarters. They used the international standard of measurement – litres per guest per night – for measurement purposes. The average water consumption across the three countries was calculated at 2,073 litres per guest per night – an amount which is exceedingly large when compared to international 5-star hotels, in some cases up to three to four times higher than the average tourism water consumption in some countries. However, in modifying these calculations to include staff numbers and their water usage, this number dropped to 503 litres per bed per night, which compares more favourably to international averages*. The water consumption by lodges was significantly higher in Botswana, while Namibia typically showed the lowest consumption levels.

* Editorial note: A certain amount of water usage will be ‘fixed’ – in other words, not materially variable based on the number of beds or by how many guests visit the camp. These include water used by core staff, the swimming pool and garden. Comparing international 5-star hotels to lodges is therefore not practical because hotels usually have more available bednights and higher occupancies – with the fixed water usage quantity, therefore, being divided by a higher figure to get to a lower average.

The study concludes by proposing the use of these averages (2,073 litres per guest per night or 503 litres per bed per night) as a benchmark for how wildlife lodges in Southern Africa should plan to manage their water consumption. These proposed benchmarks would be the first of their kind in Southern Africa to aid lodges in setting targets for water usage, as well as assisting developers in planning future lodges, but the authors suggest that these numbers would need to be reviewed regularly in the future.

While at this stage there is no governmental oversight or regulation of water usage, it is incumbent on the wildlife lodge industry in southern Africa to ensure that the lodge water consumption is sustainable to avoid disadvantaging both surrounding wildlife and local communities. Most lodges are mindful of this fact and encourage both guests and staff to conserve water but investing in water-saving measures can be costly. However, for comparison purposes, the water consumption of surrounding local communities ranged from an average of 88 to 371 litres per person per day. In setting a standard which takes into account the unique southern African lodge circumstances, this study offers a realistic starting point for lodges looking to improve or maintain their approach to water consumption.

The full study can be accessed here: “Water management in the wildlife lodge industry: A southern African perspective”, Grobler, J., Mearns, K., (2020), Second Annual Conference of the International Geographical Union Commission on African Studies

Selous be dam(n)ed

This is a time of change for Tanzania’s Selous Game Reserve – some good, some terrible.

At the Mtemere gate of Selous lies an ancient husk of an old steam train, the joints and bolts hidden beneath over a century’s worth of rust and grime. Shining against the aged relic, the attached plaque reads “This steam engine was left behind in 1917 by the German troops under Lettow-Vorbeck near Madaba/Selous Game Reserve”.

Time has taken its toll on the old train, and yet, beyond the gate, the vast wilderness landscape lies almost unchanged – for now. In common with so many of Africa’s wild places, the Selous Game Reserve has always engendered a feeling of time standing still – its vital life forces untouched by the passage of the years. Yet nothing seems to escape the inexorable march of time or the mark of human progress forever…

The Selous Game Reserve becomes Nyerere National Park

The entire protected area, historically known as the Selous Game Reserve, and for now recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is 54,600km² (5,5 million hectares) and is one of Africa’s largest and oldest protected areas. It was named after Frederick Courteney Selous, a British explorer, officer, hunter, and conservationist, who was killed by a German sniper during World War I near the Beho Beho River in the western section of the reserve, where his remains are buried today.

The Beho Beho and Ruaha rivers are just two of the many tributaries of the mighty Rufiji River, the largest river in Tanzania, which fans out into an intricate network of channels, lakes and swamps across the riverine regions of Selous. During the wet season, the Rufiji becomes a swirling torrent of brown water before spreading across floodplains downstream, filling the swamps, clearing sediment build-up, and refreshing the oxbow lakes, effectively changing the face of the landscape every year. The crocodile-infested river divides the Selous Game Reserve into two and, up until very recently, the northern sector of Selous (around 8% of the total area) was set aside for photo tourism purposes. In contrast, the rest was divided into hunting “blocks” of around 1,000km² each.

In 2019, President John Magufuli announced that the Selous Game Reserve would be split in two. The larger portion (30,893km² – more than twice the size of the Serengeti National Park) becoming the Nyerere National Park, while the southern section will, presumably, remain the Selous Game Reserve. While the exact boundaries of this new national park have yet to be formally announced, it will be the largest national park in East Africa and is named after independent Tanzania’s first president, Julius Nyerere – an iconic figure in Tanzania’s history.

What does this mean?

Selous dam — **Selous scenes as captured your Photographer of the Year entrants: Clockwise from top left: 1)** A large elephant bull wandering the wooded hills of Selous. 2) Hippo pool 3) Languishing leopard 4) northern carmine bee-eaters.

President Magufuli has made clear that the intention is to increase the tourism revenue potential of the area. While the largest protected area by far, Selous Game Reserve has typically been overshadowed by the northern Tanzanian safari circuit, including Serengeti National Park, at least in terms of photo tourism. In reference to the hunting blocks of the old Selous Game Reserve and the creation of Nyerere National Park, President Magufuli stated that “tourists come here and kill our lions, but we don’t benefit a lot from these wildlife hunting activities”. Apparently, the park management intends to improve road network to be accessible for the majority of the year (most of the luxury camps in the reserve typically close from April to June at the height of the rainy season), and the government has called on investors to look into creating new camps.

Yet for all the protection afforded by “national park” status, the plan is for the newly formed Nyerere National Park to include one of the largest dams and hydroelectric power stations in Africa. This dam will forever change the natural ebb and flow cycles of the Rufiji River and its tributaries, oxbow lakes and swamps.

Progress be dam(n)ed

Along its journey through the Selous to the Indian ocean, the Rufiji River passes through Stiegler’s Gorge, once considered to be one of the main attractions in Selous, where the water plunges through a narrow ravine with walls 100 metres high. Stiegler was a German engineer who set out to measure and survey the gorge in the early 20^th century, where he met an unfortunate end after being charged by an elephant and falling off the edge of the ravine. While the gorge’s potential for infrastructure was recognized even then, both for hydropower and irrigation, various obstacles continued to preclude its development. When President Nyerere turned the newly independent country’s plans towards hydropower, donors chose to finance smaller hydropower dams at Kidatu, Mtera and Pangani.

After a series of extensive studies and investigations, the World Bank concluded that the construction of a large dam was simply not viable at Stiegler’s Gorge. Plans continued to fall through until current President Magufuli announced in 2017 that the dam would be a flagship development project of his government. Logging teams moved into the area at the beginning of 2019 and, as of June 2020, the project was declared to be close to 40% complete (though this seems highly unlikely for a construction project of this magnitude). According to a statement by the President Magufuli, only 10% of the Tanzanian population is connected to the national power grid, and the dam is expected to contribute some 2,115 megawatts in a country where regular load shedding causes enormous losses to the GDP.

While there is no question that Tanzania needs to increase its electricity production substantially, critics of the Stiegler’s Gorge dam project are far from convinced that a mega-dam is the answer. There are profound concerns surrounding the economic and technical viability of the project (a full and objective assessment of the costs can be found here), and many external experts suggest that alternative options such as smaller dams, natural gas or renewable energy sources such as wind and solar would have been less risky. Yet it is a risk the government of Tanzania appears to be determined to take, regardless of the consequences, be they financial or, perhaps even more concerning, ecological.

EIA? What EIA?

The controversial dam and Julius Nyerere Hydropower Station, to be built by Egyptian construction companies, are expected to cover around 1,350 km²(135,000 hectares) upon completion. This covered area equates to about 2,5% of the total protected area of the Selous but will destroy significant portions of forest and riverine habitat and impact the downstream ecosystems. The plans were met with resounding criticism from many conservation organizations, as well as the IUCN and UNESCO’s World Heritage Centre. They called for an immediate halt to logging and construction efforts.

The Environmental Impact Assessment submitted in 2018 by the University Consultancy Bureau of the University of Dar es Salaam has been slammed by critics (including this technical review by the IUCN) for a combination of factual errors, an oversimplified approach to an immensely complex project, and the omission of several significant environmental consequences. The EIA does not meet the required international standards on almost every level and goes so far as to suggest that the construction of the dam will result in increased biodiversity in the area and control salinity levels downstream. Dr Rolf Baldus, an economist and expert on the Selous, concluded that this “EIA does not deserve the name it carries, and its academic authors have lost all scientific credibility”.

The price of power

Before the 2018 EIA, the WWF released their assessment of the Stiegler’s Gorge Hydropower Dam, entitled “The True Cost of Power“. The report provides a far more substantive evaluation of the impact of the proposed dam, from disrupted connectivity of habitats and erosion to increased downstream sedimentation and the loss of downstream lakes. It also highlights the fact that the area downstream of the gorge is the richest habitat area in the Selous, with the largest concentration of fauna and flora. This area is almost entirely dependent on the seasonal pulse of the river. Even further downstream, though equally reliant on the seasonal flow of the river, the Rufiji River Delta is home to the largest mangrove stand in East Africa and is a designated RAMSAR site. The livelihoods of the populations reliant on the river for agriculture and small fishers are also of concern. The report concludes that “it is unprecedented to risk losing the integrity of not one, but two globally significant protected areas to a hydropower project”.

President Magufuli has dismissed environmental concerns. “Tanzania is among global leaders in conservation activities, having allocated over 32% of our country’s total land to conservation,” he said. “Nobody can teach us about conservation.”

A World Heritage Site in Danger

Somewhat unsurprisingly, the World Heritage Committee is expected to strip the Selous Game Reserve of its World Heritage status should these plans continue due to the significant and irreversible damage to the region’s Outstanding Universal Value. The Committee had already placed the Selous on the List of World Heritage in Danger in 2014. According to their report at the time, the number of elephants and rhinos in the reserve has dropped by almost 90% since 1982. While these numbers have stabilized in the last few years due to concerted conservation efforts, there are believed to be just over 15,000 elephants and a handful of black rhino remaining. To put this into perspective, there were over 100,000 elephants in the Selous Game Reserve in 1976.

To add insult to ecological injury, a uranium mine was established in the south-western corner of the Selous in the 1990s which required an extensive boundary modification to the World Heritage Site. By January 2017, there were 48 prospective mining concessions within the greater Selous ecosystem. While the Tanzanian Wildlife Authority has confirmed that none of these will be opened for exploration and no concession will be granted in the future, a 2018 Geological Survey of Tanzania confirmed the presence of copper, silver, cobalt, zinc, and gold in the Selous.

Conclusion

In general, internal criticisms of the Stiegler’s Dam project have been somewhat muted, which is perhaps unsurprising after Tanzania’s environment minister announced that “the government will go ahead with the implementation of the project whether you like it or not…those who are resisting the project will be jailed”. According to international experts, the chances are that the construction of Stiegler’s Gorge Dam will cost far more than anticipated and its completion will be delayed, probably by more than six years. In the process, conservationists estimate that close to 3 million trees will be cleared in the dam’s intended reservoir.

For now, however, life goes on in Nyerere National Park and Selous Game Reserve as it has for thousands of years, albeit largely at the mercy of human impact. Elephants wade through the swamps, dwarfed by enormous, towering borasis palms, and the park’s network of waterways continue to supply the vast abundance of life around them.

Africa’s Wild Dogs – A Survival Story

Africa’s Wild Dogs – A Survival Story is a photographic book celebrating these charismatic predators and telling their story. All royalties raised from the sale of the book and photographs will go to organisations at the frontline of African wild dog (painted wolf) conservation.

The story of the persecution of Africa’s wild dog is well known. In 1914, R C F Maugham, a prolific British writer, explorer and hunter, was so enraged and appalled when he witnessed a wild dog kill that he declared the dogs’ undesirable vermin’ and ‘an abomination’, calling for their extermination. Other ‘conservationists’ and farmers at the time shared this view and so began the systematic decimation of African wild dog (painted wolf) populations, leaving just a few scattered packs in southern Africa.

Times have changed, and the collective efforts of scientists and conservationists have seen great strides in improving the outlook for these fascinating predators. In putting together these images, I was driven by a strong desire to move the narrative forward and create a visual statement of these enigmatic and lively animals in a way that will reveal their extraordinary natures. Africa’s Wild Dogs – A Survival Story documents my adventure with the dogs, my insights into their lives and their future.

When I started on my wild dog adventure just five years ago, I was relatively new to photography. Naturally, I wanted to capture the typical iconic shots of them standing shoulder or dashing after each other in a game of chase, but my vision centred around creating portraits. I found myself lying in the dirt and lugging lenses while racing across the bushveld and trekking through thick bush, not to mention waking up before the dawn to spend hours searching for my subjects. It was then that I learned that you never find wild dogs – they find you.

An intense stare from an African wild dog

Through my time spent in the company of wild dogs, I have witnessed how they hold their own in the animal kingdom, playing a vital role in the ecological balance. They are equally deserving of the respect and awe generally attributed to larger, more fearsome predators.

Possibly the most successful hunters of all the larger predators, wild dogs work as a close-knit team to bring down their prey. They are athletic, long-limbed predators that seem to have boundless energy. They seldom sleep for long, and when it is time to move, they tend to run rather than walk.

In following this dream, I was able to team up with like-minded and passionate people. I am so grateful to have learnt from scientists who have sat for hours observing, checking and double-checking their facts to understand and explain wild dog behaviour. Each pack-family-member knows their role and sticks to it. They care for the pack’s puppies with dedication and do everything in their power to keep them safe and healthy.

I was privileged enough to witness tiny month-old pups being greeted by the rest of the pack for the very first time. The pack had been dancing merrily around the mouth of the den, calling and whooping until the alpha female deemed the timing appropriate. As the puppies crawled to the lip of the den, they were met with the adoring attentions of the older pack members – gently licked, sniffed, and examined from the tip of their tiny noses to their tails.

And there is good news. Under the careful guidance of Dr Harriet Davies-Mostert, her fellow scientists, researchers, rangers and all the hardworking volunteers at the Wild Dog Advisory Group (WAG) have been diligently sharing knowledge, research, and experience to nurture wild dog packs. And the numbers are growing. So much so that suitable and sustainable reserves and parks need to be found for these new families. Packs have been successfully translocated to Mozambique, Malawi and beyond. We now have approximately 6600 wild dogs in southern Africa.

Dr Harriet Davies-Mostert, Head of Conservation – Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT) South Africa and Chair of WAG – Wild Dog Advisory Group.

Dr Tico McNutt, Botswana Predator Conservation Trust.

Reena Walker University of Idaho – who conducted her Sneeze to Leave research together with the Botswana Predator Conservation Trust.

Prof Scott Creel, Zambian Carnivore Programme.

Dr Rosemary Groom, African Wildlife Conservation Fund (AWCF) – Zimbabwe.

Dr Dave Druce, KZN Wild Dog Management Group.

Nick Murray, Bushlife Conservancy: Painted Wolf Conservancy, Bushlife Support Unit Trust, Zimbabwe.

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Elephants & cattle – restoring soil nutrient levels

Researchers working in the Kenya Long-term Enclosure Experiment have been monitoring the effects of the presence or absence of elephants and other wild herbivores and cattle on savanna ecosystems for 20 years, to understand the impact that each has on the critical processes of long-term functioning of the ecosystem itself.

As wild animal populations decrease throughout Africa, many populations have been replaced by livestock, particularly cattle. As would be expected, moderate to large densities of cattle have negative effects on the nutrient levels in the soils of these habitats, particularly the carbon and nitrogen pools and cycles. One of the main questions that the study set out to answer was whether or not land management strategies could be formulated to minimize the negative impact of the presence of cattle.

The study, funded by the National Science Foundation, showed that the presence of megaherbivores, particularly elephants, increased the total soil carbon and nitrogen pools and reversed the negative effects of cattle-related depletion. The researchers believe that there may be livestock management practices that could be compatible with the conservation of these habitats. Their results suggest that there may be ways for the negative impact of moderate densities of cattle to be mitigated by the presence of wild herbivores in “black cotton” savanna habitats, but crucially this wild herbivore mix must include larger species such as elephants.

Cattle and hippo © www.elephantsforafrica.org

“By experimentally manipulating both domestic and wild herbivores in combinations that occur in the real world, this research demonstrates the importance of megaherbivores to sustaining natural savanna ecosystems,” said Betsy von Holle, program director in NSF’s Division of Environmental Biology.

The full study can be found here: Negative effects of cattle on soil carbon and nutrient pools reversed by megaherbivores, Sitters, J. et al, (2020), Journal of Nature Sustainability.

Queen Elizabeth National Park

Queen Elizabeth National Park offers a classic safari with a few twists. The impressive variety of habitats includes acacia woodland, grass savannah, lakes, rivers, dense papyrus swamps, rainforest and extinct volcanic crater cones with lakes.

For some 3 million years, the impassive Rwenzori Mountains have born witness to the natural and human forces that have shaped equatorial Africa. Following the line of the Albertine Rift, the western branch of Africa’s Great Rift Valley, these jagged, snow-capped peaks are evidence of a time when enormous tectonic forces shaped the face of the African continent. One day, these mountains will mark the line where the African continent will split in two, the ocean rushing in to fill the space. But only in the next 10 million or so years.

For now, the Rwenzori Mountains, or the Mountains of the Moon, serve as the dramatic boundary between the Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda and create the perfect backdrop for a unique and thriving wilderness.

The fantastic variety of scenery and safari experiences make it easy to understand why Queen Elizabeth National Park (QENP) is one of Uganda’s most popular safari destinations.

The basics

Situated in southwestern Uganda, QENP covers an estimated 1,978km2 (close to 200,000 hectares). The park is bookended by Lake George in the northeast and Lake Edward to the southwest, linked by a stretch of water known as the Kazinga Channel, and is contiguous with Virunga National Park in the DRC. The smaller Kibale National Park, Kigezi and Kyambura Game Reserves all border the park and serve as buffer zones for the ecosystem. Near the northern boundary of the park are four other major protected areas: Rwenzori Mountains National Park, Semliki National Park, Toro Game Reserve and Katonga Game Reserve. The gorilla-trekking Eden of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park lies about 150km to the south.

Formerly known as Kazinga National Park, QENP was renamed to commemorate a visit from Queen Elizabeth II in 1954, while Uganda was still under colonial rule. After independence and through the troubled decades that followed, the people of Uganda were to suffer terrible hardships and unimaginable cruelty, and, as is so often the case with human conflict, the wildlife paid a dreadful price as well. In so many ways, this is what makes QENPark such an extraordinary wilderness – it is a testament to the dedication of the local population’s determination to restore the country’s wildlife in the face of destruction wrought by war. This same dedication allowed Uganda’s elephant population to recover from 700 remaining individuals in the 1980s to more than 5,000 today – a revival of more than 600%.

Seismic scenery

To those who know and love Africa’s wild spaces, each one offers its own particular brand of unique beauty, and QENP is no exception. The land is pockmarked by explosion craters, magnificent calderas filled with either saltwater lakes or rich savannah, each capturing a feeling of a world within a world, a place where time seems to stand still. Seen from the air, it is easy to imagine the violent explosions of superheated gas that created the Katwe and Bunyaruguru crater fields.

A mosaic landscape of unique features and habitats, QENP’s fortunate visitors can go from exploring expansive savannahs dotted by euphorbia trees to the lush paths beneath the canopy of the Maramagambo Forest or drift down the Kazinga Channel on a boat, past one of the largest populations of hippos in Africa.

Tree-climbing lions

While the scenery is in itself a drawcard, QENP offers first-rate wildlife viewing as well, with over 95 recorded mammal species including elephants, buffalos, hyenas, leopards, lions, giant forest hogs and chimpanzees as well as herds of Ugandan cob. It is also one of the few places where visitors are almost guaranteed to see tree-climbing lions, found only in the southern Ishasha region.

Unlike their leopard cousins, lions are not typically particularly skilful tree climbers. Their impressive bulk puts them at the top of the predator hierarchy and imparts the power to pull down powerful prey, but they are not well designed for nimble balance or agile leaps. While all lions can and occasionally do climb trees, it is very seldom that they make a habit of it. Yet, in QENP, the lions are famed for their arboreal tendencies. Not even a shared familial ability to look comfortable whatever the situation can bely the incongruity of 150kgs of lion draped over the spikey limbs of a giant euphorbia tree. The most likely explanation for their behaviour is that it helps them to escape from the tsetse flies that plague the area and perhaps capitalize on the cool breezes a few meters above ground level.

The chimpanzees of Kyambura Gorge

In the mystical forests of Kyambura Gorge (cover image) in the heart of QENP ecosystem, there is a small, isolated population of primates that have become known as the “Lost Chimpanzees”. These chimpanzees are isolated from the other populations in the larger forested areas of the park, lone survivors cut off by the historic deforestation of the area. Now protected in the Kyambura Game Reserve which was created as a buffer zone to the national park, these chimps are the only habituated individuals in the region. While finding them is not always guaranteed (chimpanzees can cover vast distances in a short space of time), the experience of tracking them down is a reward in itself and contributes immensely towards the empowerment of the local community and the slow but steady process of reforesting key areas.

A birder’s paradise

It is no exaggeration to suggest that Queen Elizabeth National Park offers some of the best birding in Africa, thanks mainly to its astonishing variety of different habitats. There are over 610 different bird species recorded, the second-highest of any park on the continent. A visit to Lake Kikorongo (an extension of Lake George) offers the chance to see the legendary shoebills, though the keen birders can also occupy themselves with the search for the papyrus gonolek in the reeds while en-route. Raptors of every shape and size scud across the skies, from the vast martial and crowned eagles to palm-nut vultures and the angular outlines of keen-eyed grey kestrels. The lakes and channels provide the ideal habitat for a plethora of water and swamp species including both species of pelicans, white-winged and gull-billed terns, African skimmers, and swamp flycatchers. Moving from Ishasha to Mweya you will do well keeping an eye out for African crake, blue-throated roller, sooty chat, black-and-white shrike-flycatcher, northern black flycatcher, black-headed gonolek, moustached grass warbler, red-chested sunbird, and slender-billed weaver. Read more about bird-watching in QENP here Uganda’s other best bird-watching spots.

The safari experience

With so much to offer both in terms of scenic diversity and the variety of available activities, a visit to QENP should be savoured by allowing adequate time to explore. Booking a stay at one of several luxury lodges will guarantee access to an experienced and knowledgeable guide to tie together the richness of the biodiversity and history of the region, and, naturally, to make the most of the wildlife viewing opportunities. The lodge will also be able to tailor the various activities to the interests of its guests. There are also several budget accommodation options, and it is relatively simple for a competent driver to travel through most areas of the park and the surrounding regions. That said, be prepared for what is euphemistically referred to as an “African massage”, particularly just after the rainy season when the roads have dried out but are rutted and uneven where many a vehicle has fallen foul of the cloying mud during the wet months. The highest rainfall levels are experienced in April and May and October to November in the south, which can mean closed roads and postponed experiences. Though the drier months offer the best wildlife viewing, the park is open year-round.

Want to go on safari to Queen Elizabeth National Park? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.

Donkey smugglers profit off wildlife trafficking routes

Cross-border donkey smugglers in Zimbabwe and Botswana are operating pipelines used for ivory, pangolins and Covid-19 contraband. Oscar Nkala investigates for Oxpeckers Investigative Environmental Journalism

*In rural villages on both sides of the border, donkeys are valued as draught animals. ©Oscar Nkala*

To new arrivals, “Dip 27” is no different from any other rural service centre in Madabe communal lands south of Plumtree in Zimbabwe. Yet locals know that the daytime semblance of law-abiding peace masks a vast cross-border crime enterprise that makes millions from running ivory, illegal immigrants, contraband cigarettes, marijuana and, of late, stolen donkeys in or out of Botswana.

With unhindered access to vast stretches of the unfenced border with Botswana 7km west and a highway link to Plumtree town 40 minutes to the north, Dip 27 is a citadel of smugglers seeking quick and hassle-free access to Botswana.

By day, trucks from Harare and Maputo deliver contraband cigarettes and liquor. From dusk to dawn, baggage carriers cart goods across the dry Ramogkwebana River into Botswana for fees ranging between P100 (R145) and P1,000 (R1,450) per crossing, depending on quantity and risk levels involved.

On the second day of posing as a stranded motorist at Dip 27 business centre, Oxpeckers met a rustler who asked not to be named. He said he had been a “money changer” [illegal foreign currency dealer] at Plumtree border post until it closed due to Covid-19 late in March.

“The closure of the border and subsequent ban on alcohol and cigarettes in Botswana created new money-spinning options as those products are available in Zimbabwe,” he said. “Minor smuggling springboards like Madabe started bustling with contraband goods.”

According to the rustler, Mozambicans use the pipeline to run elephant tusks to Chinese clients in Francistown, about 80km from the border in Botswana. Smuggling syndicates from Harare and Bulawayo also run marijuana, alcohol and cigarettes to Botswana and South Africa, he said.

Investigations by Oxpeckers established that these men who call themselves Mozambicans may be Zimbabweans working for a seemingly well-connected Harare-based syndicate that has for years kept a low profile while quietly running ivory and live pangolins to as yet unidentified Chinese buyers in Francistown.

Police sources stationed at the border post said the syndicate reaps most of its ivory from Matusadona National Park, about 680km away in Zimbabwe, and uses government vehicles to transport the tusks from Harare to Plumtree.

“We have arrested the runners before, but they only go for an initial appearance in court, get bail and disappear,” said a police detective who requested anonymity for fear of reprisals.

He cited the example of a smuggler who was arrested in February 2019 while allegedly trying to smuggle seven elephant tusks across the border stashed in several places including the engine compartment of a BMW vehicle. He had Mozambican papers, but on further investigation, he was found to be a Zimbabwean from Harare.

“On his phone, we found the contact details and several calls made to a Botswana landline, which later turned out to be a Chinese-owned shop at China Mall in Francistown,” the detective said.

“Just as we were preparing to collaborate with the Botswana police on a sting operation to arrest the alleged Chinese buyer, we were told to send our suspect to court, where he appeared only once and was let out on bail. He returned to Harare immediately and the next thing I got a call from one of my commanders saying I should hand over all case files and evidence, including the Zimbabwean identity document and Mozambican passport of the suspect and two cellphones I had confiscated, and to stop investigating the matter.

“She told me the matter would be handed over to Interpol since it now involved Botswana. I was shocked at how the case was being handed over to Interpol without the suspect, but I did as ordered. Within a week I saw the same man driving a different car into Zimbabwe from Botswana.

“Ivory smuggling is one of the biggest criminal enterprises of the Ramokgwebana border area, and the buyers operate various cover businesses at China Mall in Francistown,” the detective said.

Donkey smugglers

Donkey smugglers on the Botswana side of the border are mostly locals from nearby villages, but the masterminds of the smuggling syndicates are predominantly Zimbabwean. On both sides of the border, donkeys are used by communities for ploughing and transporting humans, water and essential goods.

Oxpeckers met the alleged kingpin of a prominent cross-border donkey rustling syndicate in Nxele, a Zimbabwean border village that shares water, shops and grazing pastures with the Botswana villages. He declined to be identified and photographed but agreed to discuss the Zimbabwean link to the cross-border donkey skin trade.

“In all border villages donkeys are most sought after because the Chinese abattoir in Francistown is failing to get its weekly requirement of 100 donkeys from Botswana,” he said. “Zimbabwean syndicates have stepped in to fill the gap with stolen stock.

“To reach their weekly targets, middlemen even hire thieves to steal donkeys from Batswana who refuse to sell. They bring those to Zimbabwe to swap with stolen stock for the abattoir.”

On the Zimbabwe side, donkeys sell for between US$20 (about R330) and US$30 (R500). Due to the scarcity of donkeys in Botswana, prices across the border have more than doubled from P200 (R290) in 2017 to P500 (R725).

Norman Mpofu, former Member of Parliament for the region, told Oxpeckers there was widespread trafficking of donkeys between Botswana and Zimbabwe, with most of the traffic going one-way in favour of Botswana.

“I am not sure if they are going to an abattoir or not, but far too many donkeys are disappearing into thin air in Botswana. Something with a big appetite is eating them in Botswana,” Mpofu said.

“Once in Botswana, the trail turns cold. Syndicates exploit loopholes ranging from collapsed border fences to lack of resources and corruption among border police.”

*Dead donkey on the smuggling route linking Madabe in Zimbabwe to Matope in Botswana. ©Oscar Nkala*

Image: Dead donkey on the smuggling route linking Madabe in Zimbabwe to Matope in Botswana. Photo: Oscar Nkala

Rustlers Gorge

Plumtree is not the only Zimbabwean cross-border donkey theft hotbed with links to the Bo Chang abattoir in Francistown. In Gwanda South, about 200km away, cattle- and donkey-rustling syndicates with tentacles reaching into Botswana are found in Kafusi, Rustlers Gorge and Shanyaugwe.

When Oxpeckers visited Rustlers Gorge, an age-old smugglers route dating back to the 1800s, members of the Neighbourhood Watch Committee were interrogating three suspects arrested while trying to drive 54 stolen donkeys into Botswana. The men were later handed over to the police and taken to the provincial capital, Gwanda, for trial. The outcome of the court proceedings could not be established at the time of publication.

Village head Keabetso Nare said the donkey thefts have escalated in recent months, with almost all being smuggled into Botswana, where they disappear without a trace.

“The trend is now alarming. They take entire herds in one raid and drive them across the border within hours. The border is just a river. No fence and no signposts. You can be in Botswana without even knowing it,” he said.

“Donkeys stolen from Rustlers Gorge and other Zimbabwean villages end up in Botswana for sale. Previously, we could recover animals in Botswana, but nowadays everything that goes in vanishes without a trace,” Nare said.

Efforts by Oxpeckers to get comment from the Zimbabwe Republic Police were fruitless.

Zimbabwe’s Department of Veterinary Services said their figures showed cross-border movements of donkeys due to theft and straying are rampant between the two countries. Veterinary disease control regulations introduced in 2006 empower the Botswana police to shoot and destroy the remains of all cloven-hoofed animals found to be in the country illegally – in July alone, 108 donkeys from Zimbabwe were shot dead in Botswana.

The Botswana government temporarily closed down the donkey trade in 2017 after hundreds of rotten carcasses were found at the Bo Chang abattoir in Francistown, with fluids seeping into the main river. ©Oscar Nkala

Bo Chang abattoir

Animal welfare organisations in Botswana believe the smuggled donkeys end up at the Bo Chang abattoir in Francistown.

The Bo Chang Group returned to Botswana in April 2018, a year after the government temporarily suspended all licences for the slaughter and export of donkeys and their products as a result of the inhumane treatment of donkeys at Bo Chang, which was also operating an industrial-scale facility without a waste disposal plant (See the Oxpeckers exposé “Inside Botswana’s illegal donkey trade”).

Bo Chang exports donkey meat and hides to China, where the skins are used to make ejiao, a traditional medicine marketed as having life-extending, anti-ageing and aphrodisiac qualities.

When Botswana re-opened the donkey skin trade in April 2018, Bo Chang Group was one of four applicants who obtained operating licences. Its abattoir re-opened in October 2019 and by March 2020 the facility was slaughtering an estimated 50 donkeys a week. The donkeys were primarily sourced from Gumare near Maun.

Mpho Kganyago, an animal welfare activist, affiliated with the Botswana Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, said the abattoir stopped buying donkeys in Maun in November 2019 and turned to villages along the border with Zimbabwe, where the communities refused to sell.

“In February they were down to the point of using a 2-tonne truck to deliver about four donkeys per week. In May they suddenly started receiving a double-decker 34-tonne truck with a capacity of 100 donkeys per week.

“Today, they slaughter up to 100 donkeys per week. We have tracked their truck movements to border villages, and when our village-based monitors reported no large-scale buying of donkeys, we realised they were not coming from Botswana. The cross-border donkey theft syndicates have now turned to smuggling animals from Zimbabwe to supply the Bo Chang Group abattoir,” she said.

Claire Mayers of the Bulawayo-based Matebeleland Animal Rescue and Equine Sanctuary said her organisation has been receiving reports of donkeys being stolen in Zimbabwe and trafficked to the abattoir in Botswana.

“We have heard reports of donkeys being stolen for illegal exports to Botswana from our community-based groups in and around Marula since last year,” Mayers said. “Unfortunately, we are unable to verify if indeed they are being taken to the abattoir. What we can confirm is that donkey theft is a huge problem for communities around the western border, and there are suggestions that they end up in the abattoir in Francistown.”

Oscar Nkala is an Associate of Oxpeckers Investigative Environmental Journalism. This investigation was supported by The Donkey Sanctuary and was published by The Standard in Zimbabwe here.

Find related investigations in the Oxpeckers Donkey Trade Files dossier

Cyanobacteria to blame for elephant deaths – Botswana officials

Tests have revealed cyanobacterial neurotoxins to be the cause of the deaths of hundreds of elephants in Botswana, according to an official announcement from the Principal Veterinary Officer of Botswana’s Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Mmadi Reuben. He also confirmed that the official number of elephant deaths had risen from 281 to 330 but that no further carcasses had been found since July.

The elephants died in the Seronga district of Botswana’s Okavango Delta between March and June this year. Many of the carcasses were found near water, but officials quickly ruled out poisoning or poaching, and further tests also eliminated the possibility of an anthrax or encephalomyocarditis virus outbreak.

Cyanotoxins remained as a possible cause. They are produced by cyanobacteria that occur in water and, under certain conditions, from blooms of blue-green algae which are often associated with the end of a drought. The bacteria produce potent neurotoxins, hepatotoxins, cytotoxins and endotoxins that have been known to cause the deaths of aquatic animals, birds, livestock and even humans.

Several samples were sent for testing in laboratories in South Africa, Canada, Zimbabwe, and the United States, but results were delayed due to the strain of Covid-19 on various testing centres.

There are still several unanswered questions, such why these toxins seemed to affect only elephants in that particular area, and Mmadi Reuben confirmed that officials are still investigating.

The cause of death of the 22 elephants in Zimbabwe is still being investigated, and while it may be due to cyanotoxins, this has yet to be confirmed.

Swimming blind – why critically endangered blind cave catfish needs research

by Clinton Hay of the Namibia Nature Foundation and University of Namibia

Originally published in Conservation Namibia

Clarias cavernicola or blind cave catfish, as it is called in English, is known only from one cave near Otavi in Namibia, where it lives in total darkness. It is classified as Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the global authority on the status of nature and its species. The total population of catfish in the cave is probably less than 200 individuals, which is the minimum genetically viable population size required for any species to survive over a longer period of time. This makes the blind cave catfish one of the rarest freshwater fish species in the world.

This little catfish species, which grows only up to 17 cm long, has lost its eyes. Additionally, it lacks the pigmentation that produces the normal dark skin colour of other catfish species, and is thus a beautiful golden-pink. In a dark cave, eyes and skin pigmentation are not necessary for survival, so it is likely that not producing these characteristics is part of the catfish’s survival strategy. Conserving energy is especially important for survival when food is scarce. It seems that this rare catfish feeds mainly on invertebrates or insects falling into the cave. Another possible item on the catfish’s menu is an isopod (a shrimp-like organism) that is also endemic to this cave and lacks colour and eyes. Our research team further speculates that the catfish uses guano from the bats in the cave to supplement its meagre invertebrate diet.

The cave catfish seems to be closely related to the snakehead catfish found in the Kunene, Kavango and Zambezi rivers. Since catfish species in these rivers need a flood to stimulate breeding, we assume that the cave catfish needs similar conditions to breed. During Namibia’s summertime thunderstorms, water rushes into the cave and may stimulate breeding. We found that females carry about 50 transparent, sticky eggs with a greenish yolk. On a recent research dive we found smaller individuals of around 5 cm in length, indicating successful breeding within the last couple of years although very little is known about the growth rates of this species.

The water in the cave is currently very clear, but if that were to change it might negatively affect reproduction, as the sticky eggs will be smothered by particles suspended in the water, thus limiting the oxygen supply to the eggs. The newly hatched larvae of this catfish are very small, meaning their food source must be even smaller. The larvae of other catfish species feed on large zooplankton, but we do not yet know what the cave catfish larvae feed on; this is one of our future research questions.

A team from Dantica Diving did a recent research dive in the cave, with kind permission from the owner of the property where the cave is located. Given their rarity and vulnerability, studying this fish species calls for the utmost care to avoid disturbance and harm to individuals. On a previous dive, one of our team went down to a depth of around 90 metres and still did not find the bottom of the cave. Despite the great depth of the cave, the catfish were only found at a maximum depth of 15 metres. It seems they prefer to live near the surface on ledges where food is readily available. Consequently, the catfish is very vulnerable to lowering the water table, as much of their food source accumulates in an area that may no longer be accessible to them if the water level drops.

What will the future bring for this unique and rare fish species? Current threats to its survival include: direct negative impacts on the cave and its water, future climate change resulting in less rainfall and subsequent lowering of the water table, a decline in their food source and illegal harvesting for the aquarium trade. The survival of the blind cave catfish depends on the integrity of the entire ecosystem. Anything that negatively affects the ecosystem around the cave may eventually affect the catfish. It is therefore very important to protect the ecosystem around the cave, although factors such as climate change require international conservation efforts.

On a positive note, there seem to be more openings to the cave that we have not yet been able to explore. It is therefore possible that there are more catfish near these openings, but this has not yet been confirmed. The Namibia Nature Foundation is supporting this research project with funding from the Namibian Chamber of Environment and the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research. We hope to better understand these incredible, unique fish and ensure that they continue to survive in this cave, their only habitat in the world.

Research team:

Clinton Hay (University of Namibia/Namibia Nature Foundation)
Francois Jacobs (Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources)
Tor Naesje (Norwegian Institute for Nature Resource)
Gerhard Jacobs (SLR Environmental Consulting)
Reuben Engels (Dantica Diving)
Chris Steenkamp (Dantica Diving)

FOSSA: 5 fascinating facts

The island of Madagascar has been isolated for the last 88 or so million years, giving the fauna and flora of the island ample time to evolve into an eclectic assortment of strange shapes and sizes, from cat-sized chameleons to hairy, long-fingered aye-ayes. For evolutionary biologists, it is a wonderment of ecological mysteries that have the potential to provide an unparalleled insight into the way life as we know it has developed. There is one peculiar creature that presents the archetypal Madagascan enigma: an animal that looks like a bizarre cross between a mongoose and a cat, and, quite possibly, a civet. Despite being the island’s largest predator and having a fundamental role in the Madagascan ecosystem, the fossa (also spelt fosa) has always lurked in the shadows cast by the more popular and better-researched lemurs.

1. What is it – a cat? A mongoose?

The simple answer is that the fossa belongs to its own family: the Eupleridae, but the riddle of their classification has kept biologists occupied for centuries. Edward Turner Bennet first described the fossa in 1833, identifying it as a kind of civet and, therefore, part of the viverrid family. To complicate matters, however, the fossa has several features in common with the felid (cat), herpestid (mongoose) and viverrid (civets and genets) families, including retractable claws, felid-like dentition, a viverrid-shaped skull and a herpestid body structure. As technology developed, biologists increased the tools in their species-classification process, but even then, no clear answer presented itself. A series of studies conducted in the 1990s still resulted in different conclusions – one DNA study grouped the fossa with the herpestids. In contrast, another morphological study concluded that they should be grouped with the felids.

Finally, in 2003, scientists conducted extensive nuclear and mitochondrial gene analysis to prove conclusively that all carnivores in Madagascar share a common ancestor that excludes all other known carnivores, though their closest relatives are Asian and African herpestids. Thus, the fossa and the 9 other endemic Malagasy carnivores were placed in their own family: the Eupleridae.

The relationships of the individual species within the Eupleridae are still poorly understood but, as it stands, the fossa’s closest relatives are the two falanouc species, the Malagasy civet, the ring-tailed vontsira and four Malagasy mongoose species.

2. Madagascar’s dominant (natural) predator

While the astounding predatory skills of members of the mongoose and civet families are often eclipsed by the dramatic larger carnivores, their hunting style is acrobatic and lightning-fast. The fossa’s hunting prowess is equally formidable – combining cat-like power with mongoose speed and agility. Equally at home on the ground or in trees, fossa are capable of adjusting their feet to either a plantigrade-like (walking on the souls of the feet like a human)or digitigrade-like (walking on its toes, and not touching the ground with its heels, like a dog) gait, and the ankle joints in their back legs are extremely flexible, allowing them to descend trees head-first.

An adult fossa can reach lengths of around 1.5m (including its long tail) and can weigh over 8kg. They are opportunistic hunters and will feed on rodents, birds, and reptiles, as well as invertebrates. Their main prey, however, is lemurs, some of which can reach almost the same weight as the fossa themselves. Interestingly, while fossa are primarily solitary in nature, Mia-Lana Lührs (one of the world’s few experts on the fossa) witnessed three males cooperatively hunting a sifaka. She believes that this may well be an evolutionary throwback to a time when giant lemurs existed on Madagascar.

3. Battle of the sexes

Even though males are slightly bigger than females, the mating process is dominated by the female by the simple expedient of conducting her dalliances in a tree. In a highly seasonal behaviour most similar to lekking (seen in some bird and antelope species), a female in oestrus ascends a tree judged to be sufficiently sturdy to accommodate energetic activity (often reusing the same tree year after year) and calls loudly to declare her status to the males in the area. For up to a week, would-be suitors gather at the mating site, competing for her attentions, and suitable males will be permitted to join her on the branch for a few hours at a time. The process is accompanied by cacophonous vocalizations and astounding displays of dexterity.

Mating is somewhat protracted due to the backwards facing barbs on the male’s penis (which itself can extend to between his front legs), and the formation of a copulatory tie. Penile spines are relatively common in the mammal kingdom and usually consist of small barbs of keratin which are believed to play a role in triggering ovulation or removing copulatory plugs. They are found in many members of the cat, rodent and primate families, though it appears, mercifully, that human ancestors lost theirs around 700,000 years ago.

4. Going through changes

Litters of up to six youngsters are born in a suitable den after a 90-day gestation period and stay with their mothers for the first year, only reaching sexual maturity at around 3-4 years of age. This relatively slow developmental process also translates into an extended life expectancy – fossa in captivity have been known to live over 20 years. Bizarrely, young females display what is known as transient masculinization: at around 1-2 years, the clitoris enlarges and develops spines similar to a male’s penis. This gradually diminishes in size as the female reaches sexual maturity, and it is possible that this mechanism reduces harassment by adult males and/or aggression from adult females. This transient masculinization is extremely rare in the mammal kingdom.

5. There may be fewer than 2,500 fossa left in the world.

And this may be an overestimate. The fossa population size is challenging to measure, but research suggests that only the Masoala-Makira and Zahamena-Mantadia-Vohidrazana forest ecosystems are of sufficient size to support a population of more than 500 adults. Despite their widespread distribution, fossa seem to occur at extremely low densities for a predator of their size, which in turn makes the fragmented and small protected areas available to them insufficient to support viable populations. While they are currently listed as ‘vulnerable’ by the IUCN Red List, the reality is that the fossa may be far more threatened than most realize.

Like all of Madagascar’s fascinating fauna, fossa are faced with the combined threats of habitat loss and fragmentation. Slash-and-burn agriculture is common, and forests are continually destroyed to increase grazing land for local cattle. When natural prey is scarce, fossa turn to surrounding villages in search of food, putting them in conflict with people and domestic animals and, while in certain parts of Madagascar it is considered taboo to consume the fossa, they are still regularly hunted for bushmeat.

Conclusion

The lemurs of Madagascar might steal most of the limelight, but the island’s largest carnivore should not be forgotten, underappreciated, or relegated to the status of the ‘antagonist’ of the forests. The evolutionary conundrum that is the fossa is one of nature’s works of art – powerful, agile, intelligent, and enthralling in its own right.

WATCH: Baby fossas run off with camera!

The importance of adult male elephants

There is a significant amount of research and knowledge surrounding the role that older female African savannah elephants play in decision-making and leading their herds, but little is understood about the contribution of older males. The assumption has generally been that these old bulls are largely redundant in terms of the overall survival of the population, but a new study conducted in Botswana has yielded results that challenge this conclusion. Instead, researchers argue that the selective harvesting of older males (through trophy hunting and illegal poaching) could have detrimental effects on wider elephant society.

The authors explain that when animals move as a coordinated group, specific individuals may consistently be observed to influence the decisions and routes taken – whether due to their hierarchical dominance, a bolder temperament or advanced age. In species with a relatively long life expectancy, such as elephants or killer whales, older individuals have been seen to respond more appropriately to a change in environment, as well as mobilising in response to potential threats. While research into this area has tended to be mostly female-focused, there is no reason why there should be a sex-based distinction in the accumulation of knowledge over time, nor is it necessarily the case that males do not have the potential to occupy socio-cognitive roles similar to the females of the species – acting as “repositories of ecological knowledge”.

In social animals, males are typically the dispersing sex and, therefore, are assumed to be replaceable. In elephants, the males tend to leave their natal herds between 10-20 years of age, roaming vast distances and often forming temporary associations with other males of various ages. In associating with older males, the study explains, adolescent bulls could benefit from decades’ worth of experience in utilising their environment effectively while negotiating potential risks such as conflict with people.

The study was conducted in the Makgadikgadi Pans National Park – where male elephants account for some 98% of the elephant sightings. The researchers focussed on all-male groups travelling on pathways to and from the Boteti River. The results indicate that young elephants show a significant preference for travelling in groups and that mature adult males were more likely to lead these group movements. These findings applied throughout the year in both the wet and dry seasons, suggesting that these mature bulls offer a significant contribution to elephant society, regardless of the season. The researchers found little evidence that size (particularly stride length) influenced the positioning of individual elephants in the group.

This observed pattern of movement is in direct contrast to that of a breeding herd, where the matriarch will initiate movement and direction but generally move to the back of the group where she can monitor the members of the herd. The process appears to be more passive in male leadership, with the older elephant making decisions and the younger members of the group choosing to follow them. It is, however, an essential role in the male society of elephants, particularly when leading young males between crucial resources such as water.

While they represent the minority in elephant populations, bull elephants are targeted by trophy hunters and poachers due to their larger body sizes and tusks. The researchers suggest that their findings regarding the leadership of older males during collective movement complements other research into the importance of mature bulls in all-male societies. The study expresses concern that targeting these old male animals in trophy hunting could disrupt these all male-societies, as well as the “inter-generational flow of information concerning decades of accumulated ecological knowledge, such as effective navigation and location of critical resources”. Instead, the authors suggest, the role of mature bulls should be recognised as similar in male groups as that of a matriarch in a breeding herd and, as such, they should be afforded equal protection.

The full study can be accessed here: “Importance of old bulls: leaders and followers in collective movements of all-male groups in African savannah elephants (Loxodonta Africana)”, Allen, C., Brent, L., et al (2020), Scientific Reports

Why are elephants dying in Zimbabwe and Botswana?

Originally published in Talking Humanities of the University of London, School of Advanced Study and Africa Sustainable Conservation News

Professor Keith Somerville investigates the mysterious deaths of more than 300 elephants in Zimbabwe and Botswana.

The discovery of the carcasses of 22 elephants near Hwange National Park in western Zimbabwe in early September has reactivated concern in the region and among those interested in elephant conservation that we still don’t know what killed 281 elephants in the Seronga district of Botswana’s Okavango Delta between March and June this year.

The Zimbabwe deaths occurred in a relatively restricted area in the Pandamasuwe Forest in western Zimbabwe, between Hwange NP (its largest fully protected conservation area) and Victoria Falls. All the dead elephants were young, under 18 years of age, according to the Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority (Zimparks). A spokesperson for Zimparks, Tinashe Farawo, told the media that all the elephants still had their tusks, ruling out poaching as a cause of death.

Zimbabwe has a recent history of the use of cyanide by poachers, who poison waterholes used by elephants. He added that there was no evidence that they had been killed by the disease anthrax, which is found in wild ungulates and livestock in southern Africa. Final tests are awaited to find a specific cause of death, though naturally occurring toxins in plants or contaminated water have not been ruled out, nor have so far unidentified bacterial infections.

Zimbabwe has between 80,000 and 86,000 elephants – about 55,000 of them in and around Hwange NP. They are part of the estimated 220,900–240,000 elephants to be found in the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area, KAZA, which includes regions of Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

Botswana has the largest elephant population there and in Africa as a whole, with between 130,000 and 150,000, numbers fluctuating as elephants move across the KAZA region to find water and food. Herds move across the region throughout the year, and it is not possible to give a definitive population figure for any one country, as numbers change with the seasons.

The Zimbabwean deaths are worrying but not as extensive as the demise of hundreds of elephants in the northern Okavango Delta earlier this year. These were first reported in May, when the southern African media said that by early July, 400 carcasses of elephants that had died suddenly had been discovered around the Seronga region of the northern Delta. In what is known as the Panhandle – none had their tusks removed, and they did not appear to have died of starvation or thirst.

Poaching using poisons like cyanide and strychnine and anthrax were ruled out by laboratory tests early on. Tests also ruled out the nine most common pesticides and other agricultural chemicals used by farmers, and which have been used to poison wildlife. The environment ministry has also said that Encephalomyocarditis virus, which is an acute viral disease, another possible cause, also has been eliminated as the cause of deaths.

After initial testing in Botswana, samples from the elephants were sent to South Africa, Zimbabwe, the US and Britain for more extensive tests. These confirmed that poison, anthrax, dehydration and starvation could be ruled out. The Botswana Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources Conservation and Tourism (MENT) has said that the original estimates above 375 elephant deaths, reported by the NGO Elephants Without Borders (EWB) was incorrect. EWB and the government have a history of conflict over the conservation, elephant numbers and poaching levels in northern Botswana. It was now known that 281 had died from unexplained causes. Many were found dead on their knees, indicating sudden deaths rather than the long-drawn-out deaths that occur with starvation or lack of water.

The testing of samples outside the region has been slow. The Botswana environment ministry explained this as being a result of the strain placed on testing centres across the world by Covid-19 and its effects on international shipment of samples from the elephants, which has slowed the whole process.

No other carcasses suspected to be linked to the Okavango deaths have been found since July. However, those in Zimbabwe will cause renewed concern about the number of unexplained deaths in the KAZA area. Suspicion, according to the Botswana environment ministry, now centres on potentially lethal naturally-occurring toxins. But an experienced conservationist working in Botswana said a specific cause might not be identified as ‘the chances of definitive identification of a natural toxin are practically zero unless it is one of the known cyanotoxins, and even they are all challenging and expensive to analyse – even in good samples. Rotting elephant is not a good sample.’

Cyanotoxins include cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) which can occur in waterholes and especially after droughts – the region had a three-year drought which ended earlier this year. This toxin has been implicated in the deaths of livestock following droughts. Conservationists hope that these deaths are isolated and are not indicative of a virus that can be transmitted between elephants.

Professor Keith Somerville is a senior research fellow at the Institute of Commonwealth Studies (ICWS), part of the School of Advanced Study (SAS), University of London. He is a Member of the Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology at the University of Kent where he teaches at the Centre for Journalism and is editor of the Africa Sustainable Conservation News website. He is the author of Ivory. Power and Poaching in Africa.

Wild dogs facing increased persecution in Eastern Namibia

Cheetah Conservation Fund (CCF) staff report that the ongoing persecution of African wild dogs (painted wolves) continues, as evidenced by the puppy carcass found on a road in Eastern Namibia – believed to be a victim of an intentional killing. As reported to the Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism (MEFT), the dog’s pack had killed a young breeding cow nearby, and the vehicle strike was in retaliation. Attempts to kill African wild dogs on the road intentionally are commonplace in Babwata National Park as well as South Africa and Zimbabwe. The critically endangered African wild dog belonged to a pack that is believed to consist of five adults and five or six pups of about three months of age. Staff from CCF’s – Carnivore Conflict Field Station in the Eastern Communal areas are monitoring the packs’ movements to help prevent additional problems.

A severe drought during the past couple of years has led to an increase in conflict with livestock and game farmers towards both cheetahs and African wild dogs, particularly in the Eastern Communal area. While cheetah and wild dog are both rare, this area is home to a few remaining packs of wild dogs, a critically endangered species. CCF says that unless more awareness is brought to the situation, this kind of conflict could drive the species into extinction.

“Since the retaliatory action, the pack has moved to a neighbouring rural/communal farm. They were sighted there yesterday. The farmer is helping us track them, as they will likely soon find another resting area. Cooperation from farmers has intensified since CCF deployed a ‘rapid response’ team and developed a communication network between farmers. Sharing conflict information and movement updates with each other serves as an early warning system, and it mobilises community members to take precautionary measures to protect vulnerable livestock calves”, said Nadja le Roux, CCF’s Community Coordinator. “The pack has moved the pups but could go back to the den from time to time. They will stay in tight areas within this zone, which we have been studying for the past few years. This is the most common behaviour”.

CCF has spent years working with MEFT in the communities in and around the Omaheke and Otjizondupa Regions to strengthen their conservancies, including the surrounding farms in the Otjinene and Okakarara communities. The areas border each other and consist of freehold, resettled and communal farms. To encourage coexistence and reduce conflict, CCF has conducted Future Farmers of Africa training courses in the region to teach the best rangeland, livestock and wildlife management techniques, including non-lethal predator control.

In 2017 and 2018, with the support of Nedbank’s Go Green Fund, a camera-trap survey revealed limited wildlife in these communal areas. To CCF, this means increased problems for farmers because this results in a limited wild prey base. African wild dogs prey on small antelope and have large home ranges, and more biodiversity is required to sustain them.

“We remind the public that CCF is here to help farmers manage problems with carnivores that share the landscape in Namibia. CCF’s Future Farmers of Africa trainings teach the best management of livestock, wildlife and grazing lands to help reduce conflict with predators”, said Dr Laurie Marker, CCF’s Founder and Executive Director.

“Other community initiatives, like our One Health project to vaccinate domestic animals against rabies, has helped us reach a lot of the population that experience conflict with African wild dogs, and we can share information about coexistence with wildlife. Increasing the wildlife base in this area will be critical to reducing conflict, a strategy we hope to develop with MEFT.”

Today fewer than 660 packs of African wild dogs remain in Africa, with less than 300 mature adults in Namibia, of which the majority are found outside protected areas. Because of this, CCF believes working directly with the farming community in areas with wild dog packs is critical for species survival. CCF coordinates with regional efforts to support the species, including the Range Wide Conservation Programme for Cheetah and African Wild Dogs, which works across Africa with all countries where these two species exist in the wild.

“The Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism is concerned with retaliatory killings of African Wild dogs considering they are a critically endangered species. We understand they are culprits in human-wildlife conflict incidents leading to livestock damages to farmers. However, we want to urge that such incidents must be reported to the Ministry for an amicable solution that should not involve the killing of such species in a cruel manner”, said Romeo Muyunda, spokesperson of the Namibia Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism.

Because CCF now has a Satellite Camp located in the Eastern Communal area providing consistent support, staff from CCF’s Carnivore Conflict Station monitors pack activity and can respond immediately when problems arise. CCF also operates a 24-hour farmer support hotline to offer advice on conflict issues around cheetah, African wild dog and other carnivores. CCF staff can provide access to a network of partner organisations within the Large Carnivore Management Association (LCMAN) to assist with HWC in different regions of Namibia with a variety of carnivore species. The public is encouraged to use this hotline service.

CCF Farmer Hotline: +264 81 227 5139

Nadja le Roux and Dr Hanlie Winterbach are CCF’s staff members coordinating the programming at CCF’s – Carnivore Conflict Field Station.

Cheetah Conservation Fund

Conservation Fund (CCF) is the global leader in research and conservation of cheetahs and dedicated to saving the cheetah in the wild. Founded in 1990, CCF is an international non-profit organisation headquartered in Namibia. CCF is celebrating its 30th anniversary in 2020, making it the longest-running and most successful cheetah conservation organisation. For more information, please visit www.cheetah.org.

Trophy hunting quotas for South Africa in 2020: leopards, elephants and lion bone exports

Trophy hunting quotas for South Africa in 2020: leopards, elephants and lion bone exports

South Africa’s Minister of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment, Barbara Creecy, replied as follows to questions posed to her during sessions in the country’s National Assembly:

LEOPARDS

Concerning how many leopards will be hunted in 2020, she replied that 11 trophy hunting quotas would be issued for male leopards over the age of seven in South Africa.

Zero quotas were issued for 2016 and 2017 after the country’s Scientific Authority expressed concern that the number of leopards in South Africa was unknown and that trophy hunting posed a high risk to the remaining population. After an effective two-year moratorium on leopard hunting, the Department of Environmental Affairs issued a quota of seven male leopards in 2018, based on findings by the Scientific Authority that the leopard populations in certain areas would be able to sustain a limited quota.

While in theory, South Africa has a CITES-approved leopard export quota of 150 per year, the country has adopted an adaptive management framework that adjusts quotas annually based on available population data.

In 2019, the government once again did not issue any leopard hunting quotas for the year but convened a stakeholder consultation meeting in June 2019. The Department confirmed that the written submissions of various stakeholders expressed a range of divergent views and that these were taken into consideration before a decision was made to issue a quote for 11 leopards for 2020.

ELEPHANTS

In answer to a question regarding the elephant trophy hunting quota for 2020, the Minister did not give an exact answer but instead referred to South Africa’s existing CITES-approved export quota of 300 tusks (150 animals). This quota is allocated based on requests from provinces, which on average equates to about 50 elephants per year in total, limited to solitary male animals or “damage-causing animals”.

LION BONE EXPORT

The Minister was also asked whether an export quota for lion bone is being considered for 2020. The response to that question was that the judgement of National Council of the Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals v Minister of Environmental Affairs and Others requires the Minister to consider welfare issues relating to lions in captivity when determining the quota. As a result, the Department was not able to determine the 2019 lion bone export quota, and the process would be deferred.

“Lost” species of elephant shrew alive and well

In 2017, the Somali Sengi was identified by the Global Wildlife Conservation as one of the Top 25 Most Wanted taxon in their Search for Lost Species initiative. Now researchers have discovered a seemingly thriving population of this elephant shrew in Djibouti, nearly 50 years after the last scientific record.

Elephant shrews, or sengis, are insectivores found only in Africa and are most closely related to tenrecs, golden moles, and aardvarks. There are at least twenty recognized species, the smallest weighing just 50 grams. The original specimen of the Somali sengi is currently held by the National Museum of Natural History in Paris and was collected by Georges Révoil in the late 19^th century. The species epithet, revoilii, is a reference in his honour. Several other specimens were collected throughout the following century, the last known hypodigm (a specimen used to identify the characteristics of a species) comes from 1973. They were believed to be endemic to Somalia.

An expedition set out to investigate reports of sighting of the missing elephant shrew in Djibouti and joined forces with Houssein Rayaleh, a Djiboutian ecologist. The team set out 80-90 traps every evening, which were then checked first thing in the morning. In total, the team set out 1,259 traps in 12 locations, baited with rolled oats, peanut butter, and yeast. The vast majority of the species recovered from the traps were spiny mice (263), as well as 17 gerbils, one gundi and eight Somali sengis – five males and three females.

Some of the identifying characteristics of the Somali sengi include:

A pale ring surrounding the eye, with a dark brown mark extending from the corner of the eye
The presence of hair growth on the skin surrounding the nostrils
Second upper incisors equal in size to both first and third upper incisors
Absence of lower third molars
Lower first premolars with only one root
A pectoral gland fringed with short white hairs
A hairy tail with a small tuft
The tail is on average 19% longer than the head-body length
A head-body length between 122-148mm

Through genetic analysis, the research also indicated that the Somali sengi is a descendent of the Macroscelidini lineage of elephant shrews, making it more closely related to species found as far away as Morocco and South Africa and only distantly related to the rufous sengi – its closest geographic neighbour. As such, the genus name of the Somali sengi has been changed from Elephantulus to Galegeeska, within which it is currently the only recognized species. Its known distribution range was also revised. The genus name was chosen as a reference to the broader than expected geographic range of the small animals, as “geeska” in Somali translates as “corner” or “horn” (a reference to the horn of Africa).

The name “gale” was also chosen to honour Dr Galen B. Rathbun, a member of the expedition that rediscovered the Somali sengi, one of the co-authors of the paper, and one of the foremost experts in elephant shrew ecology. He died shortly after the expedition in 2019.

The good news is that, while the researchers have not attempted to estimate the population size, they believe that the Somali sengis are thriving and, happily (and somewhat unusually), the habitat they seem to prefer is not under any imminent threat from human development and agriculture.

The full study can be accessed here: “New records of a lost species and geographic range expansion for sengis in the Horn of Africa”, Heritage, S., et al (2020), PeerJ

Tsavo – Land of legends

Every one of Africa’s national parks and protected spaces comes with its own rich and vibrant history, and some, like Tsavo, have had a more challenging road than others. Shaped by the history of the country, no small amount of luck, and often the blood, sweat and hard work of passionate conservationists, Africa’s wild protected spaces are the treasure chests of our natural resources.

Often due to these complex histories, some of these wild spaces engender a kind of mystique, which is especially true for Tsavo East and West National Parks. As part of the broader Amboseli-Tsavo ecosystem, there is something captivating about Tsavo – a feeling of vast space and ancient magic of the truly wild. Thick red soils stain the leathery skins of its sizeable elephant population, and the sight of a herd of red elephants crossing the Tsavo River beneath lush palm fronds is one not easily forgotten. The sometimes-harsh beauty of the landscape captured the heart of Denys Finch Hatton (‘Out of Africa’ – Karen Blixen’s lover) in a way no other wild space (or woman) ever had, and it was there that he was killed when the plane he was piloting crashed.

Clockwise, from top left: fringe-eared oryx herd, lesser kudu, maneless (almost) male lion and leopard

From untimely deaths to man-eaters and poaching wars, Tsavo has not had the easiest road but now, combined, Tsavo East and West account for the largest of Kenya’s protected spaces by a comfortable margin, over 20,000km² (2,000,000 hectares), and one of the world’s largest protected wilderness areas. Named for the Tsavo River that runs through Tsavo West before joining the Athi River to form the Galana River, this massive Big 5 ecosystem lies directly between Nairobi, Kenya’s capital, and Mombasa, the country’s main port city. This location is the reason behind the division of Tsavo East and West – they are split by both railways and the Nairobi-Mombasa Road, which sees the movement of around 50% of goods traded in East Africa. The enormous size of Tsavo makes it one of the most biodiverse ecosystems in Kenya, from the red semi-desert of parts of the East to the rainforests of the Chyulu Hills and everything in between.

Tsavo East

Tsavo East National Park is the larger of the twin parks, covering 13,700km² (1,370,000 hectares), and is also the more arid of the two. Apart from some crags around Voi and gorges around the Galana River, Tsavo East consists mostly of plains of grassland and savanna that stretch as far as the eye can see. The park receives fewer visitors than Tsavo West, and it is easily possible to spend a day exploring without encountering another soul. The reopening of the “forbidden zone” (closed off during the poaching wars) has added yet another spectacular aspect to an already striking reserve, particularly for those keen to spot African wild dogs (painted wolves).

Geologically fascinating, Tsavo East is home to the Yatta Plateau (the longest lava flow in the world which begins near Nairobi and stretches for over 300km) and Mudanda Rock, which acts as a water catchment and offers visitors the perfect outlook to watch animals arriving to drink there. Wildlife enthusiasts are guaranteed a glimpse or two of the long-necked gerenuks, one of the most peculiar-looking antelope in Africa, and should keep their eyes peeled for the lesser kudu and fringe-eared oryx as well. Apart from the Kenyan-Somali border, Tsavo East is also the only other place to see the critically endangered hirola antelope, which were introduced there to help to save the species. Sightings of black rhino are rare but rewarding, as are sightings of striped hyena. The bird variety is equally diverse with over 500 bird species recorded in Tsavo East, including the golden-breasted starling, African orange-bellied (red-bellied) parrot, vulturine guineafowl and Somali ostrich.

Tsavo West

Tsavo West is more developed than Tsavo East, particularly the accessible area between the Tsavo River and Mombasa highway, and runs to the Tanzanian border. Close to Mount Kilimanjaro, Tsavo West is topographically fascinating, and its dramatic mountains, inselbergs and sheer cliff faces are courtesy of ancient (and relatively recent) tectonic shifts and volcanic eruptions. As a result of a combination of fertile volcanic soils and higher rainfall levels, the vegetation of Tsavo West can be dense in places, which in turn can make the wildlife viewing slightly more challenging but the scenery even more spectacular.

The Mzima Springs are a significant attraction for visitors to Tsavo West. Below the volcanic Chyulu Hills, a natural reservoir of water percolates through the porous rock before eventually emerging, filtered, at Mzima Springs. Here, people can enter a glass viewing chamber to watch the life underneath the surface of a crystal-clear pool – including schools of fish, crocodiles, and the resident hippos. The dense date and raffia palms and an assortment of various other fruiting trees attract a variety of bird and primate life, making the springs a veritable oasis, especially during the drier months.

Hippos in the crystal-clear waters of Mzima Springs.

Not far from the Chyulu Gate, the Shetani lava flow is a vast expanse of folded black lava from an eruption believed to have occurred only 200 years ago, now inhabited by nimble klipspringers and ubiquitous hyraxes, and (for the fortunate few), a lounging leopard unfazed by the sharp rocks. The nearby caves, formed by the same volcanic activity can be freely explored, by those brave enough to do so! The name “Shetani” translates as “devil” in Swahili, which gives some insight into just how the original residents felt as they watched the lava flow across the earth.

The Ghost and The Darkness

No description of Tsavo would be complete without mention of possibly the most famous man-eaters in history. During the construction of the Ugandan Railway and bridge over the Tsavo River, a pair of male lions, nicknamed The Ghost and The Darkness, stalked and killed many labourers. Despite efforts to keep the lions away from the camps by building large fires and bomas, the lions regularly managed to find a way in and seemed to have no fear of people. Hundreds of workers fled, and construction was halted while Lieutenant-Colonel John Henry Patterson spent his evenings in a platform in a tree, attempting to bait and trap the lions before finally killing both. The number of people killed by the man-eaters of Tsavo is disputed – it seems likely that Patterson’s claim that they killed 135 people was exaggerated. Analysis of their fur suggests a number closer to 34 people but could not account for victims killed but not eaten by the lions.

There is no overarching accepted reason as to why those lions behaved in the way they did, and it was most likely due to a combination of different factors and opportunism born of a different age. Certainly, at that point in history, the rinderpest outbreak of the late 19^th century would have decimated their available prey, and one was shown to have had a severe infection in the root of its canine.

The experience

Visitors to Tsavo, particularly Tsavo East, should be aware that temperatures can be searing at times, particularly during the dry months between January and February and June to October. These consistently high temperatures are one of the theories put forward as to why all Tsavo male lions have extremely undeveloped manes, though there is a fair amount of scientific disagreement as to the exact explanation. Either way, the baking days should be taken into account by those considering visiting Tsavo.

Many of Tsavo’s lodges are famous for their colonial-style luxury and experienced guides are there to ensure their guests experience the best of these remarkable national parks. Tsavo is enormous, and tourist densities tend to be relatively low, so this is not a national park to be explored by novice safari-goers looking to be self-sufficient without adequate preparation. Those adventurous souls that do venture out should ensure that they are fully prepared, especially during the rainy season where driving can be technical. Appropriate supplies of drinking water are a must!

Tsavo is famous for its herds of red elephants, including some of Africa’s last big tuskers, and these are a testament to both the resilience of nature as well as the enormous effort that went into protecting them. Historically, Tsavo’s incidental proximity to the main transport route to the coast spelt disaster for its elephant and rhino populations during Kenya’s poaching wars of the 1970s/80s. Populations dropped to 5,300 elephants in 1988 but thanks to concerted conservation efforts, have since risen to around 12,000 today – one of the largest elephant populations in Kenya. For elephant enthusiasts, a visit to Tsavo is a must.

Those that have visited Tsavo can bear testament to its unique feel and, without being too melodramatic, its profound and indelible impact on the soul. It is difficult to fully capture the Tsavo experience in words – the boundless skies and vast spaces combine with a rich sense of history to create a wilderness experience from a bygone era. For those that seek wilderness and enjoy elephants and bushwalking, try this exclusive safari option: Walking with giants in Tsavo

Want to go on a safari to Tsavo? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.

Walk with Giants in Tsavo – 13 days. Join us on an epic extended safari from a bygone era that explores the breadth of this giant wilderness landscape and ends in the warm waters of the Indian Ocean. This sojourn will most certainly recharge your batteries and put sand in your shoes. View the safari here or send us a personal email with your questions.

Coal mining in Hwange: gov bans mining in national parks

UPDATE to our recent report on Chinese coal mining in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe: “Mining on areas held by national parks is banned with immediate effect. Steps are being undertaken to immediately cancel all mining title held in national parks,” stated information minister Monica Mutsvangwa during a news media briefing on Tuesday after a weekly cabinet meeting.

Mines Minister Winston Chitando said state mining arm Zimbabwe Mining Development Corporation holds the Hwange concessions and had partnered with two Chinese firms, Afrochine Energy and Zimbabwe Zhongxin Coal Mining Group to utilise the concessions.

This about-turn follows on pressure from tourism bodies, conservationists and a threat of legal action by the Zimbabwe Environmental Law Association who filed an urgent high court application. The application was based on mining prospecting being undertaken without an environmental impact assessment certificate having been issued and therefore in violation of the Environmental Management Act. Additionally, mining in a national park is in breach of the constitutional duty to prevent ecological degradation and promote conservation in terms of section 73(b) of Zimbabwe’s constitution.

Zimbabwe is entirely reliant on coal for energy, and a substantial portion of the country’s coal reserves are found in the Hwange district, with the Hwange Colliery Company operating as the oldest coal mine. In recent months, the Zimbabwean government has been pushing for increased coal and energy production in the country. It has issued several special grants to prospective coal miners as well as increasing the capacity of power stations and smelters. While there have been concerns around pollution and health risks to neighbouring communities, most of the new developments have taken place outside the protected areas.

Hwange National Park is Zimbabwe’s largest national park at 15,000km² and is home to the second-largest elephant population in Africa.

Domestic cat predation on wild animals in Cape Town

by Rob Simmons, Colleen Seymour, Justin O’Riain

Cats touch all our lives in many ways… one may be curled up on your lap as you read this, providing you with invaluable comfort. Or they may be silently hunting through your neighbour’s garden, sight-unseen. Yet these cuddly, charming felids are honed killing machines whose impact on biodiversity in South Africa is only now being fully revealed.

Domestic and feral cats have been studied on every continent on the planet except Antarctica (where they don’t occur) and Africa (where they are more numerous than you probably realise). In fact, they may be the world’s most abundant and wide-spread carnivore, surviving on freezing sub-Antarctic islands to the hot, fire-ravaged deserts and forests of Australia.

On every continent, research has found that cats kill a wide diversity of wildlife, often in staggering numbers. For example, in the USA, a 2013 study estimated that domestic cats kill between 1.3–4.0 billion birds and 6.3–22.3 billion mammals annually. As we show below these are likely to be under-estimates for reasons uncovered in a study done in the south-eastern USA and confirmed in our own research programme here in Cape Town.

Our research investigated the impact that these ubiquitous agile predators have on the biodiversity around us. Three student projects (undertaken by Sharon George, Koebraa Peter and Frances Morling) explored the hunting habits of domestic cats in the spring, summer, and winter seasons across 22 Cape Town suburbs. Some of the cats lived in homes bordering Table Mountain National Park – so-called “urban-edge” cats, while others were more than 500m from the edge, termed “deep-urban” cats.

These studies found that cats in Cape Town suburbs occur at average densities between about 150 and 300 cats per square kilometre. This is on the low side compared to many countries, but similar to those found in Australia and New Zealand. However, these densities are more than 300 times that of their wild felid counterparts (e.g. Caracal (Caracal caracal) and African Wild Cat (Felis silvestris lybica), and this implies they may be having a rather large impact on wildlife around us.

To understand predation rates, we used the global protocol of asking cat-owners to serve as citizen data collectors – and they responded wonderfully, systematically recording prey returned home over 6 to 10 weeks. Cat owners also bagged prey for later identification.

In our sample of over 130 cats ranging in age from 6 months to 18 years old, we were surprised at just how many cats seldom returned prey home. What if, the students asked, the cats were eating or abandoning prey as they caught it? So, we turned to some nifty technology in the form of lightweight video cameras, dubbed “KittyCams” (a kind of “GoPro” for moggies), that the cats wore on break-away collars.

Cat owners’ records of prey returned home indicated that Cape Town’s cats killed an average of 16 prey per year, most of which were mammals. But those numbers all changed when the startling footage from the KittyCams came in.

Based initially in Newlands and then expanded to eight other suburbs, we first tested whether KittyCams affected the cats’ hunting behaviour, by comparing the number of prey returned by individuals with and without KittyCams. There was no difference.

The night-vision KittyCam showed that cats killed over 90% of their prey at night and over 80% of it was eaten on the spot or abandoned in the field. That meant that prey returns to the home were seriously under-estimating cat predation rates over five-fold.

The only other study using KittyCams in the USA found a similar under-estimation of 4.5-fold. The underestimation was not the only bias. Cats preferred to bring home birds or mammals they caught, but often ate or abandoned reptiles, amphibians, and insects where they caught them.

These biases have two implications. First, it explains why predation estimates from Cape Town cats and cats in other countries are likely to be under-estimates because to date, most studies have relied on questionnaire surveys of prey returns. Such studies would have to be multiplied by 4.5 to 5.6 to reflect the actual numbers of wildlife taken annually. As such, the average Cape Town cat’s annual impact is revised from 16 to 90 prey per year.

Since there are at least 300 000 domestic cats in Cape Town, the total kill rate is about 27.5 million animals per year. About 14 million of those are estimated to be reptiles, and a particularly favoured prey is the Marbled Leaf-toed Gecko, which is caught and consumed in seconds, and seldom returned home. For the bird lover, it is sobering to know that “only” about 450 000 birds are taken by Cape Town’s cats every year.

The second implication of this KittyCam study and the one conducted in the south-eastern USA is that until now, mammals and birds headed the lists on domestic cat predation to date because cats have more of a predilection for bringing these animals home. Our study shows that cats do indeed kill more mammals and birds than previously thought, but they are killing far more reptiles, amphibians and invertebrates than has ever been realised.

Of conservation concern is that at least 2200 cats live within 150 m of the edge of Table Mountain National Park, consuming an estimated 200 000 prey many of which are likely to be taken from within the Park itself or have wandered into gardens bordering the Park.

Of equal concern is that, if there are 2.4 million domestic cats as estimated by the pet food industry in South Africa, then at the rates computed for Cape Town’s cats we estimate that 216 million prey are likely to be taken across South Africa every year. This does not include feral cats which require a study all on their own.

Conservation authorities such as the South African National Parks (SANParks) have responded positively to the study, acknowledging the negative impacts of domestic cats on fauna in the Park and looking into the potential for buffer zones that might reduce these impacts.

We suggest that cat owners can help reduce the negative impacts of their pets with two simple interventions: (i) keep them in at night when predation peaks and the risk to cats of being run over by vehicles is highest and (ii) add bells to their collars which may reduce hunting success in catching birds and mammals, although this will not reduce impacts on reptiles (reptiles don’t hear the bells). Cats may, of course, switch their behaviour to hunting during the day, but that is research for another day. We stress that these will not stop predation, only reduce it, so longer-term measures are critical.

Concerned owners can consider catios, (enclosed patios) that allow a cat access into the garden but not further afield. They are already in use in North America as are lightweight (neoprene) bibs, that impede pouncing, but don’t impede the cat from drinking and eating. Both are effective in reducing predation.

An intervention to be explored with Table Mountain National park is the establishment of a stewardship programme for citizens whose properties border the Park. Having porcupines, Verreaux’s Eagles, spotted eagle owls, mongooses, genets and sugarbirds as neighbours comes with the responsibility to limit adverse urban effects such as pesticides, herbicides, invasive plants and exotic animals. A buffer of ‘biodiversity stewards’ would be a boon to the biodiversity of this World Heritage site and living in the ‘green zone’ a badge of honour in the fight against the global loss of biodiversity.

A montage of the kittycam footage captured by Frances Morling during one year of our study can be seen here:

A graphic of the main results of our study as it appeared in the published paper

Rob Simmons, is an Honourary Research Associate with the FitzPatrick Institute and runs his own environmental consultancy, Birds & Bats Unlimited
Colleen Seymour, is a Principal Scientist with the South African National Biodiversity Institute, and a Research Associate of the University of Cape Town
Justin O’Riain is Professor and Head of the Institute of Communities and Wildlife in Africa (iCWILD) at the University of Cape Town

The original paper is accessible here: “Caught on camera: The impacts of urban domestic cats on wild prey in an African city and neighbouring protected areas”, Seymour, C., Simmons, R., Morling, F., George, S., Peters, K., O’Riain, J., (2020), Global Ecology and Conservation

Counting lions: new study shows the importance of good counts for lion conservation

By Alex Braczkowski, Mustafa Nsubuga, Arjun Gopalaswamy and Duan Biggs

It’s 35 degrees Celsius and the black dust from the recent bushfires stings our nostrils as we speed along a stretch of the Ishasha road in Uganda’s Queen Elizabeth National Park. We’re searching for a pride of lions that were spotted by tourists near the Congolese border just hours earlier. Sam Isoke, a longstanding field technician with the Wildlife Conservation Society suddenly slams on the breaks, before shouting, “`You see, in that fig tree over there?”. Yes, you read that last part right… as one of the rarest in all of Africa, this population of lions can be found regularly hanging from the branches of 40-foot-tall trees. In fact, the lions in this part of Africa spend about half of their lives in large sycamore fig trees and cactus-like euphorbias. We count four individuals, a large male affectionately known to local field rangers as Jacob, his two sisters Julia and Jessica, and their mother Jacqueline. This is the 89^th day of such daily searching and our small team is exhausted from the relentless equatorial heat. We’ve been doing this because we are carrying out the first rigorous survey of lions in QENP, Uganda.

We started this research not only because there was uncertainty on how lion populations were faring in this part of the country, but also because there was broader evidence that the majority of historic surveys of African lions were missing the mark. The lack of good data on how many lions are left in Africa relates to a longstanding challenge in conservation, namely, to understand if management actions and conservation initiatives actually stop animal populations from declining (or even help them bounce back from human or natural pressures). This can be as simple as building a fence on the border of a national park to stop elephants stealing oranges, or paying farmers the market value of sheep eaten by bears, so they don’t retaliate and kill the bears. This is a dilemma faced by conservationists globally, across a wide strata of developing and affluent nations. If these interventions are applied without having a solid reference of how many animals a national park has to begin with, and how these change over time, the effectiveness of such interventions is questionable, maybe even futile. It may be argued that if conservationists and scientists spent more time in getting the numbers of threatened animal populations (including lions) right, we would be in a much stronger position to know how well our parks and conservation initiatives were doing, where to allocate resources and make sure the charismatic species the world enjoys didn’t silently go extinct.

The reality is that the three most seminal scientific studies (on fences, lion declines and a wide scale mapping exercise) published in the last ten years reporting on the number of lions in major African protected areas used questionable field methods like track counts, call up surveys or sometimes even direct observations in order to estimate lion numbers. A track or spoor count is literally what the name infers; a count of lion footprints that are related back to an estimate of true lion abundance (through a linear equation). A call up survey is a little better, and this entails blurting out the moans and groans of a dying buffalo or better yet, the whooping calls of a spotted hyena clan over a speaker system. These sound like a dinner bell for any lions in the area, which run towards the vehicle and can easily be counted by observers.

The problem with the direct application of call up surveys and track counts is that they make big assumptions about how lions (or their tracks) are detected in the landscape. These include how the footprints look on sand or mud, how they age, and eventually deteriorate, or even disappear in the baking hot sun or pelting rain. Just because you don’t see a lion footprint doesn’t necessarily mean a lion has not walked there. In fact, during our work in QENP, we followed a pride of lions and then looked at the substrate over which they walked. This soil was hard and not even one set of tracks was visible. With the call-ups you can’t even guarantee that the same lion isn’t being counted twice. The bigger problem yet is that these counts produce what scientists call wide confidence intervals which is a measure of precision. So, in theory a call up or track survey might estimate that there are 75 lions living in an area, but the lower estimate could be 15 lions, the upper 235. This wide uncertainty makes tracking how lions are faring nearly impossible in real time.

Taking a break at dusk on day 89 of our 93-day survey of lions in Queen Elizabeth National Park, southwestern Uganda. On this day, we found eight of the same individuals we had detected in previous weeks. The repeat detection of lions over three months meant we could estimate how many there were and how they moved in the landscape. Photo: Steve Winter.

To attempt to solve some of these problems, we wanted to test a recently developed lion counting technique from a study in Kenya’s Maasai Mara on the rare tree-climbing lions of Uganda. This study used the so called “search-encounter” technique (which was originally applied on mountain lions) implying, as the name suggests, a procedure of driving a vehicle and looking for lions. By keeping a small GPS logger, which takes a location point every few seconds, a tracking log is created and this means that one can account for where search effort has been dedicated in the landscape, and the relative proportion of distance travelled in an area. Once lions are located, their GPS location is taken, as are high-quality photographs of their faces. Like housecats, lions have distinctive whisker patterns and other distinguishing features, which are akin to human fingerprints.

Three separate images of a male lion (Jacob) in the Ishasha sector of Queen Elizabeth National Park show whisker spot patterns and nose patterning which can be used as identification cues for African lions. The method of whisker identification dates back to the early 1970s and was described by C.J Pennycuik and Judith Rudnai.

The location data, individual identity of lions and GPS tracking log are then entered into what scientists call a spatial capture-recapture matrix. This estimates the number of lions in an area statistically. With the advent of super computers and Bayesian statistical models we can get not only tighter estimates around the numbers of lions in a region, but examine how they move, and even ascertain their sex ratios, which are classical indicators of population health.

Our recently published study in Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution suggests that the majority of 169 scientific studies that used lion numbers were either made through direct observations, track counts, call ups or mixed methods.

When we applied the search-encounter technique in Uganda we could draw on the information of how lions move in the landscape (based on their sex) and also examine their sex ratios. In our study we could actually compare how lions had changed their movements over a ten-year period. From 2006-2010 a team of Ugandan scientists, led by Mr Tutilo Mudumba radio collared nine adult lions in the south of Queen Elizabeth National Park (5 males and 4 females). They found that lion home ranges in this area were amongst the smallest recorded in East Africa (just 40 and 46 km² for males and females respectively). Because our lion count featured information on where individual lions were located in the reserve, we could generate approximate minimum estimates of their range size in 2018 (a decade later). Our count of African lions showed that numbers in the park were quite low at only 2.7 lions/100 km², totaling ~71 lions across the ~2500 km² Queen Elizabeth Conservation Area. However, it was the movement patterns that were fascinating, with minimum home ranges expanding by some 400% for males and 100% for females respectively. The change in movement may be a reflection of depletion in the preferred prey that lions depend upon (topi, kob, waterbuck and buffalo) or human pressure on lions by snaring and retaliatory killings for livestock losses.

The unique situation in Queen Elizabeth National Park is that the tree-climbing behaviour of lions makes them easily detectable by rangers and tourists and thereby lions are frequently spotted. Had we not conducted our formal search-encounter survey of lions and performed a full-fledged statistical analysis from these data, we may have also not been able to detect the concerning trend of increased movement of lions.

The results of this lion survey have important ramifications not only for lions in this part of Uganda, but more broadly for other locations where lion numbers are shaky at best. Our review of historic lion surveys and numbers suggests there are large gaps in our knowledge of the status of the species. We argue that with the advances in mathematical models, supercomputing and easy to use field methods available to the lion conservation community we could fill these gaps rapidly. Indeed, the Kenya Wildlife Service and partners, took up an ambitious project of using the search-encounter approach combined with spatial capture-recapture analysis to survey the important source populations of lions and other large carnivores in Kenya. This project serves as proof that such reliable counting techniques can be scaled up to country-wide and region-wide scales.

With the current COVID-19 crisis and the collapse of the tourism sector, tracking how lion populations have fared when the world reopens will be essential in the continent-wide recovery effort for this much-loved icon of Africa.

We are grateful to the Uganda Wildlife Authority and WCS for their assistance in helping us use this method to determine the status of lions in western Uganda.

Dr Alexander Braczkowski is a scientist and wildlife filmmaker working at the Resilient Conservation Group, Griffith University. He has spent the last decade studying and filming large felids across three continents. His research has included understanding the ecology of a leopard population in South Africa’s Cape Fold mountains, counting lions and other carnivores in Uganda’s Albertine Rift, an expose of illegal jaguar trafficking in Iquitos, Peru, and explorations of ecosystem services of leopards in Mumbai India. The tree climbing lions of and the lion survey in this article formed the central part of Alex’ PhD thesis which he recently completed at the University of Queensland, Australia.

Dr Duan Biggs is the founder and lead of Resilient Conservation, a group of applied conservation researchers working actively at the interface of science, policy, and practice to enable innovative conservation outcomes in a multi-cultural world. Duan, has diverse experience and expertise on many socio-economic aspects of conservation. He has developed and supported community-based tourism and conservation initiatives, and investigated how they could be made more resilient to crises and change. Duan has also played a leading role in developing a community-based response to the illegal wildlife trade working in partnership with WWF, the IUCN, and International Institute for Environment and Development. His current focus is on how to rebuild conservation and human wildlife co-existence amidst COVID 19 to be more equitable, sustainable and resilient.

Dr. Arjun Gopalaswamy is an independent wildlife and statistical ecologist and is currently the Science Advisor, Global Programs, Wildlife Conservation Society. He has spent over two decades in developing and implementing rigorous population monitoring methodologies on large felids and large mammals in several important wildlife landscapes in Asia and Africa. He has wide experience in connecting, and making relevant, novel scientific ideas to on-ground research and conservation problems. And his work has focussed largely on charismatic species, such as tigers, lions and elephants.

Mr Mustafa Nsubuga is the large carnivore program manager at the Uganda Conservation Foundation in Uganda. He has worked in lion conservation and research for over 15 years and was born in the Queen Elizabeth National Park where this lion survey took place. Mustafa has run long term studies on African lion ecology examining home range size, densities and conflict with human communities and is currently involved in restoration efforts for the species across three National Parks in Uganda.

Cited literature

Braczkowski, A., Gopalaswamy, A. M., Elliot, N. B., Possingham, H. P., Bezzina, A., Maron, M., … & Allan, J. R. (2020). Restoring Africa’s Lions: Start with good counts. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 8, 138.

Braczkowski, A., Gopalaswamy, A. M., Nsubuga, M., Allan, J., Biggs, D., & Maron, M. (2020). Detecting early warnings of pressure on an African lion (Panthera leo) population in the Queen Elizabeth Conservation Area, Uganda. Ecological Solutions and Evidence, 1(1), e12015.

Elliot, N. B., & Gopalaswamy, A. M. (2017). Toward accurate and precise estimates of lion density. Conservation Biology, 31(4), 934-943.

Karanth, K. U., Nichols, J. D., Kumar, N. S., & Hines, J. E. (2006). Assessing tiger population dynamics using photographic capture–recapture sampling. Ecology, 87(11), 2925-2937.

Nichols, J. D., & Williams, B. K. (2006). Monitoring for conservation. Trends in ecology & evolution, 21(12), 668-673.

Russell, R. E., Royle, J. A., Desimone, R., Schwartz, M. K., Edwards, V. L., Pilgrim, K. P., & Mckelvey, K. S. (2012). Estimating abundance of mountain lions from unstructured spatial sampling. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 76(8), 1551-1561.

Karanth and Nichols (2017). Monitoring Methods for Tigers and ther Prey.

Duangchantrasiri et al. (2016). Dynamics of a low-density tiger population in Southeast Asia in the context of improved law enforcement. Conservation Biology.

Elliot et al. (2020). The importance for reliable monitoring methods for the management of small, isolated populations. Conservation Science and Practice 2020;e217.

National Lion and Predator Survey (2020). Africa’s first ever rigorous lion survey of key source populations. https://www.kenyawildlifetrust.org/portfolio-item/national-lion-predator-survey/

Zebra

With their dazzling black and white stripes and familiar horse body language, zebras are a firm favourite among safari-goers, especially when seen in their thousands during migratory events.

As the dust settles on the first zebra sighting, someone is bound to ask “So, are they white with black stripes or black with white stripes?”, at which point their guide usually forces a laugh and thinks seriously about their father’s advice to pursue a financial career in a big city.

The word “zebra” is borrowed from either Italian or Portuguese, where the first vowel is pronounced as a long vowel. And locally, guides have been heard referring to them as “stripy ponies, “horses in pyjamas” or, in the words of one safari guide in Tanzania, “disco donkeys”.

What follows is a celebration of one of the most unique, iconic and fascinating African animals. By the way, they are technically grey-skinned with black and white stripes.

The three species

There are three recognized species of zebra: the plains zebra (Equus quagga), the mountain zebra (Equus zebra) and the Grévy’s zebra (Equus grevyi), all belonging to the Equus genus, along with horses, donkeys and asses.

The mountain zebra: There are two recognized subspecies of mountain zebra – the Cape mountain zebra and the Hartmann’s mountain zebra, both of which are listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. Both subspecies have a distinctive dewlap and bold strip patters that extend down the lower leg to the hoof but not around the middle of the belly. The Cape mountain zebras were very nearly extinct, with numbers recovering from 80 individuals in the 1950s to the estimated 4,790 individuals alive today, found mainly in the Mountain Zebra National Park. The vast majority of Africa’s Hartmann’s mountain zebras are found in Namibia, and there are believed to be around 33,000 of them left in the wild.

The Grévy’s zebra: The largest of the zebra subspecies is also the most threatened of the three and their populations are currently isolated to central and northern Kenya, with a minimal number in Ethiopia. Currently classified as endangered on the IUCN Red List, there are fewer than 3,000 mature individuals left in the wild. Their ears are larger than those of the other two species, and their stripes are narrow and close-set, without extending to the belly.

Plains zebra: The plains zebra is by far the most populous of these species and is the most likely to be encountered on safari. The easiest way to distinguish them from the other two species is the stripes on the stomach – in plains zebras, these reach to the centre, but in the other two species, they don’t extend that far, and their bellies are white. The stripes of plains zebras also tend to fade towards the lower leg. At present, while there is some disagreement, there are six different subspecies, and some (but not all) have “shadow stripes”, pale, thin stripes in between their bold black stripes on the rump and sides. As the most populous of the three species, the below information will deal mostly with plains zebra, though there are numerous shared similarities between the three species.

Plains zebra quick facts:

Social structure: a harem with a dominant stallion, around 2-8 mares and associated offspring, or bachelor herd.
Mass: 175-320kg
Shoulder height: 127-140cm
Gestation period: 12 months
Number of young: 1 foal (2 have never been recorded)
Average life expectancy: Over 20 years in the wild, up to 40 years in captivity

Currently classified as ‘near threatened’, there are believed to be around 600,000 plains zebra in Africa, all in sub-Saharan Africa. They are water-dependent and tend to prefer grasslands and sparse woodlands and are generally not found in deserts or rainforests. As bulk grazers, they tend to be less fussy about the grass species or parts of the grass they eat, and they consume approximately double the amount of food as a ruminant of comparable weight (such as a wildebeest), which they process twice as fast. For this reason, they are known as “pioneer” feeders, hence why they tend to be the forerunners during the Serengeti/Maasai Mara ecosystem Great Migration.

Taxonomy and the quagga

Up until relatively recently, the scientific name of the plains zebra was Equus burchelli, but this was changed to Equus quagga when genetic studies revealed that the extinct quagga was, in fact, a subspecies of the plains zebra. The quagga, hunted to extinction towards the end of the 19^th century, had zebra-like colouration on the front half of its body but uniform brown colouring towards the rump and legs. “Quagga” comes from the Khoikhoi name for zebra and is an onomatopoeic name resembling the sound that all zebras make, described as “kwa-ha-ha”. The Quagga Project based in Cape Town is currently attempting to selectively breed plains zebra to “recreate” the quagga.

Herd mentality

The harem structure follows a basic formula of a dominant stallion along with several mares and their most recent offspring. When a young female reaches sexual maturity at around 2.5 years old, she attracts the attentions of other stallions who may compete with the dominant stallion and, ultimately, steal her away to add to, or even begin, their own harem. Zebra skirmishes are frequent, and a serious zebra fight can be deadly. Their kicks are tremendously powerful, and the males have erupted canine teeth that they use to bite their opponents – broken skin and bones are not uncommon, and many a zebra have lost their tail as a result of a fight. Occasionally, a stallion that has taken over an entire herd may kill the foals sired by the previous male.

There is a set dominance hierarchy within the females of the harem, starting with the mare that has been with the stallion the longest. Initially, a new mare to a harem is tormented by the other females, who take time to accept her presence, and the stallion often has to intervene on her behalf. Young males generally leave their herds and join bachelor groups with other young males. These herds also have their own dominance hierarchy, and it here that the young male can practice the fighting skills necessary to one day compete for a female once he reaches sexual maturity at around 5-6 years old.

Naturally, zebras are often seen in much larger groups than the ones described above, especially those that are migratory – such as in Tanzania, Kenya and Botswana. These harems and bachelor groups regularly associate with other groups, often interacting with each other with limited amounts of acrimony unless competition over a female arises.

A striped mystery

There is considerable debate around the reasons for the zebras’ unique striped coat. The predominant theory at present is that the striped pattern interferes with the vision of tsetse flies and other biting insects, preventing most from landing on a zebra’s coat. There are, however, other theories that have been put forward as to why zebras have stripes. Some zoologists favour the thermoregulation argument; the idea being that the black stripes heat up more than the white areas on the zebra which in turn creates microcurrents of air movement which cool the sweating zebras more rapidly. Others suggest that the unique stripe patterns may be a way for zebras to recognize other zebras.

The idea that zebras are striped as a kind of camouflage or anti-predation mechanism still holds some sway with certain biologists, who are seeking ways to test how lions respond to striped vs unstriped prey. The explanation behind this is not just that the stripes disrupt the outline of the zebras but that when multiple zebras are moving together, the stripes create an optical illusion that distorts the perception of the direction of movement. Given that most predators have exceptional hearing and that many a hunting lion has been observed picking out a specific zebra as a target without any undue difficulty, there are strong arguments against this particular line of thinking.

There is also, naturally, no reason why it might not be a combination of factors that led the zebras’ ancestors to develop a striped coat.

No discussion of zebra stripes would be complete without mentioning Tira, the zebra foal that caused an internet sensation after it was photographed in the Maasai Mara in 2019. Tira exhibits a kind of pseudomelanism that has resulted in an almost entirely black coat with white polka dots. This foal is not the first of its kind, however; dark-coloured zebra foals have been photographed in Botswana. There are also cases of leucistic zebra in the wild, though these are more commonly seen in captivity.

Final word

While the black and white stripes set zebras apart from other large mammals, their striking beauty belies their hardiness and resilience, characteristics that define the true essence of a wild zebra. They are capable of bearing the pain of horrific injuries, broken bones and torn skin with a profound survival instinct and, if unfortunate enough to be on the receiving end of a predator’s attention, will fight until their very last breath. The stallions are fierce defenders of their small families and often risk their own lives in defence of their foals.

Like many of their equid cousins, they do occasionally demonstrate a propensity for irascible temperaments but, given the harsh realities of living wild, this stubborn streak serves them well.

Coal mining in Hwange National Park

UPDATE 09 Sep2020: Coal mining in Hwange cancelled

Conservationists are incensed over a decision by the Zimbabwean government to allocate two coal mining concessions in the middle of Hwange National Park and the surrounding Deka Safari Area.

Bhejane Trust, a non-profit conservation organization that works with Zimbabwe’s National Parks and Wildlife Management Authority, broke the news on Facebook with the following statement:

“Our Rhino Monitoring team recently found some Chinese (people) in Hwange Park – we managed to ascertain they were drilling core samples for coal. Parks arrested them and turned them over to the Police. However, they soon reappeared with a permit giving them the right to carry on in the Park with exploratory drilling. They did this without any consultation with the Area Manager and seem to feel they have a right to go wherever they like to.

We followed up on this and discovered the Government has allocated two coal mining concessions in the middle of Sinamatella and Robins! The mining concessions are Special Grants which apparently can only be issued by the President, and both been granted to Chinese companies.”

The two concessions are in the northern section of the national park, and it appears that they have been granted to Afrochine Energy (concession SG7263 – incorporating Deteema Dam and Masuma Dam) and Zhongxin Coal Mining Group (concession SG5756). The Bhejane Trust was subsequently sent an undated Stakeholders Questionnaire by SustiGlobal, a company contracted to conduct the standard Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) for both companies. These questionnaires should have been sent before exploratory drilling.

Hwange National Park is Zimbabwe’s largest national park at 15,000km² and is home to the second-largest elephant population in Africa.

A different safari – photographic hides

It was a chilly (by Lowveld standards) and breathlessly still winter morning as the three of us headed north from our Hoedspruit hometown for the 50-minute drive to our adventure for the day – two underground photographic hides. We wanted to be in the first hide before the rising sun, in pursuit of the ‘golden light’, so it was pitch dark as we headed out. The francolins and scrub-robins had not even begun to herald another spectacular bushveld day.

‘You have to spend a full day in the Indlovu River Lodge hides Simon, the experience will blow your mind’, was the raison d’etre proffered by Villiers Steyn, good friend, photographer, and safari guru of note. Also roped in was Owen Grobler, keen amateur photographer, and volunteer leopard monitor on the wildlife estate that the three of us call home. And so, we headed out to Karongwe Private Game Reserve with packed food and refreshments to last the day. I don’t own an SLR camera, having decided many years ago to use my moments on safari absorbing every second and living the moment. My iPhone is perfect for my photographic needs, as was the Samsung Galaxy before that. Yes, my photographer friends do snigger behind my back. Villiers and Owen came armed with enough big equipment to go to war.

Twelve hours later, I was elated, exhausted and ready to rest my eyes.

Regular visitors to the hides include tree squirrels, vervet monkeys, giraffes, warthogs, baboons, zebras and nyala.

The underground photographic hide experience is for two kinds of people. First, of course, are the photographers that are after that ideal shot – be they pro or amateur, novice or experienced. Second, me, is the type who enjoy hour after hour of quietly observing nature do her thing, be it dainty blue waxbills risking a splashy bath or skittish zebras farting and kicking up dust as they scrap for the best drinking position. We enjoyed plentiful waterside to-and-fro that day, from a constant stream of impala, zebra, nyala and warthog to a furtive slender mongoose viewing us with suspicion from a few meters away before settling down to slake his thirst. For me, the highlight was the avian candy on offer – from flocks of fidgety bronze mannikins and common waxbills to dapper green-winged pytilias and a plump green pigeon that helicoptered in for a thirsty gulp before heading back to the nearby riverine trees.

Photographic hides — A flock of bronze mannikins, green-winged pytilia pair with blue waxbill, emerald-spotted wood-dove, Cape glossy starling and golden-breasted buntings

Karongwe is Big 5 country, and other visitors to the hides have captured herds of elephant and buffalo, lion prides and solitary leopards as they come in to drink. As usual, what you see is governed by the time of year and by how much water there is on the reserve.

I also enjoyed watching Owen and Villiers in action, as they set up their cameras for specific shots, made mistakes (avec exotic expletives) and celebrated some epic shots. Particularly amusing for me was watching Owen try again and again for that perfect bird ‘take-off shot’. Both gentlemen endeavoured (in vain) to capture the split-second a resident brown-hooded kingfisher hit the water to snatch a quick drink and dunking – which he did several times that morning.

There is something innately satisfying about that first cup of steaming coffee and dunked rusks, as you settle in to watch the awakening day, and tucking into your packed lunch after a morning of wall-to-wall action. And then, as the early evening shadows lengthen, those snacks accompanied by something a bit stronger adds to what is an epic African safari experience that is vastly different to the usual game drive or bush walk. Does life get any better than spending the day with friends enjoying what nature has to offer?

THE HIDES

There are two underground hides on offer at Indlovu River Lodge. Hoseng Hide faces west and is, therefore, ideally positioned for early-morning photography. The distance to where most wildlife drinks is a mere six meters – perfect for bird and up-close photography. Thapama Hide faces east and so is ideal for later afternoon photography, and the distance to the subject matter is 12 meters.

Both hides comfortably accommodate up to five guests and are equipped with comfortable wheeled high-backed director’s chairs, carpets to minimize noise and moveable gimbals. There is an iron bar to mount the gimbal and for bean bags. Mobile phone reception at the hides was non-existent, allowing for total immersion in the hide experience without distraction. The eye-level underground aspect enables you to shoot from ground level, across the water. Watch this video about the two hides at Indlovu River Lodge.

THE LODGE AND GAME RESERVE

Indlovu River Lodge is located in the 9,000 ha Big 5 Karongwe Private Game Reserve, a short drive from the town on Hoedspruit. The lodge can accommodate up to 20 guests via seven villas and suites in a beautiful garden setting under huge jackalberry trees.

WATCH: Villiers Steyn, aka ‘The Safari Expert’ made this video about our day in the hides at Indlovu River Lodge.

Keep the passion.

Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic

Keeping an eye on predators

Anyone who has watched ambush predators like lions and leopards in action knows that their movements are almost invariably governed by the gaze of the animals they are hunting, particularly during the day. Unless there are exceptional circumstances (the crush of a river crossing during the great migration in Kenya and Tanzania, for example), predators have to wait for the opportunity to strike, and if they are spotted by their prey, the hunt is almost always over. Now scientists have found a way to use this instinctive behaviour to deter predators from attacking livestock – a practical application of ethology with the potential to reduce human-wildlife conflict in some of the most impoverished areas of Africa. And all it requires is a lick of paint in the right place – a cow’s rear end.

Attacks on livestock by wild predators are common in rural regions surrounding protected wilderness areas. This has an enormous impact on impoverished households that depend on their livestock to survive and often results in the tragic retaliatory killing of a predator and even mass-poisoning events. Scientists and conservationists are continually seeking ways of mitigating this conflict, and while there is no single solution, something as simple as painting eye markings on cows has now been scientifically proven to deter predators.

Eyespots in nature are relatively common, with moths and butterflies being the most obvious example, and while there is some disagreement as to how these eye-markings work to deter predators, it is clearly an approach that has been evolutionarily selected for. Researchers used this knowledge to test whether or not this could be applied in deterring large mammalian predators by painting eyes on either side of cows’ tails on non-commercial farms on the fringes of the Okavango Delta. In conjunction with Botswana Predator Conservation and the local herders of the region, the researchers studied 2,061 cattle over four years.

They selected herds which had experienced high levels of predation and painted artificial eyespots in black and white or yellow on random cattle. To determine whether or not the effects could be attributed to the “eye”-shape of the markings, some cattle were only marked with simple X-shapes, and others were left unmarked. The cattle were also fitted with GPS-loggers to ensure that the results of the study could not be attributed to the movements of the cattle while left unattended during the day.

During the study period, of the 19 cattle killed by ambush predators, 15 of these were unmarked and the remaining 4 were marked with Xs. Not one of the 683 cows with eyespots was killed during the study. The predators (almost invariably lions) were clearly deterred by the eyespots painted on the cattle but, surprisingly, the X-markings also seemed to have an effect in deterring predation. From an academic perspective, this result is relevant to how eyespot markings actually work, and while it does seem to provide evidence to support the ‘detection hypothesis’, it still does not offer any conclusive answers.

The positive results of this study suggest that painting eyespots on cattle could provide a low-cost method for reducing the risks of wild predation on livestock; however, the researchers do have some cautionary points in this respect. The first of these is that the method is as yet untested when all the cows in a herd have been marked. The second is that the marks may lose their effectiveness over time, as the lions become more accustomed to them. As such, the authors suggest that this approach is just one tool one which needs to be used in conjunction with others in the ongoing battle against human-wildlife conflict.

The full study can be accessed here: “Artificial eyespots on cattle reduce predation by large carnivores”, Radford C., et al (2020), Communications Biology

A Black and White Photo Safari

Contributor

LAURENT BAHEUX is a French photographer known for high contrast black and white photographs of nature and wildlife. Tight shots or misaligned, noise or grain, he explores every technique with the ultimate aim of honouring the subjects that he photographs. Baheux’s work on African wildlife has been featured in art galleries worldwide and in awareness campaigns for conservation and environmental organisations including World Wildlife Fund (WWF), GoodPlanet Foundation, and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). He is a UNEP Goodwill Ambassador for the anti-poaching initiative with images being featured in the Wild and Precious international exhibition. View more of Laurent’s work on http://www.laurentbaheux.com.

Are Namibia’s carnivores at risk? Calling on citizen scientists

By Namibian Chamber of Environment, originally published in Conservation Namibia

The world is facing an extinction crisis, and Namibia’s carnivores are also at risk. According to the Living Planet Index, wildlife populations have declined by 60% in the last 40 years. Although species go extinct naturally, humankind’s impact has accelerated the rate of extinction to up to 1,000 times faster than the estimated natural rate.

Our world’s plants and animals are of incalculable value as they provide ecosystem services that are essential to life on earth. Besides their direct worth, wildlife is valuable to us in many ways that cannot be expressed in dollars and cents – the majesty of an elephant in a savannah, the hard stare of a lion when you make eye contact, our sense of serenity and wellbeing in natural spaces. These are things that money cannot buy, but we could lose them if our conservation efforts fail.

The first step to addressing a problem is to understand its extent, severity and causes. Without this information, it would be impossible to find effective solutions. To address this need, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) established the Red List, which since 1964 has grown to become the largest and most comprehensive database of extinction risks to plants and animals.

By combining hard data with expert knowledge in a standardised and globally recognised format, the IUCN Red List has become the go-to resource for conservationists and the general public. It is an especially useful guide for setting conservation priorities by identifying which species need the most urgent help, and what we can do to reduce the threats they face. You can search this database to find out more about plants or animals that interest you at www.iucnredlist.org.

When assessing a species, experts consider more than just the total number of animals left on earth. They take into account whether or not these numbers have declined in the last ten years, and if so, by how much; the extent and quality of the area they now occupy, and if that area is smaller or more fragmented than it used to be; current population estimates; and ultimately their probability of extinction in future. Once these factors have been taken into account, experts assign the species to one of the IUCN categories of threat – known as the species’ status.

Besides species that are now extinct in the wild, or those we know too little about to assess, all others fall into one of the following categories (from worst to best status): Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, Near Threatened, and Least Concern. Conservationists are most concerned about species falling in the first three of these categories, which face high to extremely high risks of extinction in the wild. Near Threatened species still warrant monitoring, as these species could decline into one of the worse categories in future if we fail to address the threats they face today.

The Red List is concerned with global extinction risks, but this is not always useful for governments and conservation organisations working in specific countries – species that are doing well globally may be declining within a country, or vice versa. If an increased national extinction risk is not identified and addressed, individual countries may lose these species before they are aware of the problem. Consequently, the IUCN has created a system for assessing extinction risks at national and regional scales. The information produced from collecting data and drawing on local expert knowledge is then published as a Red Data Book. These books are available to the public and can assist national governments in setting their conservation agendas. A good example is Namibia’s Red Data Book for Birds, entitled Birds to Watch in Namibia – Red, Rare and Endemic Species, which can be sourced here Namibia’s Environmental Information Service.

Namibia has not yet produced a Red Data Book for any of its mammals, but the Namibian Chamber of Environment (NCE), together with the Large Carnivore Management Association of Namibia (LCMAN) and the Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism (MEFT), is looking to change this. On 8-10 November 2017, NCE facilitated a meeting sponsored by B2Gold Namibia at the Otjikoto Environmental Centre to look at creating a Red Data Book for Namibia’s carnivores. The experts who attended the meeting are affiliated with LCMAN, NCE and (MEFT) – organisations that are ideally placed to undertake collaborative tasks such as this one.

During the conference, the experts on carnivores presented their current knowledge on everything from lions to mongooses. Large carnivores, like the big cats, hyenas, and African wild dogs, are generally better-studied and understood than small carnivores, and they are under much greater threat due to human pressures. During the conference, the experts gave preliminary Namibian statuses to all of the carnivores, which will be revised once all available data have been collated and analysed for each species. These preliminary statuses indicate that of the carnivores, African wild dogs, cheetah, and spotted hyena have higher extinction risks in Namibia than they have globally (see Table 1).

Table 1. The Global and preliminary Namibian statuses for carnivores. Species not listed here are classified as Least Concern globally and in Namibia.

One of the reasons for the large carnivore status differences between Namibia and the rest of Africa is that Namibia’s dry climate naturally limits their range and population densities. For example, spotted hyenas are more common in high rainfall areas and are not as well adapted to desert life as brown hyenas. Namibia’s spotted hyenas, therefore, occur at relatively low densities, which increases their risk of extinction when compared to other spotted hyena populations.

Painted wolves (African wild dogs) are also confined to the wetter parts of the country (the northeast) and are more susceptible to being killed by farmers than hyenas. They are more visible as they hunt in packs and can be active during daylight hours, while their use of communal dens makes them vulnerable to farmer retaliation. Painted wolves are perceived to be incompatible with livestock farming, which means that some farmers may eliminate a whole pack if they encounter them. Changing the perceptions and subsequent tolerance by farmers of painted wolves is thus a conservation priority.

Cheetahs are also under threat in Namibia, mainly due to their conflict with livestock and wildlife farmers. Despite Namibia hosting the largest population of cheetahs in the world, the vast majority of these cats occur on farmland that has no official protection status. There have been two recent calls (see here and here) to up-list the cheetah to Endangered on a global basis, which will match their status in Namibia. Currently, cheetahs and livestock farmers coexist to some extent in Namibia, particularly in areas with healthy wild prey populations. Wildlife/game farmers tend to be less tolerant of cheetahs, as these cats are efficient predators of their preferred prey species – e.g. springbok, blesbok and the young of larger, often high-value antelope.

The cheetah range (left, shaded grey) compared to the lion range (right, shaded grey) in Namibia. Note how much of the cheetah range occurs outside protected areas (pink) compared to lions.

In stark contrast to cheetahs, Namibia’s lions are almost entirely reliant on protected areas like Etosha, and farmers rarely tolerate them. The main exception to this rule is the desert-adapted population in the far northwest, where lions occur at naturally low densities due to the harsh desert environment. Farmers in these regions come into conflict with the lions, but several concerted conservation efforts from government, non-governmental organisations and local conservancies have contributed to keeping this unique population alive.

Leopards are more broadly distributed within Namibia than either cheetahs or lions, but their Vulnerable status indicates that they remain a conservation concern – perhaps more so at the global level than in Namibia. The smallest cat in Namibia – the black-footed cat – shares its status with leopards, and poses even greater challenges to scientists trying to study it. Leopards are difficult to count due to their secretive, nocturnal nature, and black-footed cats are even worse! Both cats are secretive and nocturnal, but whereas leopards can be counted using heat and motion-sensitive camera traps, black-footed cats are rarely caught on camera.

While writing the Red Data Book, carnivore experts in Namibia will access as many sources of reliable information as possible. Carnivore researchers conduct intensive surveys using camera traps and other methods, but these efforts are usually limited to specific study areas and periods. Furthermore, small carnivore species (e.g. mongoose species, honey badgers and weasels) are rarely surveyed so intensively. While intensive studies provide the cornerstone of data collection efforts, more data over a larger area of Namibia and over longer periods are required to improve the accuracy of the extinction risk assessments.

The good news is that anyone who lives in or visits Namibia can contribute by collecting data for scientific purposes, as a ‘citizen scientist’. This can be done easily by downloading a free app (details below) for smartphones. This app contributes to the Namibian Environmental Information System, an online database that hosts a mind-boggling amount of information about the country.

After downloading the Atlasing app, you can report any sightings of carnivores and a range of other animals and plants in a matter of seconds. The app uses your smartphone’s built-in GPS unit to provide an accurate location for your sighting, and you can even submit photos if you are unsure of the species’ identification. If you are not online when you record the sighting, the app will save your records and upload them when you choose to do so. Once you have entered and uploaded your sightings, you can visit www.the-eis.com/atlas to find your own and others’ contributions to the database on a map of Namibia.

The global extinction crisis is real. Nonetheless, you can help dedicated wildlife researchers collect accurate information on species that are under threat. This knowledge is power, which will be used to guide our conservation actions and prevent further human-caused extinctions. Get the Atlasing app and be part of the solution.

With input from the Large Carnivore Management Association of Namibia and the Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism who attended the Namibian Red Data Book workshop hosted by the Namibian Chamber of Environment. Maps generated from Namibia’s Environmental Information System.

Bwindi

Bwindi Impenetrable National Park is the fairy-tale forest we dreamed about as children; it is also primaeval – one of Africa’s oldest ecosystems. This is a landscape wrapped in a blanket of mist; verdant, muddy, and bursting with the secret sounds of hidden life. Precipitous slopes descend to deep valleys cut into the landscape by tumbling, mountainous streams and the air is filled with the clamorous calls of forest birds unseen in the canopy. From ancient hardwood trees interspersed with bamboo thickets to delicate fern fronds, dangling vines and vicious nettles, the word “Bwindi” literally translates to “impenetrable” in the local Runyakitara language of Uganda.

Bwindi is a UNESCO world heritage site that is home to almost half the world’s mountain gorillas; an island of biodiversity surrounded by rural Ugandan farmlands.

The basics

Situated in southwest Uganda, Bwindi Impenetrable National Park is just over 330km² (32,000 hectares). To the north lies Queen Elizabeth National Park (famous for its tree-climbing lions), to the south the Virunga Mountains of Rwanda, and the Democratic Republic of Congo lies along the western edge of the park. As part of East Africa’s Albertine Rift and with altitudes ranging from 1,160 to 2,607 meters, Bwindi’s ancient rainforests have some of the highest levels of biodiversity in Uganda, including over 160 tree species, 120 mammals and 350 documented bird species.

The park is divided into four sections, named after the surrounding villages:

1. Buhoma (northern Bwindi)

The most visited area of the park, Buhoma is the largest of the four sectors and has the highest density of luxury accommodation options. As the first section of the park to open to visitors, this is where gorilla trekking first started in Bwindi, when the Mubare gorilla group was habituated in 1992. Apart from the Mubare family, the Habinyanja, Katwe and Rushegura groups also call Buhoma home. Visitors can also tour the neighbouring communities, bird watch and hike some of the most spectacular forest trails in Africa.

2. Ruhija (eastern Bwindi)

Ruhija is less-frequented than Buhoma, and home to the Kyaguriro, Oruzogo and Bitukura gorilla families. Aside from gorilla trekking, avid hikers can aim for the top of Rwamunyonyi Peak (“the hill of many birds”) – the highest point in the park that offers extraordinary views. As the name suggests, the forests around Rwamunyonyi offer some of the best birding in Bwindi (more on that later). Many lodges and tour guides also offer trips into the surrounding areas to meet some of the Batwa people – the park’s original inhabitants. On offer are demonstrations of the use of medicinal plants found in the forest and other ancient survival skills practised by their people for thousands of years. While elephant sightings in Bwindi are infrequent, Ruhija offers the best chance of spotting one of these shy grey ghosts.

3. Rushaga sector (southern Bwindi)

The Rushaga region of Bwindi is famed for its gorilla trekking, with multiple habituated gorilla families in the region, including the Bikingi, Bweza, Busingye, Kahungye, Mucunguzi, Rwigi, Mishaya groups and the Nshongi group – the largest of all the gorilla families in Bwindi. The major drawcard of this region is that a gorilla habituation experience is offered for 2 of these gorilla families, which allows tourists to spend up to 4 hours with the group, rather than the standard 1 hour. The Rushaga sector includes Lake Mutanda, so visitors can set out on a boat cruise for an entirely different perspective of the spectacular scenery.

4. Nkuringo (western Bwindi)

Home to the Nkuringo, Bushaho, Christmas, Nkuringo and Posho gorilla families, the Nkuringo sector is said to be the most scenic area to visit in Bwindi. The dramatic topography and break-taking views of the Virunga volcanoes do come at a physical cost; this particular region is better suited to more physically active visitors.

Gorilla trekking

While there are many aspects to your Bwindi safari, the vast number of tourists that visit every year come to spend time with mountain gorillas – one of Africa’s most famous animals. For many, this is a once-in-a-lifetime, spiritual experience with these sentient great apes. Once on the verge of extinction, mountain gorilla numbers have been steadily increasing in the last decade, with the most recent estimate putting the number of wild mountain gorillas at over 1,000 individuals. Over 450 of these individuals are found in Bwindi Impenetrable Forest, making it one of the population’s strongholds.

Gorilla trekking tourism has been a major contributing factor in the conservation of these magnificent creatures and will remain essential to their future survival. Gorilla trekking is carefully and consistently controlled, to ensure that no harm comes to the gorillas, and every tourist undergoes an induction session before commencing the trek. No more than eight individuals (less for certain gorilla families) are allowed at any one time with a gorilla family group, for a maximum of one hour. Gorillas are particularly sensitive to human-carried pathogens and what might just be a cold for an unsuspecting tourist could mean disaster for the local gorilla population. As such, visitors will not be allowed to participate in a gorilla trek if they are showing any symptoms of illness.

READ MORE about gorilla trekking here and see our trekking safaris

Primates and other things

Apart from the mountain gorillas that have made the region famous, Bwindi is also home to another nine species of non-human primates. There are tool-wielding chimpanzees in the forest (Bwindi is the only place where mountain gorillas and chimpanzees are found together). Still, at this stage, none are habituated to the presence of humans, so sightings tend to be rare and relatively brief. The remaining primate species are black-and-white colobus, Ugandan red colobus, red-tailed and blue monkeys, golden monkeys, grey-cheeked mangabeys, vervets and vulnerable L’Hoest’s monkeys.

In addition to the smaller primates that swing their way through the treetops, other mammals roam the forest paths of Bwindi, including forest elephants, though they are very seldom seen. ‘Impenetrable’ though the forest may seem to humans, duikers, forest hogs, bush pigs, golden cats, jackals, civets and numerous other small mammals have all found ways to adapt to the rugged terrain.

The birds and the butterflies

Uganda is one of the most exceptional birding destinations in Africa and home to half of all of Africa’s bird species, with a count of about 1,065 species. The Bwindi Impenetrable Forest ecosystem alone offers a chance to spot 350 species, including 23 of the 24 Albertine Rift endemics. While forest birding can be particularly challenging, the opportunity to explore silvan paths and happen upon tumbling waterfalls, all the while listening and scanning for a flutter of movement, has all the makings of a birdwatching treasure hunt. Chapin’s flycatcher, short-tailed warblers, green tinkerbirds and, of course, the spectacular turacos are all rewards for a day’s birding in Bwindi. There may even come a chance to become the first person to take a photo of Shelley’s crimsonwing in the wild. As mentioned, Ruhija’s highlands offer particularly diverse birding, and here keen birders can search the Mubwindi Swamp trail for the mysterious African green broadbill. For a more thorough description of Bwindi’s avian delights read Uganda Birding – 10 Best Spots.

As if the colourful flashes of blue-headed sunbirds and black bee-eaters were not dazzling enough, Bwindi’s 310 montane butterfly species put on their own display, adding to the other-worldly feeling of the dappled green light.

The experience

A trip to Bwindi Impenetrable Forest is a physical and sensory extravaganza, combined with the fantastic opportunity to spend time with gentle mountain gorillas. The accommodation options range from budge community lodges to the more luxurious selections, but the cost of the guided gorilla trek and permits come standard regardless of your choice of abode. Porters will be on hand to help carry equipment and food, as it can take up to 8 hours to find the gorilla families, depending on how far they decide to move from one day to the next. Hiring porters for a relatively small payment will not only free you up to enjoy every moment of this bucket-list experience, but it will also provide gainful employment to the very people who ensure the ongoing survival of these great apes.

Your gorilla trek safari is not the opportunity to break in a brand-new pair of boots; otherwise exploring the forests becomes an exercise in blister control and pain management. A reliable pair of worn-in waterproof boots that support your ankles is essential, as is waterproofing for your camera, money, passport and other valuables. Though there are drier periods around January and February, as well as from June until September, it rains all year round in Bwindi, and the damp at high altitudes can make it quite cold after a shower. Conversely, its proximity to the equator makes sunscreen an essential item, as it can be hot and humid when not raining. Visitors will be advised as to what to wear and pack, as being well-prepared is essential to making the most of a visit to one of Africa’s most fascinating regions.

Bwindi Impenetrable Forest is indeed a fairy-tale forest; an undeniably mystical experience beneath the towering canopy. The residents of the park and surrounding areas, human and gorilla alike, are survivors in a dramatic landscape with a complicated history, which makes visiting Bwindi a genuinely humbling experience.

Want to go on safari to Bwindi? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.

Further reading: The Mountain Gorilla: Gentle Giants of the Forests

“Living dead” – elephants in Kruger NP are sterilizing palm trees, says research

Elephant feeding patterns are preventing fan palms (Hyphaene petersiana) from reaching full size and reproductive potential, says a new study.

Many plant species that are subject to elephant feeding are capable of resprouting, which makes evaluating the effects of elephant feeding more difficult because, while the height of plants may be reduced, they will still be present, often in high densities. While previous studies into the impact of elephant feeding have focussed on the presence, height or stem density of savanna plants, the authors of this study suggest that it is also essential to evaluate the reproductive condition of plants.

The management of elephant numbers in the Kruger National Park in South Africa, where the population has demonstrated a consistent increase in the last two decades, is a controversial subject. High numbers of elephants can result in the widespread conversion of woodlands to grasslands. Some species of plants, such as the baobab (Adansonia digitata) and several Acacia species are intolerant of consistent elephant feeding. Yet, other plant species rely on the presence of elephants for seed dispersal. The tolerance of many savanna plants in the face of elephant disturbance and their capacity to resprout from the base, stem or roots further complicates the debate, as conservation managers work to determine what constitutes ideal savanna vegetation. As a result, determining the carrying capacity of the KNP for elephants is extremely complex.

The researchers, in this case, chose to focus on the H. petersiana palm species because they are both browsed by elephants and their seeds are dispersed in this manner. The plant demonstrates prolific production of new stems in response to feeding damage and was previously believed to be resistant to elephant feeding damage because the stem densities of browsed plants were wider than those protected from elephant herbivory.

However, most plants need to reach a minimum size to be able to reproduce. Researchers compared palms within the Nwaxitshumbe enclosure (one of the rare antelope breeding camps where the plants have been protected from elephant feeding for several decades) with palm trees outside the enclosure, which had evidence of extensive elephant feeding damage. Of the 65 trees in the enclosure, 92% had reached maturity at heights of between 4-5.3m. In contrast, of the 75 palms surveyed outside the enclosure, not one had reached the necessary height for reproductive maturity, with most being over 2.5m short of the minimum. No seedlings were found either within or outside the enclosure. Outside the enclosure, this can be explained by the lack of reproductively mature trees. In contrast, the lack of seedlings inside the enclosure can be explained by the absence of elephants to aid in the dispersal and germination of the seeds.

The researchers point to three significant impacts of this mass sterilization. The first is that sterile plants cannot disperse seeds to shift their distribution range with moving climate zones, which is particularly serious in the face of climate change. The second is that without new young plants, the plant will eventually go extinct (though this particular palm species can live for over a century). The final concern is that the fact that immature plants do not produce flowers or fruits could have biodiversity implications for several animals such as vervet monkeys and pompilid wasps. The palm swifts were observed to be nesting only within the tall palms in the enclosure.

While acknowledging that their findings were limited to one plant species in one location, the authors believe that this consequence of elephant feeding is likely to be widespread and affecting other woody tree species, a conclusion supported by an extensive Google Earth survey. A previous study which compared the palms inside the same enclosure to those outside missed this negative impact on reproductive status, and the authors of the present study suggest that this is because reproductive condition is not part of a routine assessment of the impacts of herbivory. As such, they suggest that managers need to consider this impact when evaluating the impact of elephant feeding patterns, even in species that appear prima facie to be unaffected or which increases in stem density. Due to the loss of their reproductive capacity, the authors describe these palms as “the living dead” of the Kruger National Park.

The full report can be accessed here: “Mass sterilization of a common palm species by elephants in Kruger National Park, South Africa“, Midgley, J., Coetzee, B., Tye, D., and Kruger, L., (2020), Scientific Reports

Lion trophy hunting – we interview Craig Packer

Dr Craig Packer is an American biologist, zoologist, and ecologist chiefly known for his research on lions in Tanzania. He worked hard to convince the trophy hunting industry and government departments to adopt a transparent, scientifically-based strategy in order to ensure the sustainability of lion populations and of the industry. Although his research and efforts resulted in a greater understanding of the impact of trophy hunting on lion populations, he was ultimately exiled from the country after rattling too many cages.

We interview Dr Packer:

Numbers: Current estimates put the African lion population at 20,000 to 30,000 – a 96% reduction from 450,000 in the 1940s. They occupy 8% of their historical range, and populations declined by 60% during 1994-2014 in all but four African countries. Is the current lion population stable?

C.P.: I’ve never been comfortable with the estimated percentage-lost-since-whatever-date people use; there were no reasonable estimates until recently. However, if we just talk about habitat loss, yes, there has been an enormous reduction in lion habitat since, say, the 1890s.

Factors: The primary causes of lion population reductions are widely believed to be the loss of habitat, loss of prey base and human-lion conflict. To that trio of causes, US Fish and Wildlife Services adds trophy hunting when it is not managed correctly. Although your book does cover the three primary causes mentioned above, the main focus is on the impact of trophy hunting and your engagement with that industry. Does that focus reflect a personal belief that trophy hunting is a significant factor contributing to lion population reductions?

C.P.: We published a paper in 2011 showing that trophy hunting had been poorly managed in Tanzania, and, thus, had likely contributed to an overall reduction in lion numbers in the country up to that point. The Tanzanian government had vigorously encouraged hunters to shoot as many lions as possible in their respective hunting blocks, and most of the blocks were clearly overhunted. These were in areas that were not dramatically affected by habitat loss, and, if human-lion conflict was also a factor, the hunting operators had patently failed to provide the necessary incentives for people to “live with lions.”

Trophy hunting then and now: In your book ‘Lions in the Balance‘ you refer to trophy hunting quotas in Tanzania and offtakes that were too high and of the shooting of young (three-year-old) males as contributing to the significant drop in Tanzania lion populations. Could you provide information supporting the above statement and do you believe that much has changed in that country in the last several years?

C.P.: For many years, Tanzanian hunting operators routinely posted photographs of their “trophy” lions, so it was clear that many companies filled their quotas by allowing clients to shoot males as young as two years of age. Male lions in Tanzania don’t reach maturity until they are about four, and they then need two years residency in a pride of females to be able to produce a surviving cohort of offspring — younger animals are either killed or forced to leave home by replacement males. However, even if hunters shoot immature animals, their impacts won’t necessarily affect the entire population unless they have shot out too manyof the older males. Given the absence of any sort of age minimum, we looked at the impacts of differing levels of offtake, and we found that hunting was harmful wherever more than one lion was shot per thousand square kilometres in the Selous Game Reserve (which holds one of the richest lion habitats in all of Africa) or more than one lion per 2,000 km2 in the rest of Tanzania’s hunting blocks. We had previously developed simulation models that mimicked the impacts of trophy hunting on lion populations and found that a quota wouldn’t be necessary if hunters only removed males that were at least 6 yrs of age. Tanzania claims to have adopted the recommended 6-yr minimum, but they have not been transparent in showing evidence of compliance. They point to the very low number of lion trophies that have been exported the past years, but these numbers are pretty much what we would have expected from the long-term trends since the 1980s. Unless they were to provide concrete evidence that they are no longer allowing the shooting of under-aged males, I would suspect they have largely been conducting business as usual.

By the way, later work has suggested that an 8-year minimum might be more appropriate in Zambia where the lions are additionally subject to high levels of poaching via wire snares and in South Africa where males take longer to reach maturity (6 yrs instead of the 4 yrs in East Africa).

Why did you leave Tanzania? The evolution of your journey as a lion conservationist in Tanzania is well mapped in your book. You started out as being very supportive of the notion that well-managed trophy hunting of lions could help maintain stable lion populations, and your engagement of the Tanzanian authorities and the trophy hunting industry was through that lens. And yet, the book chronicles your conversion over the years to a somewhat sceptical critic of the industry – based mainly on continued non-sustainable offtakes and practises, refusal to change based on scientific input, lack of transparency, rampant corruption and the bullying tactics by some members of the industry. It is clear that your continued presence in Tanzania became less secure, but the book did not go into detail about why you left Tanzania. Was there a deciding moment or factor that caused you to move back to the United States?

C.P.: The Tanzanian Government revoked my research clearance, so I was unable to continue working in the country. I was also informed that I was no longer allowed to enter the country even as a tourist. I was exiled because I attempted to reform the Tanzanian hunting industry.

Cecil: The exposé about the killing of Cecil the Lion near Hwange (Zimbabwe) by American dentist and trophy hunter Walter Palmer galvanised discussion, albeit heated and ideological, about the trophy hunting of wild free-roaming lions. Many ‘sustainable use’ protagonists claim that this particular discussion is not conducive to constructive debate about lion conservation, whereas others argue that shining a spotlight into the secretive trophy hunting industry is precisely what is needed. Did any good come of this watershed moment in the conversation about lion conservation?

C.P.: The Cecil controversy certainly galvanised public opinion to the extent that US Fisheries & Wildlife banned imports of lion trophies from Zimbabwe and Tanzania. I don’t think this would have happened otherwise. In their ruling, USFWS also set out a new policy requiring range states to provide evidence that sport hunting is a net positive for conservation. I have yet to see any clear evidence on this point from either country. Under the current administration, imports are being decided on a “case by case basis” – I haven’t heard how many lion trophies have been imported from Tanzania or Zimbabwe in the past two years.

Success stories: Can you state unequivocally that trophy hunting of wild, free-roaming (unfenced) lions has ever helped to maintain or increase lion populations in any area/region? If so, please provide examples.

C.P.: Bubye Valley Conservancy and Save Valley Conservancy in Zimbabwe both exist thanks to the funding generated by sport hunting. In both conservancies, lion numbers grew rapidly after they were adequately gazetted, and numbers remained close to the potential carrying capacity for lions in those habitats. It’s possible that a few other conservancies/hunting blocks have been similarly successful in other countries, but I haven’t seen clear evidence outside of these two sites.

One-product industry: It seems as if the trophy hunting industry in Tanzania has modelled and priced itself primarily based on the killing of wild lions and that the extirpation of their main commodity is leading to the collapse of the industry. Is that a fair reflection of the industry?

C.P.: Lion hunting offtakes don’t have to be so excessive as we found in Tanzania. With a well-enforced age minimum, the lions would be OK; Bubye and Save both show that it’s possible. The problem is one of economics. Most African governments have only received in the order of $10,000 per dead lion. This is ridiculously low. In the US, hunters may pay $100,000 to shoot a bighorn sheep. One would have thought that a lion would be worth at least ten times as much as a sheep. If hunters were to pay closer to a million dollars per lion, the industry would generate the funding necessary to protect lion habitat – which various other authors and I have estimated to be roughly $1,000/km2/year. A lion pride needs a lot of land, and the current pricing structure is far too low. The question, of course, then arises as to why lion trophies are so cheap — especially now that there may be fewer lions left in Africa than rhinos.

Fences: In your book, you touch on the need for fences in Tanzania, to keep humans and their livelihoods safe from animals, and vice versa. In South Africa, this is old news, of course, and the topic would not meet with much resistance. But in East Africa the concept of fencing in animals is controversial. Could you elaborate on that sensitive subject?

C.P.: Suffice it to say that fencing is now being used in far more countries than in the past. The need for fencing will continue to grow as the human population in Africa is expected to quadruple in the coming years. Rapid economic development in Africa will further lead to exploding demand for ever more livestock. Lions won’t have a chance over most of the continent if they aren’t safely separated from the growing human footprint. East African conservationists tend to be more idealistic than their South African counterparts, but local people are increasingly demanding to be heard — and they want to be safe from lions and protect their livestock. Of course, not every landscape can be fenced. As we saw decades ago in Botswana, poorly positioned fencing can destroy large-scale animal migrations. However, human activities are already so intensive in many parts of Africa that the wildlife is mostly already blocked off. Imagine having wildebeest pass through Nairobi or elephants in Kampala. So it would be a good idea if the conservationists started working with local authorities to decide how best to partition the land, and that will inevitably include fencing.

Nature versus commerce: ‘Nature’ tends to weed out weaker individuals, if only because those individuals are less likely to escape predators and more likely to die from disease. And yet, trophy hunting practises the opposite strategy – it removes the big and robust individuals. How can practising the opposite of what nature does ever be ‘sustainable’?

C.P.: With an age-minimum, hunters are not necessarily removing the best genes from the population; and every mature male gets to breed before being shot. I would recommend an age minimum for antelope, buffalo, elephant, and all carnivore species. In fact, South Africa also has an age minimum for leopards.

Where to now, for lion conservation? So many trophy hunting blocks in Tanzania have now been abandoned over the years by the industry, often with the excuse that trophy import bans have killed the industry, and so poachers have moved in to strip bare. Our observation is that most bans are relatively recent, and that over-exploitation over many years and lack of investment into conservation and community are the primary reasons for these vast areas being no longer attractive to the trophy hunting industry. Your thoughts on that topic, and suggestion about what to do with those former hunting areas?

C.P.: It’s very convenient for the hunting industry to blame restrictions that were, in fact, imposed because of the impacts of their past practices rather than to accept that they have long been part of the problem. Not only did they overhunt in much of Tanzania, but they also failed to generate the funding to protect the areas they were claiming to conserve. They were given dominion over the land at cut-rate prices, and they didn’t give back to some of the poorest countries and communities in the world. On the other hand, there’s still the problem of what to do with all those abandoned hunting blocks. The anti-hunting lobby has never found a way to pay for the conservation of those areas either. So if people are philosophically opposed to hunting, I ask you: how would you pay for it? Tanzania has something like 300,000 km2 of hunting blocks — can you raise the $300 million every single year that will be needed to protect this land? If you’ve got any good ideas, I’d love to hear from you.

Buy Craig Packer’s book: LIONS IN THE BALANCE: Man-Eaters, Manes, and Men with Guns

Monsters take many forms: from man-eating lions to the people who hunt them, from armed robbers to that midnight knock at the door of a cheap hotel room in Dar es Salaam. And celebrated biologist Craig Packer has faced them all.

With Lions in the Balance, Packer takes us back into the complex, tooth-and-claw world of the African lion, offering revealing insights into both the lives of one of the most iconic and dangerous animals on earth and the very real risks of protecting them. Packer is sure to infuriate millionaires, politicians, aid agencies, and conservationists alike as he minces no words about the problems he encounters. But with a narrative stretching from far flung parts of Africa to the corridors of power in Washington, DC, and marked by Packer’s signature humor and incredible candor, Lions in the Balance is a tale of courage against impossible odds, a masterly blend of science, adventure, and storytelling, and an urgent call to action that will captivate a new generation of readers.

Mud

Mud, mud, glorious mud,
Nothing quite like it for cooling the blood.
So follow me, follow,
Down to the hollow,
And there let us wallow in glorious mud. ~ ‘The Hippopotamus Song’ by Flanders & Swann

Thanks to our talented Photographer of the Year entrants whose images below celebrate MUD in all its glory and danger.

Monitor lizard looking out of the mud. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

A young lion after a zebra meal in the mud in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania © Panos Laskarakis

A baby elephant that was stuck in the mud and eventually died – Mana Pools, Zimbabwe ©Jens Cullmann

Butterflies look for moisture in the mud in Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa © Vittorio Ricci

Mud — “The perfect catch” in Savute, Chobe National Park, Botswana © James Gifford

Mud — Buffalo covered in mud in the Maasai Mara, Kenya © Chris Schmid

Mud — “Horror of drought” in Nsumo pan, uMkhuze Game Reserve, South Africa © Tanya Nadauld

Mud — The yellow eye of a muddy crocodile. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

Leopard tortoise drinking at a waterhole in the Kruger National Park, South Africa © Gabriella Kiss

Mud — An elephant herd takes a mud bath in Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa © Kevin Dooley

Mud — “Starvation” – lions fighting over a carcass in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania © Panos Laskarakis

Mud — A Cape buffalo in near-perfect dried mud camouflage rests during the midday heat, Sabi Sands Private Game Reserve, South Africa © Bruce Miller

A white rhino enjoys a cool mud wallow during the heat of the day. South Africa © Julie Escoffier

Mud — A crocodile waits patiently with a fly on its head – Mana Pools, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

Sitatunga

The early morning mist hovered over the marshland as the sun crept above the tangled, thick reeds, turning the sky from violet and brooding grey to pale pink. The floodplain was below us, and we watched as one by one, sitatunga emerged silently from the dense beds of phragmites and papyrus to graze in the open.

We were in Vivienne’s Hide in Kasanka National Park, Northern Zambia. Kasanka is one of Zambia’s smallest national parks, at 470km2, This peaceful little park is well endowed with rivers, lakes, wetlands, forests, lagoons, meadows and dambos that support an abundance of animals and birds. Kasanka is also home to a unique and spectacular annual migration of several million straw-coloured fruit bats. But what we had come to see was the sitatunga, and this is one of the best places in the world to spot this secretive, semi-aquatic antelope.

Sitatungas are early risers and most active just after dawn, which is why we were here, coffee in hand, at the misty start of a new day to silently watch as small groups and lone bulls with long curly horns graze peacefully. As the sun rose and the mist dissipated, a herd of elephants made their way across the flood plain, and one by one, the sitatunga melted away into the reeds. Delighted with our morning, we headed back to camp.

The sitatunga is Africa’s only amphibious antelope, and they are specially adapted to their habitat. Their elongated, widely splayed, banana-shaped hooves allow them to walk almost silently through the water and across swampy ground. But when they find themselves on firm terrain, these same hooves can make them rather clumsy. Their shaggy, oily, water repellent coat is another adaptation to their aquatic lifestyle. Their wedge-shaped and lowered head, coupled with the backward bend of the males’ horns allow for easy navigation through dense vegetation. These antelope are strong swimmers, able to move slowly through water for several kilometres. They submerge their entire bodies, both when swimming and to avoid detection from predators, with only their nose and eyes poking above the water. Sitatunga tend to frequent the deepest, densest parts of the swamp, where they make themselves even more inconspicuous with slow and deliberate movements, often standing and ruminating in water up to their shoulders. Their hearing is acute, with ears structured so they can accurately pinpoint the origin and direction of any sound; this is particularly useful in their dark and densely foliated environment, where long sight is of very little value.

Though common, even abundant, in African swamps and permanent marshes, the sitatunga is one of the most secretive and least-known of Africa’s large antelopes. Females are fawn-coloured with vertical white stripes and spots across their rump, to provide camouflage in dappled light. Males are larger, and chocolate brown with long, spiralled ivory-tipped horns, a mane and white stripe down their spine.

Dr Vera Rduch completed her thesis on puku in Kasanka National Park. As a by-product, she also collected information on the park’s sitatunga, as the antelope overlap both in distribution and diet throughout the park. Sightings of puku and sitatunga grazing together on the flood plains, combined with camera trap images of them entering woodlands in the late evening, in the hot, dry season (Sept-Oct), showed that while sitatunga tend to graze on young papyrus and reed shoots for the bulk of their diet, they don’t limit themselves to swamp vegetation. [Vera Rduch, 2013. Ecology and Population Status of the Puku Antelope (Kobus vardonii LIVINGSTONE, 1857) in Zambia. PhD Thesis in Zoology, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn. 287 pp.]. In some parks they have even been recorded feeding on elephant dung, obtaining nutrients from undigested seeds.

Using faecal analysis, Rduch ascertained that, in Kasanka, crocodiles feed on sitatunga, not surprising given their considerable overlap in habitat. She also found sitatunga hair in the scat of civet and white-tailed mongooses, who must have fed on sitatunga carrion as scavengers. [Vera Rduch, 2013. Ecology and Population Status of the Puku Antelope (Kobus vardonii LIVINGSTONE, 1857) in Zambia. PhD Thesis in Zoology, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn. 287 pp.]. Sitatunga don’t only fall victim to natural predators. Their regularly used, well-worn pathways through reeds and papyrus, between feeding and resting areas, make them especially vulnerable to poachers’ snares and hunters with dogs and guns. Sitatunga is prized bush meat. In Zambia they are afforded some protection because they are classed as a ‘government trophy’, meaning if a poacher is caught with sitatunga meat, he will get a more severe sentence than if caught with puku or common duiker meat.

Sitatunga breed throughout the year, females usually producing a single offspring, after an approximate seven month gestation period. A calf will weigh between 3.5 and 4 kilograms at birth and potentially double in weight during its first months. After the birth, the female hides her calf on a vegetation platform, secluded in dry reeds for protection. This youngster will stay with its mother, being suckled by her for about six months, and learning to navigate the swamp safely, following its mother about, even after she has given birth again. A calf takes time to master the specialised gait of the sitatunga, and will often, in the early months, lose its balance and fall into the water.

Though the sitatunga has been classified under the Least Concern category by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), habitat loss is the most severe threat to the survival of the species. Other threats include the increasing loss of wetlands that has led to isolated populations, long-term changes in the water level that affect nearby vegetation and consequently their diet. In Zambia vast areas of the Bangweulu and Busanga swamps are burnt every year, placing animals like the sitatunga at grave risk.

At the end of the day, we returned to Vivienne’s Hide, as the sun began to sink in the sky and were rewarded with a spectacular sunset tinting the flood plain orange and scarlet. The grazing sitatunga glowed golden in the fading light. We stayed till we could see them no longer, and as the moon rose, climbed down the ladder and left them in peace.

SITATUNGA FACTS AND FIGURES

Sitatunga or marshbuck get their scientific name, Tragelaphus spekii, from John Hanning Speke, the English explorer who described them in 1863. Speke first observed the sitatunga at “Little Windermere”, now Lake Lwelo, in Tanzania
Sitatunga stand between 75 and 100cm tall and weigh between 50 and 125kg
Researchers estimate that the global population on sitatunga is somewhere around 170,000. They are found in more than 25 African countries, with almost 40% living in protected wilderness areas.
Sitatunga have an unusual leg length, often looking like they are hunched over because their rear legs are actually much longer than their front legs, this difference in leg length helps them to balance better in marshy areas. Another interesting fact about sitatunga legs is that their pasterns (the part of the leg just above the hoof) are flexible, this unusual leg construction makes it easy for sitatunga to run on damp surfaces.
The average lifespan for a sitatunga in the wild is 12 years (and up to 22 years in captivity). Their age can often be told by looking at the colour of their coat; as they age their coats turn from a light russet brown to a darker greyish brown colour.
Bushbuck and sitatunga are genetically similar enough to hybridise. Hybrids between bongo and sitatunga have also proved fertile.

Tiny primate: new species of mouse lemur discovered

Scientists in Madagascar have discovered a new species of mouse lemur in northeastern Madagascar but warn that it may already be threatened by deforestation and habitat loss. The little primate was discovered during a lengthy survey on different communities of mouse lemurs and is now known as Jonah’s mouse lemur (Microcebus jonahi).

Over nine years, from 2008 to 2017, the team captured some 117 mouse lemurs, either using traps or by hand during nocturnal surveys. The lemurs were extensively measured and observed, and small biopsies were taken from their ears for DNA purposes before they were released back into the wild where they were captured. While the status of some mouse lemurs has been contested in the past, in this case, the biologists were able to show both sufficient genetic diversity as well as distinctive morphology (physical characteristics) to justify concluding that M. jonahi should be considered to be a distinct species.

The new species of mouse lemur is among the larger mouse lemur species and has a prominent white stripe running down its nose, with reddish-brown fur and the typical large eyes of this nocturnal genus. It measures around 26cm from the tip of its nose to its tail and weighs on average 60 grams. It was named for Professor Jonah Ratsimbazafy, a respected Malagasy primatologist, who according to the study, “serves as an inspirational role model for young Malagasy students and scientists”.

M. sp. #3 (in red) refers to the Jonah’s mouse lemur

There are over 100 species of lemur endemic to Madagascar, which translates as some 20% of all primate species on the planet. However, the full extent of their species diversity is still being researched. Mouse lemurs (Microcebus) are the smallest of all primates. New species have been regularly discovered and described since the 1990s, the most recent additions (before Jonah’s mouse lemur) being described in 2016 based on genetic evidence from mitochondrial DNA.

Yet almost as fast as they are being described, the conservation status of primates in Madagascar becomes more precarious. In a recent announcement, the IUCN revealed that 31% of all lemur species in Madagascar are now listed as critically endangered, and 98% of them as threatened, primarily due to deforestation and bushmeat hunting in Madagascar. Newly listed as critically endangered are the Verreaux’s Sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi) and Madame Berthe’s mouse lemur (Microcebus berthae), which is the smallest primate species in the world. Madagascar has lost nearly half of its forests in the last 60 years.

“Alarmingly”, reads the study, “lowland rainforest habitats have disappeared from most of the east coast, and our study region is no exception. Under these circumstances, population declines are unavoidable”. This accelerating loss of habitat will most likely impact Jonah’s mouse lemur (and probably already has), given that it seems to be found only in Mananara‐Nord National Park, which is already isolated from surrounding forests.

Dominik Schüßler, one of the lead authors of the study, told Africa Geographic that “although it is only a tiny lemur species that we recently described, it is a symbol for the situation of nature conservation in Madagascar.” Professor Ute Radespiel of the Institute of Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, explained further that “this study with the description of a new mouse lemur species demonstrates that the unique biodiversity of Madagascar is far from being understood. Many of the recently described species have only small distributions, which puts them at high risk, since the remaining forests of the island are under acute pressure from habitat destruction and fragmentation. Major and immediate conservation efforts will be needed to ensure their long-term survival during this critical period.”

The full study can be accessed here: “Ecology and morphology of mouse lemurs (Microcebus spp.) in a hotspot of microendemism in northeastern Madagascar, with the description of a new species”, Schüßler, D., Blanco, M., et al., (2020), American Journal of Primatology.

Roan antelope conservation challenges

The roan antelope Hippotragus equinus is currently classified as a “Species of Least Concern” on the IUCN Red List. How accurate is this classification, and how should it influence how situations are managed where numbers are dwindling? In many African countries, roan antelope populations have dropped to perilously low levels, and there is every chance they could disappear from the wild altogether. Some argue that some of these examples are animals on the limit of their geographical range and could be regarded as “refugee sub-populations”. This poses the question: is it important to intervene to save these “refugee” populations?

According to the IUCN Red List, there are an estimated 60,000 mature roan in Africa, with the largest populations in Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Zambia and Tanzania. In some areas, these populations are believed to be stable, but in others, the numbers have declined. In Ruma National Park in western Kenya, the roan population has declined dramatically to about 13 animals, making it genetically unviable. Likewise, in the Kruger National Park, numbers have dwindled to just over 50 individuals. Roan are a charismatic species, and it could be argued that their presence in these parks is important both from a biodiversity and national pride perspective and while purist conservationists may regard this as irrelevant, in attracting tourists, which in turn stimulates the economy of the region.

Numerous studies have been conducted to establish the reason for the decline in the Kruger Park and Ruma. In the Kruger, the consensus of opinion suggests it is all to do with water provision. The northern part of the park had lower animal densities than the south, so managers sunk boreholes to provision animals in the hopes this would enhance the game viewing. Indeed, the water-sensitive bulk grazers such as buffalo made it their home and changed the habitat. With them came predators. Roan, being selective grazers, did not compete well. They also have an unusual approach to calf-rearing behaviour, often hiding their calves and leaving them for hours at a time. With the increased predator load, these calves did not survive. It just goes to show that humans with good intent can make management decisions that have catastrophic outcomes! Recently, a Kruger National Park section ranger was fired for “gross negligence” after 20 roan placed in a fenced breeding camp in the park died of dehydration after the drinking trough water dried up due to negligence. Eight years prior to that 45 roan died of anthrax in Kruger breeding camps.

In Ruma, it appears predation is also the problem, and plans are afoot to enclose the roan in a camp free of predators. Unfortunately, with only 13 individuals, the population has reached a genetic bottleneck, and there is no other option but to bring in new animals to remedy the problem.

Interventions would involve the infusion of new genes, but the challenge is where to source animals for this genetic refreshment. The very existence of subspecies is controversial, with some eminent scientist being “lumpers” and others “splitters”. Some argue that “splitting” can impede conservation outcomes, while others would say ignoring subspecies issues is irresponsible. As is so often the case with a species on the brink, decision-makers are faced with a myriad of different considerations that need to be weighed up in a race against time, not least of which involves reconciling the science with the conservation realities. As it is, the subspeciation of roan antelope is a genetic quagmire.

Roan in Savute in Chobe National Park © Fred von Winckelmann

Using mitochondrial DNA analysis of roan antelope, researchers split the roan species into six subspecies. Hippotragus equinus equinus in South Africa Botswana and Namibia; H. e. cottoni in Angola, Zambia and Malawi; H. e. langheldi from Tanzania and Kenya; H. e. bakeri from South Sudan and Central African Republic; H. e. charicus from Chad and Nigeria; and H. e. koba from Benin, Senegal and Ghana. There are morphological differences between these “subspecies”, but in many cases, it is impossible to tell the difference.

More recent studies (Alpers, Van Vuuren, Arctandervand Robinson) using nuclear DNA analysis would suggest that the North-West African Hippotragus equinus koba from North-West Africa is a distinct and evolutionarily significant unit and all the rest should be lumped together. In other words, there are only two subspecies of roan antelopes. This is about more than scientific disagreement – the outcomes of studies such as these will invariably influence conservation decisions.

The IUCN has published a document, titled “Guidelines for Reintroductions and Other Conservation Translocations”. This document deals with the genetic considerations regarding sourcing animals for reintroductions or translocations and, naturally, it advises sourcing populations physically closer to, or from habitats that are similar to, the destination. However, the document also recognises that there will be situations where this is not possible, and here it defines a “taxon substitution”, where a similar, related species or sub-species can be substituted as an ecological replacement in dire conservation situations.

There are inevitably going to be differences in opinion when interpreting scientific publications and conclusions. When these issues are controversial, as is the case with the roan subspeciation, decision-makers are forced to tread carefully to avoid action that, in hindsight, could do immense damage to their conservation reputation. This is where the appropriate IUCN specialist groups should be involved. This panel of experts is best placed to make appropriate decisions, and responsible conservationists would be wise the follow their sound advice. Likewise, responsible government conservation bodies would abide by the advice given. It goes without saying that care must be taken to make decisions based on sound science and not by emotion.

In Kenya, it would be ideal to source wild langheldi from neighbouring East African countries. Every effort is being made to achieve this, but this is complicated and could take years to achieve. Another option is to source langheldi from zoological institutions that breed the subspecies. This has been done before, in Eswatini, by the Back to Africa organisation (www.backtoafrica.co.za), of which the writer is a director – where there is now a thriving population in the Mlilwane Wildlife Sanctuary. These immunologically naïve zoo animals are susceptible to tick-borne protozoal diseases, including theileria, and it took years to habituate them.

Another option would be to source animals from South Africa, where the wildlife industry evolved to support hunting and ecotourism. In the past, game traders imported animals from a variety of African countries. This was done for financial gain, with wealthy men paying African countries or individuals for their biological treasures. Their argument was they were saving these animals from an inevitable demise by bringing them back to South Africa, where they would be saved and protected. Their motives in this may well have been fiscally motivated, but that is a topic for another article!

This industry in South Africa has all but collapsed, and prices have diminished significantly to the point that farmers are sitting with large numbers of animals and don’t know what to do with them. Imports came primarily from a few African countries, with equinus subspecies imported mostly from the dry arid Waterberg area of Namibia. A well-known South African veterinarian Dr Johan Kriek imported cottoni on two occasions from Malawi, and South African National Parks cooperated with Botswana in trading roan for rhinos, with equinus animals going from Punda-Ma-Tenka in Botswana, to Graspan near Kimberley. These animals now exist in the Mokala National Park near Kimberley.

Some koba were also imported from Benin’s Pendjari biosphere reserve by game trader Riccardo Giazza, and in 2000, Mr Fred Keeley of Sable Ranch caught wild roan from the Niokolo-Koba National Park in Senegal. Some of these ended up on Mr John Hume’s farm Mauricedale near the southern Kruger Park. At the time, genetic issues were not considered, but retrospectively this was an irresponsible activity as koba have subsequently become recognised as a genetically inappropriate subspecies for Southern Africa. This did nothing for South Africa’s conservation reputation, but the issue was recognised, and genetic testing became the order of the day as nature conservation authorities took steps to prevent the sale and movement of koba within South Africa.

So, as it stands, there are numerous farms in South Africa holding roan antelope which originate from Namibia, Malawi and Botswana (there are tests available to confirm their genetic origin) that could be used to repopulate other areas.

There are, essentially, two questions here. The first is how many subspecies of roan antelope should be recognised? The latest genetic publication by Alpers, van Vuuren and Arctander suggests these animals would be appropriate for reinforcement of dwindling populations such as those in Kenya, as there are only two subspecies: West African and the rest.

The second question is more complicated. At what point does the subspecies distinction no longer matter if it comes at the cost of the local extinction of a species? If one were distrustful of the validity of the aforementioned study and the division of roan into two subspecies rather than six, and if no other options existed for sourcing pure langheldi, what would the risk be in exercising a “taxon substitution” as defined by the IUCN? In that way, some of the roan bred in South Africa could be used for the overall conservation of the species, regardless of subspecies.

At what point does this decision move from being an IUCN recommendation to a sovereign decision accepted by all parties as being in the best interests of the species? Government authorities and conservation entities have the tricky job of striking a balance between good science and timeous intervention to save a species. It would, however, be such a pity if this intervention came too late for these desperate roan populations. Would it not be an excellent outcome if these animals in South Africa could now play a role in species conservation in other parts of Africa? It would be sad to think these animals now have no conservation value because they are of mixed genetic origin.

Dr Hamish Currie is a wildlife vet who regularly works in wildlife management projects across Africa. He is a pioneer of the introduction of zoo animals back into Africa, including engineering the translocation of the last northern white rhinoceros from the Czech Republic to Kenya. Hamish is a director of Back to Africa.

Sources:

Population genetics of the roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus) with suggestions for conservation, Alpers, van Vuuren, Arctander and Robinson, Journal of Molecular Ecology, 2004

Roan antelope Hippotragus equinus in Africa: a review of abundance, threats and ecology, Havemann, Retief, Tosh and de Bruyn from the Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria.

Understanding the Okavango Delta

The Okavango Delta emanates in the highlands of Angola, where the mighty Okavango River begins as just a trickle before gradually becoming the third largest river in southern Africa that flows for over 1,600km to reach inland Botswana. Around 60,000 years ago, the river deposited its water into Lake Makgadikgadi, a paleolake believed to have covered over 100,000km² of Botswana’s interior. At a time when we were just dragging ourselves into the Later Stone Age, most of southern Africa was rattled by severe seismic activity that created a tectonic trough. The earthquake (or earthquakes) must have come as something of a shock to the residents of the area but also happened to change the shape of the earth’s crust to block the Okavango’s original path almost entirely.

The river water had nowhere to go and poured relentlessly into the Kalahari Desert, creating the endorheic basin of the Okavango Delta – one of the largest inland deltas in the world. Today, the Okavango River continues to discharge around 11km³ of water every year into the swamps that spread across an area of between 6,000km²-15,000km² (depending on the time of the year). One of the Seven Natural Wonders of Africa and a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Okavango Delta is an enormous oasis home to a wide variety of wildlife, and its tourist value contributes around 13% of Botswana’s GDP.

An alluvial fan

The Okavango River flows into Botswana at the small village of Mohembo before fanning out into a combination of twisting channels and lagoons lined by thick beds of papyrus and reeds, initially through a comparatively narrow area known as the Panhandle. The swamplands of the Okavango are permanently flooded, but the bog surrounding them fills seasonally depending upon water levels. The Delta layout is entirely dynamic – every year the water follows different routes depending upon changing sandbanks and blockages. The tectonic trough responsible for the formation of the basin of the Delta is relatively flat. Still, there are many islands of various sizes (the largest being Chief’s Island), as well as salt islands with barren white centres too saline for plant growth.

The waterways around these islands are one of the Okavango’s biggest drawcards, and many of the tourist lodges are found close to some of the more extensive permanent lagoons of the region. Visitors flow to the Delta every year to explore its watery surrounds either by motorboat or on the famous and more traditional mokoro (or mekoro, plural) – a canoe-like vessel that allows visitors to immerse themselves (ideally not literally) in nature as they drift through the reeds. The location of each lodge will determine what activities they can offer guests at certain times of the year.

A seasonal sensation

There is a fundamental difference between the “wet/rainy season” in the Okavango and “flood season”. As described, the Okavango River’s source is in Angola, an area with a far higher average annual rainfall than Botswana. The rains in Angola are at their highest in January, but the increase in water levels takes months before it reaches the Delta itself, making an exploration of the Delta a seasonally variable experience. Typically, the floodwaters reach the head of the Delta around May, but the progress of the water through the dense swamps is slow, and the highest water levels are seen in June/July. The rains in Botswana are also seasonal and, bearing in mind that nature can be highly unpredictable, the wet season begins around November and ends around March, as the temperatures start to drop.

January: Right in the middle of the rainy season as the foliage is at its thickest, January is not necessarily the best time of year for wildlife viewing, but the scenery is probably at its most spectacular, emphasized by dramatic afternoon thunderstorms. The migrant bird species have all recovered from their respective travels, and most are in full breeding display mode.

February: As in January, the Delta is verdant, lush and pulsates with life in February. The days can still be blisteringly hot, and the thunderstorms persist – making driving conditions difficult. Despite the wet conditions, the actual water levels of the Delta may still be too low for certain water activities in certain areas.

March: The days tend to become drier as March progresses, and the first winter chill can be felt in the evenings towards the end of the month. While there is still a risk of very heavy rains, the Delta is beautiful in March, the migrant birds are bulking up in preparation for their return journey and, importantly, it is still low-season and so many camps, and lodges offer specials rates.

April: Though the temperatures of the nights can drop rapidly, the daytime April temperatures tend to be pleasant and warm (still hot on some days). The antelope species explode into rutting season, and the dry floodplains are dominated by fighting impala rams that have spent the rainy season preparing for this crucial moment. If the rains started early in Angola, the water levels might well begin to rise in April, and there is a feeling of electric energy in the air before the dry season begins.

May: The hot days without rain begin to dry out the surrounding seasonal waterholes in the Chobe and Linyanti regions, while the floodwaters from upstream start to flow into the northern edges of the Delta. As a result, elephants and other plains wildlife are drawn to the Delta and thus the spectacular wildlife sightings of the Okavango dry season begin. As the water levels rise, water activities such as motorboating become possible throughout the region.

June: The coldest nights are recorded in June, with temperatures dropping to around 2˚C each night but the days are pleasantly mild, especially for those not accustomed to southern African heat. June is also denning season for the region’s painted wolf (African wild dog) packs which often results in more frequent sightings, and the thinning vegetation improves the quality of all sightings. June marks the beginning of the high season and safaris should be planned well in advance.

July: July marks the height of the flood and water levels have risen throughout the region, becoming essential for the wildlife of the area as the dry season takes hold. The vegetation begins to turn brown; trees lose their leaves, and the days are dusty.

August: The wildlife viewing in August in the Delta is extraordinary as animals are forced to congregate along the edges of waterways in search of food. The days are just starting to warm up, and the water levels remain relatively high, so land- and water-based activities are possible throughout the region. For birders, herons, storks and egrets arrive in their hundreds to begin building their nests in the lagoons.

September: The temperatures begin to rise dramatically in September, and the Okavango Delta is the only source of food and water for all wildlife of the region. The water levels start to recede, and the only greenery around is close to the waterways, making September one of the best months for wildlife sightings.

October: October is one of the hottest months in the Okavango, with daytime temperatures regularly peaking over 40˚C without the relief of afternoon thunderstorms. The almost non-existent vegetation makes it easy to spot predators, and they are never far from the channels, making them the highlight of an Okavango Delta safari in October. The flood levels have dropped considerably and, depending on the area, some water activities may no longer be possible.

November: The arrival of the rainy season also sees the arrival of tsessebe, lechwe and impala calves. The predators have no sympathy for the vulnerability or innocence of these youngsters and take full advantage of the situation against the backdrop of the first thunderstorms of the season.

December: As the second wettest month of the year, there is always the possibility of being rained out, but the wildlife viewing remains good, and it is an exceptional experience to watch the bush rejuvenating with the relief of the rains. The water levels themselves are low across the Delta, so this is not the best time of year for those interested in the water activities apart from some of the more central and northern lodges which have access to deeper water for most of the year.

Year-round delights

While it is undoubtedly true that the peak safari season of June to October offers the best wildlife sightings, the Okavango is a wilderness area that offers unique attractions all year round. The low-density tourism model adopted by the Botswanan authorities means that most safari experiences in the Delta are through luxury camps and lodges, many of which have exclusive access to private concessions. This, in turn, means that the revenue necessary to conserve a key wilderness area can be maintained with minimal impact on the area itself.

The wildlife sightings are extraordinary, offering anything from the Big 5 to enormous herds of red lechwe plunging through the shallow floodplains, secretive sitatunga, wild dogs, two hyena species and massive herds of buffalo and elephants drawn to the only permanent water during the dry season. The Okavango is a twitcher’s paradise and every year a variety of bird species nest side by side at enormous heronries – herons, storks, darters, egrets (including slaty egrets) and occasionally even pink-backed pelicans all using the same trees or matted reed-beds to breed.

As would be expected, the water canals are also home to many fish species including tilapia, tigerfish and catfish and ‘catch-and-release’ fishing is permitted along the Panhandle. Decreasing water levels at the end of the flood season also result in the annual catfish run where thousands of African sharptooth catfish swim back up the channels, hunting and being hunted as they go.

Africa’s Eden

The combination of natural beauty and ecological importance of the Okavango Delta has led to it gaining several affectionate nicknames, from the ‘Jewel of the Kalahari’ to ‘the Louvre of the desert’ and ‘Africa’s Last Eden’. The Okavango Delta is a natural phenomenon created by a unique combination of geographic, climatic and biological conditions where the natural fauna and flora have adapted to an ever-changing ecosystem. For visitors to this iconic wilderness, this means a chance to explore an almost untouched, pristine wetland system where Africa’s wild dramas have played out mostly unchanged for the past 60,000 years.

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Mauritius oil spill – pictures, map and details

“The oil spill and the ecological crisis happening right now in Mauritius will have an everlasting impact on the natural ecosystem, the marine ecosystem of the lagoon.” says Mauritian ecologist, environmental expert and former global strategist for Greenpeace International, Sunil Dokwarkasing.

On the 25th of July, the MV Wakashio, owned by Japanese company Nagashiki Shipping, ran aground on a reef 3 km off the south-east coast of Mauritius. The carrier, which was en-route from China to Brazil, held 3,894 tons of low-sulphur fuel oil, 207 tons of diesel and 90 tons of lubricant oil.

The oil spill is on the Mauritius south-east coastline

Despite residents’ warnings that the ship was sinking on the 5th of August, it took days for the government to finally swing into action. Sunil Dokwarkasing, a Mauritian ecologist, noted that the “delay in trying to address the problem of this wreckage on our reef is, I would say, grossly negligent by our government. Their primary concern was to refloat the ship – no one considered the danger represented by the 3,800 metric tonnes of oil on the ship. No one considered or seemed to care about the substantial risk this would present to the island and the lagoon; the government sat on the file for more than 12 days without making the decisions that should have been made”.

Satellite and drone images show a dark slick spreading in the turquoise waters and videos posted online show oily waters lapping the shore. “The oil trail is right next to an island called Ile aux Aigrettes, which is a natural reserve with endemic and endangered species,” said Reuben Pillay, director of virtual tour site reubsvision.mu. “For the local people, it’s been terrible.”

Around 1,000 tonnes of fuel have leaked into the ocean so far and, while some 500 tonnes have been salvaged, around 2,500 tonnes remain on board. The fuel spilling from the Wakashio has created an ecological disaster that endangers corals, fish and other marine life around the Indian Ocean island, officials and environmentalists say. “This is likely one of the most terrible ecological crises ever seen on the small island country,” Greenpeace Africa said in a statement on Friday. Sunil Dokwarkasing elaborated, “we know that an oil spill in any marine ecosystem will disturb and even destroy the marine ecosystem; it may never regain its original status. I don’t have much hope that we will be able to restore the lagoon to the way it was fifteen days ago”. Sunil refers not just to the ecological impact, but the inevitable sustained social impact. He explains that there are 400 registered fishermen that earn their livelihood from fishing in the lagoon and surrounding areas, and possibly the same number of unregistered fishermen. He estimates that the livelihoods of about 1,000 households will be destroyed and that the tourism industry will be heavily impacted, given that many people take tourists out on sightseeing tours of the lagoon.

Just days before lockdown I was in Mauritius, swimming in these very waters with local NGO Eco Sud, examining signs of coral bleaching in the bay that dated back to the late 1980s and seeing the regeneration that was just starting to be visible, decades later. I’d spent time in the lagoon monitoring some of the island’s critically endangered hawksbill turtles and taking part in a coral farming project that aims to grow corals to replenish damaged areas of the island’s reefs. I now know that everything I had seen is more than likely shrouded in oil – and dying. I also visited the tiny rocky wildlife sanctuary of Ile aux Aigrettes, where resident scientists from the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation introduced me to some of the country’s more endangered inhabitants, including pink pigeons, the Mauritius kestrel and the Mauritian skink, all of which have all been brought back from the brink of extinction. I toured the island’s extensive nursery of indigenous and native plants. The passion of the scientists was contagious, and I left the islet with an appreciation of the dedication that goes into conservation, habitat restoration, and saving of species. These same scientists and wildlife workers are now ferrying dozens of baby tortoises and rare plants from the island to the mainland in an attempt to save them.

View from Île aux Aigrettes towards the mainland – before the oil spill

The National Coast Guard received no distress call from the ship, a government statement said, adding that police are investigating possible negligence. Attempts to stabilise the vessel and pump the remaining fuel from its hold have failed, and local authorities fear bad weather, rough seas and strong currents could further rupture the tanker. “Due to bad weather and constant pounding over the past few days, the starboard side bunker tanker has been breached, and an amount of fuel oil has escaped into the sea,” said Nagashiki Shipping Co. Ltd, owner and manager of the vessel, in an emailed statement. “Given poor sea conditions, salvage efforts are currently on hold.” Sunil Dokwarkasing was quite scathing on the subject of the clean-up, adding that “in the environment, the first thing we do is consider precautionary principles… and this particular principle has been totally neglected by the government in their decision making. Had they emptied the tanks of the ship, the probability of leakage would have been minimised.”

Akihiko Ono, executive president of the shipping company, today told a press conference in Tokyo “we apologise profusely and deeply for the great trouble we have caused… we will do everything in our power to resolve the issue.” A statement from the Japanese foreign ministry says the country is planning to send a six-person disaster relief team, at the request of the Mauritian government, to help with removing the oil. France is also sending a specialist team and equipment. Meanwhile, police in Mauritius, accompanied by the ship’s Indian captain, are preparing to board the vessel and conduct a search.

The vessel ran aground on a reef about 3km from the mainland.

A government environmental outlook released nearly a decade ago stated that Mauritius has a National Oil Spill Contingency Plan, but the equipment on hand was only “adequate to deal with oil spills of less than ten metric tonnes”. In case of major spills, it said, help could be sought from other Indian Ocean countries or international oil spill response organisations. Some 400 sea booms, mostly homemade, have been floated out into the lagoon, in an attempt to prevent the oil spreading in the strong marine currents. Surface oil is also being pumped out of the ocean. “The clean-up efforts by the civil societies, NGOs, service clubs and others, have surpassed the government’s effort to deal with cleaning, mitigation and containing the spreading of oil,” says Sunil.

Greenpeace’s Happy Khambule concluded, “there exists no guaranteed safe way to extract, transport and store fossil fuel products. This oil leak is not a twist of fate; it is the result of our twisted addiction to fossil fuels – we must react by accelerating our withdrawal from fossil fuels. The risks associated with oil include aggravating the climate crisis, devastating oceans and biodiversity and threatening local livelihoods around some of Africa’s most precious lagoons”.

Update 15 August 2020:

Over the past few days, salvage teams have been battling rough seas to remove the remaining oil as cracks spread across the hull of the MV Wakashio. The ship finally broke apart three weeks after it ran aground. The Mauritian Wildlife Foundation confirmed that there were still around 100 tonnes of oil remaining on board but that there is chance that this can be contained. A further 653 tonnes have been pumped out of the lagoon to date. According to Greenpeace Africa, volunteers are being asked to cease their activities and stay away from the waterfront.

CALL TO ACTION:

1. If you are in Mauritius you can register to volunteer for beach clean-ups with the Beach Authority office at the Blue Bay Marine Park Centre, the contact person there being Daniel Laurent, Tel: +5259 7355.

2. If you would like to contribute to helping Mauritian Wildlife Foundation actions, please contact MWF hotlines +5710 4141, 5473 0103 and +5948 9823 and let them know how you can help.

3. If you would like to help financially and contribute to the Wakashio Fund, you can donate online via the website https://www.mauritian-wildlife.org/donate mentioning ‘Wakashio’.

Will legal international rhino horn trade save wild rhino populations?

Will the legal international trade in rhino horn save the wild rhino population? This is a question that finds scientists, policymakers, conservationists, and NGOs on polar opposite ends of the debate, resulting in what seems to be an effective deadlock. As wild rhino numbers continue to decline in Africa, many believe that the only way to save to future of the rhino is to lift the ban in the trade in its horn. Others are equally vehemently opposed to lifting the ban, mostly concerned that to do so would see an unprecedented surge in rhino poaching. While scientists have had two decades to investigate the potential effects of lifting the ban, the answers have been conflicting and provided no clear conclusions.

A study sponsored by the Graduate School for Production Ecology and Resource Conservation and the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research set out to summarise and review the effects of legalising the trade in rhino horn, the pros and cons thereof, and the vast amount of data available for each side of the debate. For those looking to understand the complexities of the arguments, this is a good place to start.

The main theoretical arguments for legalising the trade in rhino horn can be simplified as follows: firstly, it would create a legal market that could offset poaching and secondly, this legal market could provide the necessary financial viability to keep, protect and breed rhino populations. The researchers focussed mainly on South Africa on the basis that private wildlife ownership is permitted by law and that South Africa was, in 2010, home to an estimated 95% of the remaining white rhino and 40% of the black rhino in the world. With these arguments in mind, the report identified and selected four primary mechanisms occurring in both scientific literature, as well as the arguments for and against put forward by conservationists and private rhino owners: 1) financial viability for private rhino owners, 2) rhino horn demand, 3) laundering of rhino horns and 4) behaviour of rhino horn consumers.

1. Financial viability of private rhino ownership

80% of land in South Africa is privately owned, and South African law allows for the private ownership of wildlife
An estimated 33% of South Africa’s rhino are privately owned.
Therefore, private rhino ownership could play a critical role in conserving the species.
Increased costs to provide security in the face of the dramatic rise in rhino poaching are prohibitive.
The sale of harvested rhino horn could be used to fund anti-poaching measures and could serve as an incentive to encourage others to keep rhinos.
The tax raised through legally traded horns could be fed back into the system to keep wild rhinos safe (the authors argue that this is more likely to go towards politically important causes such as health care and housing).
The authors of the study agree that legalising rhino horn trade would have a positive effect on captive rhino populations but question whether or not it would result in a significant financial benefit to the conservation of wild populations.

2. Demand for rhino horn – Would legalising the trade increase the overall market demand and how will the illegal market respond?

Current illegal demand is already far higher than the current illegal supply.
Previous studies indicate that there is a demand of at least a million people in Vietnam alone.
Rhino horn grows at an average of 6cm per year, and the reproduction rate is one calf every 3-5 years; therefore, the process of farming horn is relatively slow.
Lifting the ban will remove the stigma attached to the consumption of rhino horn.
A substantial increase in demand could promote a positive feedback loop dubbed the Anthropogenic Allee Effect – that is, demand for products increases as the animal species abundance decreases.
There is a preference in some of the markets for ‘wild’ horns
The effect of price on overall demand and illegal demand is ambiguous, and it is difficult to control the final price – legalising trade may not drop the price sufficiently to make illegal trade or consuming not worthwhile.
Understanding and anticipating motives behind consumption is critical in reducing demand.
Demand is expected to continue to rise with economic and population growth in Asia.
Here the authors conclude that it will likely be impossible to satisfy the demand with legal horns and so legal and illegal markets would exist in parallel, particularly if illegal horns come at a lower price.

3. Laundering of rhino horns

Illegal rhino horn traders are likely to remain in business after trade legalisation and could launder their products into the legal markets
This was the case with the legal ivory trade
Legal market can provide an incentive to illegal suppliers by minimising the risks of being caught in an illegal exchange
Widespread corruption exists and expands to all nodes in a trade chain
Legalising rhino horn trade would need to be highly regulated.
The potential for even 5% of the legal market consisting of illegal horns could be problematic for the remaining rhino population.
Illegal supply of rhino horn is likely to increase when legalising international rhino horn trade.

4. Long-term behavioural change of rhino horn consumers

It is generally believed that the ultimate solution to stop rhino poaching lies in a change of consumer behaviour.
The demand could be drastically reduced by creating a uniform morality that it is wrong to purchase products that compromise the survival of a threatened species.
While there are several programs in place to change perceptions around rhino horn, these have yet to be successful.
The rhino horn trade represents an international conservation crisis involving stakeholders other than consumers.
Traditional Chinese Medicine is increasing in popularity, promoted by the Chinese government, and supported by the World Health Organization.
Interviewed consumers are aware of the extinction risk for rhinos but do not feel responsible.
Legalising the market can be considered the complete opposite of campaigning to reduce demand – legalising marijuana caused a rise in total consumption due to new users

While the authors acknowledge that there are instances where legal commercialisation of animal products has had potentially beneficial effects for the conservation of certain species (such as the trade in crocodilian skins or bison mean), they also point to examples where it has had the opposite effect, such as the ivory and lion bone trades. Previous studies point to five different criteria if wildlife farming is likely to be of benefit to a specific species:

There cannot be a consumer preference for wild-caught animal products – unlikely to always be the case with rhinos since larger rhino horns make for more impressive status symbols and there is a general belief that the suffering of the animal will increase medicinal potency.
A substantial part of the demand should be met, and the demand should not increase due to legalisation – research from consumer countries does not indicate that this would be the case where rhino horn is concerned.
Legal products should be more cost-efficient to combat black market prices – again unlikely to apply to rhino horn where previous studies have estimated that legal horn would have to be sold at a minimum of $ 11,500 per kg to be profitable.
Wildlife farming should not rely on wild populations for restocking – given that 30% of South African rhinos are privately owned, this criterion would be applicable.
The laundering of illegal products into commercial trade should be absent – due to the high value of rhino horn and the extent of corruption concerned; the report also suggests that this is unlikely.

Without the actual legalisation of rhino horn trade and subsequent empirical data, it is challenging to draw specific conclusions regarding different potential outcomes. However, the report points to several areas where further studies would help, particularly concerning quantifying the demand and the extent to which this would increase should the sale be legalised.

Conclusion

The study concludes that though legalising trade in rhino horn would have a positive effect on captive rhino populations, this will probably not be sufficient to counteract the negative impact, including increasing demand by removing the stigma attached to purchasing the horn. The authors also acknowledge that there is an argument that rhinos should be conserved as a species, rather than prioritising wild rhinos, and that, in retaining the ban, the inevitable consequence is that less captive rhinos will be kept. If, despite best efforts, rhinos do go extinct in the wild, a lack of captive rhinos would complicate future reintroductions.

Nevertheless, the study concludes that regardless of the stance of legalising rhino horn trade, the debate should not prevent the relevant stakeholders working together to reduce corruption, increase rhino populations and reduce the demand, since neither approach will be successful otherwise.

The above is a summary of an extensive report, and reading it in full is recommended. It can be accessed here: “Will legal international rhino horn trade save wild rhino populations?” Eikelboom, J., Nuijten, R., Wang, Y., (2020), Journal of Global Ecology and Conservation

It’s not about the worm

Guest blogger: Louise Swemmer

Of course it’s about the worm, but it’s not JUST about the worm. Harvesting mopane caterpillars from the Kruger National Park provides people with much-needed food and income, but it also does a lot of good for conservation.

Mopane worms (Mashondza in Xitsonga), the larva of the Imbrasia belina moth, are a widely used source of protein and a delicious snack, especially for people in the Limpopo Province of South Africa.

Unfortunately, since they are so popular, they have been over-harvested in many areas and can be quite expensive to buy. The Kruger National Park (KNP) started a Mopane worm harvesting project in 2010, to help local people to access worms both for food and for the harvesters to make a small income. Accessing benefits from conservation helps to build positive relationships between people and conservation areas (ask any tourist about their feelings towards conservation after they have just visited a game reserve!). Having positive relationships with society, especially with local communities, is not only the right thing to do but can be really important for the sustainability of protected areas such as the KNP. Especially now, when biodiversity needs all the support it can get.

Mopane worms occur all over Southern Africa, including in Mozambique, Malawi, Southern Zimbabwe, Botswana, and Northern South Africa, closely linked (but not exclusively limited to) wherever one finds mopane trees (Colophospermum mopane). Fully grown Mopane caterpillars have multiple coloured stripes, are about 10cm long and are covered in prickles which can make them tricky to harvest if you have soft hands. The best time to pick worms is just before they bury themselves underground to pupate into Mopane moths, that way they have high protein content and when it’s easier to expel the internal organs – a requirement before they can be eaten. The moths that emerge from the pupae are enormous, with two big false eyes on their wings, acting as a defence mechanism against predators. The moths lay a batch of tiny white eggs very soon after they emerge, which hatch about 21 days later. The tiny worms then start their journey to adulthood. The caterpillars shed their skin four times before they are ready to pupate into moths, and it is after the final shed that they are the tastiest!

The Kruger Mopane worms are harvested from a demarcated area less than 0.2% of the area of the KNP, within the vast Mopane veld found in the north of the park. The harvesting takes place once a year, in years when there is a large enough outbreak to provide worms for harvest as well as allow enough worms to descend into the soil to reproduce for following years. The outbreaks last between 1 and 2 weeks. Harvesters from local villages are invited to participate and issued with a permit. They are kept safe by the SANParks rangers while harvesting. People usually harvest about 25 litres of caterpillars per person, which can contribute the equivalent of half of a month’s income for some households.

In a recent study, it was shown that apart from the nutritional and economic value of the worms, people who were part of the harvesting enjoyed the experience, feeling that the park is opening up to them, and seeing the park more positively as a result (Table 1). For most participants, the project provided them with their first chance to visit the park, and many enjoyed the opportunity to learn and experience new things (Figure 1). Apart from enjoying nature, a highlight for many participants was meeting and getting to know the park staff. It is important to remember that the KNP has not always been accessible to the majority of South African society for much of its existence. During the former apartheid era of South Africa, national parks were not open to all demographic groups. In fact, some people were forcibly removed from within the park boundaries to make way for conservation. As a result, some people feel alienated and separated from the land and resources found within protected areas such as the KNP. For the past few decades, the park has been implementing various projects that aim to restore rights to people, build positive relationships and reconnect people to the land, cultural and natural resources within the park. The mopane worm project is one example of doing just that. Not only did the study show the broader project impacts on participant wellbeing, but also revealed how participation changed how people viewed the park. Harvesters said their relationship with the park was positive and expressed hope for building on this in the future.

Conducting social science research takes time, but it contributes enormous value when assessing the impacts of such projects. The study has shown that when managed effectively, small scale, sustainable resource use projects such as the KNP mopane worm harvest, have the potential to contribute both to human wellbeing as well as conservation. As we move further and further into the Anthropocene, biodiversity needs all the help it can get, and conservation approaches need to be robust and to accommodate a multitude of value systems if these beautiful and valuable places are to persist for our children, and our children’s children. Thinking out of the traditional conservation box is one such mechanism that may just be key for its survival.

**Table 1**. Illustrative examples of Mopane worm harvester’s perceptions of the Kruger National Park as a result of the mopane worm project

**Figure 1**. The contributions that mopane worm harvesting from the Kruger National Park, South Africa has made towards multiple dimensions of human wellbeing (with thanks to Corli Coetsee for the infographic)

Citation:

Swemmer, L.K., R. Landela, P. Mdungasi, S. Midzi, W. Mmatho, H. Mmethi, D. Shibambu. A. Symonds, S. Themba, and W. Twine. 2020. It’s not just about the worm: the social and economic impact of harvesting mopane worms from the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Conservation and Society 18(2): 183 – 199.

Bio:
Dr Louise Swemmer works as a social scientist for South African National Parks, based in Hoedspruit, Limpopo. Louise’s primary professional interest is in promoting fair access to benefits that flow from Protected Areas, both in the interests of justice as well as for the sustainability of conservation.

Aardvarks and climate change

Three years ago, a Wits University media release warned of the impact of climate change on aardvarks, particularly those in arid areas where temperatures are expected to rise in coming years. Now the full peer-reviewed study on this research has been released and yields worrying results. The study, which was conducted on Tswalu Kalahari Reserve by the researchers of the Brain Function Research Group at Wits University, indicates that in drought years aardvarks are unable to meet the necessary nutrient levels to maintain their metabolisms, as indicated by dramatic changes in internal body temperatures. During the first year of the study, low rainfall levels and the subsequent dry season resulted in the deaths of numerous aardvarks, including five of the initial study subjects.

Aardvarks (Orycteropus afer) are highly elusive creatures that are generally active at night and feed solely on ants and termites. To study the effects of seasons, rainfall and food availability, researchers implanted 12 adult aardvarks with sensors to measure body temperature and activity levels and monitored the data for varying durations over three years. Tswalu typically experiences rainfall during the summer months, between November and March, where temperatures regularly reach maximums of up to 40˚C, while the winter months are dry – with temperatures dropping below freezing at night. During the first year of the study period, the region experienced particularly low rainfall levels, with no rain falling during the hottest months of the summer and, as a result, the vegetation levels dropped below 54% of the maximum levels. The rainfall levels during subsequent years were higher, as were the resulting vegetation levels. The available vegetation impacts the prey availability for aardvarks (aardvarks in the Tswalu region feed mainly on the harvester termite Hodotermes mossambicus) – as vegetation decreases, so do termite and ant numbers.

While diurnal animals in arid areas face the challenges of keeping cool and evaporative water loss during high daytime temperatures, nocturnally active mammals like the aardvark have to expend extra energy to stay warm during the cold nights. In times of reduced resource availability, the ability of these animals to increase their metabolic activity to maintain internal body temperatures becomes compromised and, as a result, they may increase diurnal activity to compensate for these demands.

Under ideal conditions, the internal body temperature of a large mammal remains as constant as possible, with the difference between maximum and minimum body temperatures being labelled the “amplitude”. The research revealed that during “good” conditions (higher rainfall years and increased food availability), the 24-hour body temperature rhythm of the aardvarks only varied by an average of 1.8˚C in summer and 2.1 ˚C in winter. By contrast, during the dry year, their minimum body temperature declined, with an average amplitude of 2.3 ˚C in summer and 4.7 ˚C during winter. One aardvark exhibited an 11.7 ˚C change in 8 hours, the most substantial change ever recorded in a large mammal – its body temperature dropped to a minimum of 24 ˚C.

As expected, the low body temperatures were associated with increased diurnal activity but shorter periods of activity overall, with some aardvarks emerging in the afternoon and returning to their burrows at night, eliminating nocturnal activity. Yet despite their demonstrated behavioural flexibility, many were unable to meet their nutritional requirements, and of the six aardvarks initially fitted with monitoring devices, five died during this period. Those that survived demonstrated a return to a more level internal body temperature as conditions improved, but it took them time to recover.

The concern is that the Kalahari region is one that is predicted to become hotter and drier as climate change progresses. While droughts are part of typical climate patterns, this research indicates that aardvarks are not sufficiently adaptable to cope with this change. As drought frequencies and durations increase, the vegetation in the area will suffer, and ant and termite populations will decrease, resulting in the death by starvation and dehydration for the aardvarks that depend on them. While they may not be considered threatened yet, aardvarks are ecosystem engineers, and numerous species of birds, mammals and reptiles utilise the burrows that they dig.

“Populations of many animals in South Africa are already declining as a result of habitat loss and over-exploitation,” says Professor Andrea Fuller, one of the co-authors of the study. “Climate change adds an additional threat, which may push species to extinction faster. By 2050, the aardvark may not be the only species removed from tourist checklists”.

The full study can be accessed here: “Increased Diurnal Activity is Indicative of Energy Deficit in a Nocturnal Mammal, the Aardvark”, Weyer, N., Fuller, A., Haw, A., et al (2020), Frontiers in Physiology and is part of a collective effort by the University of Witwatersrand, the University of Pretoria, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna and the University of Cape Town.

Buffalo – Godfather of the African bushveld

“There is something frightening about a buffalo when encountered on foot that sets it apart from lions, leopards, elephants and rhinos. Those cranky old males look at you like they hate you personally, like they are the Godfather come to collect your debt, like they will hunt you down and pound you into the dry African dust.” Ant Collett, experienced trails guide, Greater Kruger

The African (Cape) buffalo (Syncerus caffer) has earned itself something of a reputation, particularly when it comes to the cantankerous old bulls that spend their time wallowing in pans or hanging around in dense reedbeds along Africa’s rivers. Immense and powerful, the buffalo should not be under-estimated. Don’t be fooled if your only experience of them is from the safety of a game drive vehicle, which perspective makes them look like wild cows.

Aside from the raw energy of encountering buffalo on foot, the quintessential African scene is a highlight for many – that herd coming down to drink, emerging ghost-like from lingering dust kicked up by thousands of hooves, backlit by the golden sunset. When properly understood, these massive bovids are an essential part of any safari experience: a social creature prone to profound moments of courage when threatened or defending a member of the herd.

Quick facts:

Social structure: solitary males, bachelor groups and breeding herds of anywhere between 50 to over 1,000 individuals.
Mass: 500-1,000kg (forest subspecies significantly smaller, at 250-450kg)
Shoulder height: 1.0 to 1.7m
Gestation period: 11 months
Number of offspring: 1 calf (twins rare)
Life expectancy: about 20 years in the wild, up to 30 in captivity

Taxonomy:

While there is some disagreement, there are currently four recognized subspecies: West African savanna buffalo (S. c. brachyceros), Central African savanna buffalo (S. c. auquinoctialis), Southern savanna buffalo (S. c. caffer) and, the most easily distinguishable, the forest buffalo (S. c. nanus). The African forest buffalo, found in West and Central Africa and also known as the dwarf buffalo, is considerably smaller than the rest of the buffalo subspecies; their horns are proportionately smaller and their coats a more reddish-brown colour. They tend to form smaller herds, with one or two bulls and a harem of females and offspring. There is still argument today as to whether or not they should be considered to be a separate species, but hybrids between the forest buffalo and more familiar buffalo subspecies are common.

Despite their passing similarity to oxen, buffalo are only very distantly related to domestic cattle and, unlike their relatives the Asian water buffalo, all attempts to domesticate buffalo were largely abandoned as they proved too temperamental. They are, however, susceptible to several diseases that also affect cattle, including foot-and-mouth and bovine tuberculosis.

African forest (dwarf) buffalos in Odzala-Kokoua National Park, Republic of Congo

The basics

Buffaloes are the most numerous of the large herbivores and almost exclusively eat grass, with some limited exceptions at the height of the dry season. They are water-dependent, and it is easy to see when a herd has moved through an area by the flattened grasses and cow-like pats left behind. They are also almost constantly vocal, particularly around water, and produce lowing sounds similar to cattle, as well as grunts and growls during their regular skirmishes. Ecologist believe that buffalo herds decide on where to move through “voting behaviour” – while the herd is resting, individual adult females will stand and stare in a specific direction, and the subsequent movement of the herd can be predicted when the majority gaze in a particular direction.

A female will have her first calf at about five years of age, and these calves are born during the rainy season. The bond between mothers and calves remains for an extended period – up to three years, before the next calf is born. The number of individuals in a herd is highly variable and can be affected by season and water availability. The mixed breeding herds consist of females and their offspring, young males, and older, dominant males in their prime. Males are also found in bachelor herds, and after a certain age (about 12 or so), most males move away from the safety of the breeding herds and live out their lives in small groups or on their own.

Nature’s battering ram

One of the defining features of the African buffalo is the fusion of the two horns at their base on the top of the skull. This is known as the ‘boss’ and is solid bone covered in keratin, particularly prominent and well-developed in the males. Knowing that a buffalo can reach top speeds of around 60km/hour and that a big male can weigh close to a ton, it is easy to see how an angry or frightened buffalo could use this thick layer of bone as a deadly battering ram. Males fighting over females sometimes clash with earth-shaking power and over-confident or unlucky lions have been killed by the horns and crushing power of a buffalo.

Buffaloes are far from defenceless, and they are known for their ability to turn the tables on predators. For the most part, smaller predators like leopards, wild dogs and spotted hyena will target the calves, though large hyena clans have been known to hunt adult buffaloes. While crocodiles do occasionally grab unwary individuals at the water’s edge, lions are considered to be the main predators of buffalo – probably due to their size and strength. While individual lions are capable of killing adult buffaloes without assistance, it generally requires the effort of an entire pride or coalition, especially in the case of buffalo bulls. Stand-offs between lions and buffalo herds can last for hours, with the buffaloes chasing the lions away if they get too close and the lions biding their time until the herd finally panics or lets its guard down. Even in situations where lions have killed a herd buffalo, the other herd members may return to harass and chase the lions away. Many of these encounters have been captured on camera and are considered by many to be examples of true altruistic behaviour; unusual in the wild.

A standoff between a herd of buffalos and lions that have caught a buffalo calf. Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania

The ‘dagga’ boys

The old males that have moved away from the safety of the breeding herds lack this social support, and their behaviour tends to be entirely different as a result. Famously dangerous, these males are easily recognizable by their pock-marked horns and bald patches of fur. They tend to be edgy and cantankerous, though this needs to be understood in the context of their circumstances. Lions regularly target these relative loners and ‘dagga’ boys are often forced to rely on their strength to fight back and escape. As such, they may well not waste time working out whether or not something is a threat, instead choosing to explode into action. For a human, this can be extremely dangerous and even deadly. African buffaloes are believed to kill about 200 people a year in Africa. The term ‘dagga boys’ is derived from ‘udaka’ – the Zulu word for mud – because male buffaloes are often seen lying in muddy wallows and are frequently coated in dry mud.

Like most animals in the wild, they will generally choose flight if given the option but can be canny if they get the impression that they are being followed. Many a ranger has reported following buffalo tracks only to discover it has been waiting to ambush them or that its tracks turn in a circle and it is following them. Equally as many rangers, trackers and guides have discovered just how easy it is to climb a thorn tree when push turns to shove.

Final word

While buffalo may not be vindictive or actively malignant, there is no doubt that they should be viewed as unpredictable and given a wide birth when on foot. Old males often spend their evenings hanging around in the comparative the safety of lodges, and visitors would do well to pay careful attention to the rules of the lodge and not attempt any nocturnal wanderings.

Most importantly, they should be appreciated as an animal that nearly disappeared from much of Africa during the rinderpest outbreaks of the early 20^th century. Their numbers may have improved since then, but the IUCN Red List recently moved their conservation to status from ‘least concern’ to ‘near threatened’, concluding that there are fewer than half a million mature African buffalo remaining. Despite their stubborn courage, buffalo are at risk from poaching and the ever-increasing human and livestock encroachment that threatens all of our continent’s wildlife.

Rhino poaching stats 2020 – more shades of grey

Written by Susan Scott – STROOP director. Research provided by Bonné de Bod – STROOP presenter & producer.

‘STROOP – journey into the rhino horn war’ has garnered international acclaim for its groundbreaking work documenting illegal wildlife trafficking in Asia and the poaching war in South Africa.

“Rhino poaching decreases by more than half in first half of 2020” read the misleading headline on the government’s press release issued on Friday.

Let’s take a closer look at this situation, much as we did concerning the 2019 poaching figures in our story Latest Rhino Poaching Stats: Shades of Grey. In that story, we focussed on the lower poaching stats being primarily a function of fewer rhinos surviving the ongoing poaching onslaught and the devastating drought that was ravaging Southern Africa at the time. This time we call for perspective because of another contributing factor: COVID-19.

The above government headline really should have added “due to Covid-19’s harsh lockdown” – the route taken by the UK’s Guardian Newspaper when they covered the same topic. Because they did not attribute the reduction to the impact of COVID-19 lockdowns, our local mainstream media reported the success in combating poaching with headlines proclaiming various iterations of “South Africa has cut rhino poaching by half”. One can hardly blame them, given that the Environment, Forestry and Fisheries Minister, Barbara Creecy’s first statement in the release was “After a decade of implementing various strategies… efforts are paying off,” even adding, “we have been able to arrest the escalation.”

The fact is that the closure of provincial and international borders and lack of international air travel has meant that people have had limited ability to move around and the horn cannot get to the demand countries in Asia – dominating factors in the reduction of poaching.

Imagine being told by the BBC in April that crime that month was down in countries around the planet due to the efficacy of those governments’ enforcement policies, and not due to the onset of Covid-19 lockdowns? The BBC article in question rightfully attributed the drop in crime globally due to the pandemic. The pandemic had a dramatic impact – from social distancing El Salvadorian gang members to officials in cities across America who noted upwards of 50% declines in crime during the lockdown. And so too here with our rhinos, because, as the BBC observed, “the result of fewer people in public is less crime.”

To be fair, back in May, the Minister did note that the lockdown was having a tremendous impact on curbing poaching. And she did add further down in the detail of Friday’s release that the restricted movement from the Covid-19 law enforcement measures have had a striking impact, especially as “the decrease in rhino poaching can also be attributed to the disruption of the supply chain resulting from the national travel restrictions.” – so why not include that vital factor in the headline?

To the numbers:

166 rhinos have been poached during the first half of 2020, compared to 316 at the same time last year. Of the rhinos killed this year, nearly three-quarters happened before the lockdown. In fact, in the month of April, no rhinos were killed in the Intensive Protection Zone in Kruger for the first time in almost ten years.

Further proof of the success of the lockdown is the reduction in the number of arrests and firearms confiscated in the park for 2020 (2019 figures in brackets): Arrests 38 (122) and firearms seized 23 (61). The report did not provide the number of incursions as it did in the past, so we have to assume from the arrest numbers that there is much-reduced traffic inside the park.

We can also see that the swing in who owns South Africa’s rhinos continues to pivot, with positive gains towards privately owned rhinos; the private sector losing only 16 rhinos compared to the state’s 150 rhinos. The department claimed a year ago that private rhino populations had increased by a third while Kruger’s rhinos had declined by half. Private rhino owners have been successful in protecting rhinos since they were so badly hit several years ago. Smaller areas are easier to confine, plus being able to close down areas with neighbourhood security patrols and roadblocks while working with SAPS has been a significant crime deterrent. We’ve seen these efforts in effect – they have worked well – and their results are strikingly similar to the nationwide Covid-19 lockdown.

Private owners have told us that the harsh lockdown was a godsend for their security (though naturally not so for their tourism revenue). With the defence force and police services patrolling the public roads and maintaining roadblocks, poaching gangs could not travel with their tools of the trade: axes, pangas and stolen hunting rifles with home-made silencers.

In Kruger during the lockdown, the gates were closed to all visitors. And this is without a doubt the driving factor in the reduction in poaching numbers. There is a popular perception that poachers crawl in under fences to access the park, and while that does happen, the reality is that poachers often employ the easy route of driving in undetected as a day visitor. To be clear, poachers are dropped off inside the park from a comfortable vehicle, having entered the park as visitors. And, just as chilling, spotters drive around in visitor vehicles and send rhino locations to the syndicates they work for.

Those on the inside maintain that rangers are highly effective in preventing breaches over the international border and across park boundaries and that access gates are most certainly the security weakness of the park. And the lockdown clearly proves that. Many have said that corruption, sloppy work, lack of proper co-ordination of the access and exit data are all factors resulting in the majority of current poaching events, and this needs to be tackled, urgently. The lockdown has shown us the park’s Achilles heel.

Stop Rhino Poaching’s Elise Serfontein said in an interview with The Citizen that “Kruger remains the epicentre for rhino killings in South Africa, with most rhinos being shot by poachers arriving via the gates. Fundamental issues such as known internal collusion and access control for drop-off poaching remain a systematic threat.”

She added further: “Government needs to consider perhaps redefining their measures of success and introduce some additional factors. When rangers are still run off their feet chasing multiple groups of poachers every day, or finding multiple carcasses, as has been the case since the lockdown restrictions were eased, then it’s pretty clear that things aren’t that much better”. She also explains that what is needed to reduce poaching is the reduction in park incursions (by foot and by vehicle), successful long term convictions of kingpins and reinstating interventions that have been broken, for example, the closure of both the Skukuza Regional Court and RhODIS (the Rhino DNA database).

Sadly, the Minister has confirmed that the figures are on the increase again, after the Kruger gates were again opened to the public.

A plane full of hyenas

Four young spotted hyenas have completed a journey of more than 1 400 km to Zinave National Park in Mozambique, where Peace Parks Foundation will introduce them as the founder population of the first resident large carnivores in decades. The hyenas were captured in Sabie Game Park and moved to a temporary boma in Karingani, and then later airlifted to Zinave. This remarkable journey is the result of a partnership centred around dedicated conservation efforts in Mozambique.

Over the last five years, Zinave National Park, which lies in the Mozambique component of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area, has seen the reintroduction of more than 2 000 plains game, giraffe, elephant, buffalo, warthog and even ostrich. A total of 13 species have been translocated here, each with a unique ecological role to play in restoring balance to this landscape.

“Zinave’s herbivore population is growing extremely well,” says Bernard van Lente, who works as Peace Parks Foundation’s Project Manager in Zinave, “so much so, that we have decided that it is now time to reintroduce predators such as hyenas into the system. Animals die of natural causes, which is completely normal and part of nature’s cycle, but because there are no large predators and very few scavengers in Zinave’s sanctuary where most of the wildlife was introduced, the carcasses are not being properly recycled.”

Peace Parks Foundation, who, through a 20-year partnership agreement signed in 2015 co-manages Zinave with Mozambique’s National Administration for Conservation Areas (ANAC), requested the assistance of the Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT) to undertake a feasibility study on the introduction of predators into the park.

The EWT team first visited Zinave’s sanctuary in November 2019 to assess various possibilities. Dr David Mills, head of EWT’s Carnivore Conservation Programme, says, “because we found that there were almost no carnivores in Zinave, we suggested that rather than reintroducing only one species, there would be much more conservation value in reconstructing the lost carnivore guild which will eventually revive important ecological functions and processes.”

Following a presentation of this study to ANAC, approval was granted to reintroduce those apex predators that exploit related natural resources, such as hyenas, leopards and lions to Zinave National Park, setting in motion this remarkable hyena translocation operation.

The ecological impact of spotted hyena entering Zinave’s system will be significant as the species is both a predator that will take off weaker animals from herds (which will keep the gene pool strong), as well as a scavenger that will remove carcasses, ensuring systems remain disease-free. Another significant advantage is that they will most likely attract smaller scavengers. David says, “there is evidence from elsewhere in Africa that vultures need hyenas to open carcasses since most are not strong enough to do so themselves. We learned that only a few jackals were occasionally seen, and no vultures were present in the sanctuary. We, therefore, decided that it was critical to kick-start the scavenging process by introducing spotted hyenas first as they will both hunt and feed on existing carcasses.”

Sabie Game Park, which is one of Mozambique’s flagship private reserves, did not falter in again stepping up to support rewilding of the country’s national conservation areas. During 2019, Sabie donated 99 buffaloes to Maputo Special Reserve, which is also being developed through a partnership between Peace Parks and ANAC. Sabie CEO, Sandy McDonald, says, “we are in the privileged position to be able to offer hyena for a relocation due to our successful conservation programme.”

In mid-April 2020, Saving the Survivors, a wildlife veterinary organisation that serves as ANAC’s official veterinary resource in Mozambique, commenced with the identification of a hyena clan in Sabie to start preparations for the translocation operation. Working with the Sabie team, the selected clan was slowly baited over time to habituate the animals to vehicles. “Saving the Survivors has lent its entire weight to this project, not only its Mozambique operation but also the back-office functions in South Africa and the UK. We are supplying two wildlife veterinarians, Dr Joao Almeida and Dr Hugo Pereira, as well as all the medical equipment, treatments and drugs required to safely complete the capture, translocation and ongoing care of the animals following their release in Zinave,” says Tristan Wood, Saving the Survivors Director.

In early July, despite delays due to COVID-19 restrictions, two males and two females were successfully darted and transported to Karingani. “As part of Karingani’s larger restoration plan, we already had appropriate predator bomas (holding facilities) that were made available for the hyena while they underwent veterinary tests,” says Karingani Warden, Ellery Worth. His team kept a close eye on the animals to ensure they remained healthy and kept feeding after the capture operation. “Landscape restoration and collaboration are at the core of our ethos – what better example of that than to be a part of the restoration of Zinave National Park in partnership with like-minded public and private conservation organisations.”

Hyenas — Zinave National Park, Mozambique

After receiving the all-clear from the veterinarian team, the clan spent about a week enjoying Karingani’s hospitality before embarking on the final leg of their journey, by small airplane no less, to Zinave. Upon arrival, the animals were released into an electrified boma where they will stay for approximately six weeks before being given access to the bigger sanctuary. Large predators have a fantastic homing instinct that allows them to return to their capture location from hundreds of kilometres away. To help them establish Zinave as their new home, Bernard says, “during this period, we will ensure that the four are well-fed and watered, basically catering for all their needs which will help hone their homing instincts to Zinave and ensure they remain within the sanctuary.”

Two of the animals were also collared to enable Zinave’s team to keep track of the clan’s movement. Robust anti-poaching efforts are ongoing to ensure that the area remains safe.

A sentiment shared by all partners was the fact that being part of this conservation effort is a privilege. “I think the emphasis on collaboration is key to successful and holistic conservation – multiple stakeholders all driven by the same desired outcome of safeguarding the planet’s heritage, is a significant aspect of this and future projects,” concludes Ellery.

WATCH: A clan is born. Click here to follow the remarkable journey of four hyenas.

Kruger roan antelope deaths by neglect – more of the same, says informant

Additional information has been brought to our attention after we reported the recent death of 20 roan antelope in a Kruger National Park breeding camp – due to neglect.

Our informant suggests that the resultant undertaking by the Minister of the Department of Environmental Affairs, Forestry and Fisheries (DEFF) to implement an action plan to protect the roan antelope by, amongst other things, conducting regular inspections, carries little weight. His viewpoint is based on the death in 2012 of 45 roan antelope in a breeding camp – also due to neglect – that resulted in similar assurances by the authorities.

2012: In answer to an internal question posed to the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, the Minister stated that the roan breeding camps in the Kruger National Park would be inspected twice a week. This came as a result of an investigation into the death of 45 roan antelope in the Capricorn Breeding Enclosure due to an anthrax outbreak.

The bacterium Bacillus anthracis causes anthrax infections, and outbreaks occur naturally every few years, particularly in northern regions of the Kruger National Park and usually during the dry season. The anthrax spores exist in the soil and surrounding vegetation and can survive for decades before causing an outbreak. These spores are spread by infected animals and scavengers such as vultures, and often contaminate water sources. Roan antelope are particularly susceptible to the disease, as are kudu, waterbuck, and buffalo – and the outbreaks are associated with high mortality rates for these species.

The full extent of the negligence surrounding Kruger’s breeding enclosures was fully explained to Africa Geographic by Gerhard Smit, who personally investigated the 2012 mortalities and who confirms that the carcasses were already desiccated by the time they were discovered. According to Mr Smit, before 2012, some tsessebe had also perished in one of the camps outside Pretoriuskop due to dehydration. AIKONA (Against Interfering with Kruger and Our Other Nature Assets), a group convened by Gerhard Smit, compiled a 187-page complaint against SANParks which was submitted to the Public Protector in September 2013, as well the CEO of SANParks. To date, Mr Smit continues to receive confirmation that investigation “is in progress”.

According to Salomon Joubert, roan were first introduced to the N’waxitsumbe enclosure in 1967 as part of an intensive study of their social and ecological requirements. An outbreak of anthrax in surrounding areas resulted in roan mortalities in the enclosure and, in response, management teams within the park set up an annual inoculation plan, which included inoculating free-roaming roan. After a severe drought and sharp decline in roan numbers in 1992, the inoculation programme was terminated due to concerns over accidental injuries and deaths during the inoculation process (which was conducted by helicopter). The decision was made to transfer some roan into breeding camps to resuscitate the struggling wild population through breeding and restocking badly-affected areas.

Despite a natural anthrax outbreak close to the Capricorn breeding camp in 2009, no attempt was made to inoculate the captive roan and, three years later, somewhat unsurprisingly, an announcement by the KNP’s Head of Department: Public Relations and Communication, Mr William Mabasa, declared that 30 (later amended to 45 upon investigation) roan carcasses had been found in the Capricorn breeding camp, leaving just 13 (?) individuals remaining. The cause of death was confirmed as anthrax, and it was declared that an inoculation programme would be instituted.

The then Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs confirmed that “an investigation has been conducted, which suggests that the deaths of the antelope could have been avoided through better monitoring of the camp and its drinking troughs. In future, the camp will be inspected twice per week, drinking troughs will be covered with branches during the day to prevent vultures from using it, and the troughs will be regularly cleaned and disinfected when anthrax is known to be in the area”.

Mr Smit also drew our attention to a report compiled by Dr Salomon Joubert, a former director of the Kruger National Park and an expert in roan antelope, in response to the 2012 anthrax deaths. The report details how Dr Joubert was invited by the section rangers at the time to visit the breeding camps, a few years before the 2012 deaths. The section rangers appeared to be uncertain as to how many roan each camp housed, and Dr Joubert also noted that it was clear fire management had not been conducted in the breeding camps for many years. Dr Joubert submitted several vital recommendations including:

Appointing an officer with the necessary authority to take charge of the roan and responsibility for the overall supervision of the enclosures
A picket/ranger camp should be established near the enclosure so that the perimeter fence could be patrolled daily.
The Section Ranger should be required to undertake weekly patrols of the enclosure.
There should be one aerial census of the enclosure per year.
The officer in charge needs to draw up a management plan with regards to water provision, a veld burning programme and a strategy for releases.
Due to the rarity of roan, all possible measure should be taken to ensure optimal performance in the enclosures: this should include annual inoculation.

While the section ranger responsible for deaths of the roan in N’waxitsumbe enclosure in 2019 was dismissed, these accounts from Mr Smit and Dr Joubert indicate major systemic weaknesses in the roan breeding programme in the Kruger National Park. While it is unclear at this stage whether the annual inoculation programmes are still in place, or if any veld burning has been conducted, the specific reference in Dr Joubert’s report to water provision proved to be prophetic. The breeding enclosures have been fenced off from all herbivore activity for decades, apart from the selective grazing of the small numbers of roan within the camps themselves. If there is still no fire management strategy in place, the inevitable overgrowth in the camps is a substantial fire risk and the thought of a fire running through a fenced breeding camp housing endangered antelope is horrific.

The decline of roan antelope in the Kruger National Park over the past three decades is at least in part the result of human interference, and the diminishing population means that each individual antelope is now important. With every death, genetic diversity decreases further. Regardless, these animals were taken from their wild existence ostensibly to protect them and the overall population from further harm. The responsibility to care for them fell to those in charge, who were warned about potential risks. To have had a total of 65 endangered roan antelope (more than the current estimated population in the entire Kruger) die in situations that could have been prevented is truly unacceptable. And it makes the promises that these animals will be safeguarded in the future somewhat hollow.

8 Cheetah cubs rescued in Somaliland – destined for illegal pet trade

Information provided by Cheetah Conservation Fund

HARGEISA, Somaliland (29 July 2020) –Working through COVID-19 conditions, the Somaliland Ministry of Environment and Rural Development (MoERD), Selel Regional Administration and Somaliland Police Forces, with support from Cheetah Conservation Fund (CCF) and Torrid Analytics, rescued eight cheetah cubs during three consecutive missions in the Selel and Awdal regions (18-29 July). Seven of the cubs are estimated to be between 2.5 to 10-weeks-old, and the eighth cub is at least six-months-old. Officials believe the seven younger cubs were taken from their mothers in the Horn of Africa in the western border regions of Ethiopia and Somaliland during July. The older cub was reportedly held in the care of a local community member for several months after a trafficker from another region failed to find a buyer. All eight were intended to be sold into the illegal pet trade.

“We are pleased to relay the details of three rescue missions successfully carried out over the past ten days”, said Shukri H. Ismail, Minister of Environment and Rural Development. “By intercepting traffickers transiting through Somaliland and recovering the cubs, we send a clear message to people who think to try this illegal activity: don’t”.

The missions were launched by MoERD together with Somaliland Police Forces and respective regional administrations with support from CCF and Torrid. The first rescue began on Saturday, 18 July and lasted until late in the evening, Sunday, 19 July. Five cubs were intercepted from nomads who reportedly took possession of them following a predatory killing of a goat by the mother cheetah. The nomads agreed to hand over the animals to local authorities after being informed about the illegal nature of wildlife trade. The following day, MoERD and CCF travelled to the remote area to rescue the animals. CCF-trained veterinarian Dr Muse Saed Jama triaged all five cubs on the scene and prepared them to make the long journey back to the CCF Safe House and veterinary clinic in Hargeisa.

During the second mission, a joint MoERD-CCF team travelled to the Awdal region on 24 July to rescue two cubs intercepted by Awdal Regional Police near Borama. Community members helped care for the cubs until the MoERD-CCF rescue team arrived. Once at the scene, the team was surprised to learn the cubs were reportedly in the hands of traffickers for 25 days. Despite being underweight and dehydrated, both were alert and energetic.

On the same day, 25 July, another successful rescue operation under the command of Selel Regional Police and Selel Regional Administration started in Xariirad. Selel Police Forces secured one cub from a local nomad and cared for the animal with support of the local community until the MoERD-CCF rescue team arrived on 29 July. The rescue team was delayed for a day due to flash floods in the area.

“Our team coordinated very well with local authorities and community members to retrieve all eight cubs quickly. This gives them their best chances for survival. With so few cheetahs remaining in the Horn of Africa, each cub’s life is significant”, said Dr Laurie Marker, Founder and Executive Director of CCF. “Many people ask us if wildlife trafficking is still happening through COVID-19, and we know the answer is yes. We’ve become more aware of how coronaviruses can spread, which includes by wild animals moving across international borders, so we must stop people from taking animals from the landscape. For their health, and our health, too”.

Somaliland Government and its international partners have been working continuously through COVID-19 to disrupt illegal cheetah trade networks. These three rescue missions were not the first to be conducted since the pandemic began. In April, the MoERD-CCF Rescue Team went on a 1,000-kilometer round-trip to the Sool region to rescue two young cubs intercepted by the Somaliland military. Sadly, one cub died upon arrival at the CCF Safe House in Hargeisa. In sharp contrast, those cubs were in very poor health, with diarrhoea and coccidiosis due to internal parasites and external parasites covering their bodies. Both were severely malnourished and dehydrated.

The team has higher hopes for these eight. In all three missions, the cheetah cubs rescued received emergency care on the scene, and they were immediately transported to the CCF facilities in Hargeisa for stabilization and assessment. Although separated from their mother at a critical stage in their development, CCF reports all cubs are eating well and fighting to survive. CCF-trained veterinarian, Dr Muse Saed Jama, provided professional animal care services in the first rescue mission to Xariirad, while CCF Veterinarian Dr Asma Bile cared for the cubs during the second and third rescue missions.

“Our sincere gratitude to the community members in the Awdal and Selel Regions whose information and unwavering support made both missions last week successful”, said Abdinasir Hersi, Director General of MoERD.

With the intake of these eight small cubs from western Somaliland, the number of cheetah cubs rescued and under CCF care in Hargeisa rises to 41, a record-high for the project.

Bush area, home to wild Somaliland cheetahs

MoERD wIldlife officer Abdi Hussein interviews witnesses

Ministry of Environment and Rural Development, Republic of Somaliland

The MoERD mandate is to conserve, protect and manage national development of natural resources and the environment for the benefit of Somaliland people. MoERD promotes the pastoral sector through sustainable development aimed at the eradication of poverty and improving living standards while ensuring that a protected and conserved environment will be available for future generations

Cheetah Conservation Fund

CCF is the global leader in research and conservation of cheetahs and dedicated to saving the cheetah in the wild. Founded in 1990, CCF is an international non-profit organisation headquartered in Namibia. CCF is celebrating its 30th anniversary in 2020, making it the longest running and most successful cheetah conservation organisation. For more information on how you can help, please visit www.cheetah.org.

Torrid Analytics

Torrid is a Somaliland-based company specialising in complex research in addition to facilitating critical capacity-building support for government and non-profit partners throughout the Horn of Africa.

Jens Cullmann, 2020 Photographer of the Year – gallery one

Some images not only tell a story and invoke emotion, but they also speak of the photographer’s journey to secure that particular image – the back story. In Jens’ case, he spent months in Mana Pools during the sweltering peak of the dry season – commonly referred to as ‘suicide month’ – at a time when the bushveld was particularly ravaged after an extended drought period. His day would often involve many hours of walking in the oppressive heat and waiting patiently in whatever shade was available, while nature revealed her stories. This is a time when the bushveld is not for the squeamish, as many animals are suffering and dying due to lack of water and food, and predators are gorging on the spoils. Jens’ popular photo gallery of a few months ago Circle of Life gives testament to the reality of life in drought-stricken Mana Pools at that time.

In awarding Jens the Photographer of the Year 2020 title, we recognize not only the many uncomfortable hours of patience and diligence behind his winning image but also his authentic, artisanal approach to photography.

In this gallery, we share a few of Jens’ favourite images; with more to come later in the year. In the meantime, please follow him on Instagram and Facebook, where he regularly shares his images and thoughts.

Mana Pools, Zimbabwe ©Jens Cullmann
Canon EOS-1D X Mark II┃EF500mm f/4L IS II USM┃f/6,3┃1/2500┃500mm┃ISO 1000

Mana Pools, Zimbabwe ©Jens Cullmann
Canon EOS-1D X Mark II┃EF500mm f/4L IS II USM┃f/6,3┃1/1000┃500mm┃ISO 500

Okavango Delta, Botswana ©Jens Cullmann
Canon EOS-1D X Mark II┃EF300mm f/2.8L IS II USM┃f/2,8┃1/200┃300mm┃ISO 1600

Mana Pools, Zimbabwe ©Jens Cullmann
Canon EOS-1D X Mark II┃EF200-400mm f/4L IS USM EXT┃f/5,6┃1/3200┃540mm┃ISO 3200

Human impact results in leopard inbreeding – research

While disturbance by humans is known to result in declines in leopard populations, there is also significant evidence to suggest that it also results in demography changes to age, sex and social structure of populations. This can have a substantial impact on the health and viability of a given leopard population. In a new study, researchers set out to investigate the long-term effects of anthropogenic mortality in leopards and demonstrate that in areas where people have persecuted leopards, sub-adult male dispersal was reduced, encouraging opportunistic male natal philopatry and the potential for increased inbreeding.

Under normal conditions, it is typical for leopards to exhibit female philopatry. That is, females establish territories close to their natal range once they reach adulthood, while males typically disperse to avoid competition and conflict with larger, territorial males. This reduces the likelihood that the males will mate with a related female. To investigate the effects of anthropogenic mortality on these typical behaviours, researchers compared two reserves in South Africa with similar leopard densities and habitats but vastly different conservation histories.

The first was the Sabi Sand Game Reserve (SSGR), which is a privately-owned conservancy in Mpumalanga province, and part of the Greater Kruger. The SSGR covers 625km² (62,500 hectares) to the west of Kruger National Park and south of Manyeleti Game Reserve – there are no fences between these protected areas. Leopards typically do not leave the boundaries of the SSGR, nor are they hunted there, and human factors have caused less than 2% of leopard deaths since 1975. In contrast, the Phinda-uMkhuze Complex (PMC) consists of Phinda Private Game Reserve (which was established in 1991) and the public uMkhuze Game Reserve, which together form contiguous wilderness of 660km² (66,000 hectares). The boundary fence surrounding the PMC is permeable to leopards, allowing them to move onto unprotected land and uMkhuze, in particular, has suffered from high levels of wire-snare poaching. As a result, over 50% of leopard deaths in the area from 2002-2012 were caused by humans, and before that period, the numbers may have been higher. Policy changes established in 2005 resulted in the recovery of the PMC leopard population to levels now considered to be around the putative carrying capacity of the area.

Through a combination of direct observation of individuals (often through data collected by local tourist guides in the area), tracking collars and telemetry, and DNA analysis of scat samples, the authors examined both the demographic and genetic differences within these two populations to investigate the long-term effects of human interference.

For both leopard populations, mothers shared over 50% of their home-ranges with their daughters, clearly exhibiting female philopatry, which was expected to be the result. (However, unexpectedly, 30% of daughters appear to have dispersed in the SSGR, which the authors postulate may be an example of density-dependent female dispersal due to the area having reached its carrying capacity.) Concerning the males, no young males established territories in their natal range in the SSGR – also to be expected in a species that uses dispersal as the primary mechanism in maintaining gene flow. In PMC, however, 22% of males established territories that overlapped with their maternal home-range, which suggests that their dispersal patterns have been disrupted. This was further supported by the genetic analysis, which indicates a population-level male kin-clustering in PMC, which the authors believe to be the first documentation of this phenomenon in a large solitary cat.

A male kin-clustering off this nature inevitably increases the opportunities for inbreeding, which was the case in the PMC with father-daughter and half-sibling breeding pairs observed. The researchers suggest that historically high levels of anthropogenic mortality promoted these opportunities, which translate into significant population-level inbreeding. They point out that while increasing leopard density may well correct male dispersal patterns, this will not rectify what they describe as “genetic scarring”. They also emphasize that what might be considered as “sustainable mortality” on a purely numbers-based assessment (i.e. trophy hunting quotas) could result in similar demographic disruptions. Thus, they emphasize the importance of managing and mitigating the effects of unsustainable exploitation – whether due to legal trophy hunting, poaching, wire snares or conflict with farmers – through promoting population recovery and providing safe corridors to maintain genetic connectivity.

The full study can be accessed here: “Unsustainable anthropogenic mortality disrupts natal dispersal and promotes inbreeding in leopards”, Naude, V., Balme, G., O’Riain, J., et al (2020), Ecology and Evolution.

Declining Dynasties: Painted Wolf Pressures

When I first started photographing the painted wolves (African wild dogs) in Mana Pools back in 2013, there were two dominant packs on the floodplain: the Vundu and the Nyakasanga. At their peak, in 2014 the Vundu pack was 24-strong including five pups, while the Nyakasanga pack numbered 30 with 15 pups.

They were each led by two formidable alpha females, Tait and her daughter Blacktip, made famous by the BBC’s Dynasty series and my book Painted Wolves: A Wild Dog’s Life, which I wrote with Peter Blinston. After Tait died in 2015, her daughter, Tammy, formed the Nyamatusi Pack, and we all hoped that this powerful floodplain dynasty would continue.

However, more recently, these two packs of painted wolves have been struggling, as first reported in my two “Declining Dynasties” articles in Africa Geographic and recently highlighted by Painted Dog Conservation (PDC) in the media.

While journalistic sensationalist headlines suggest that the Mana Pools painted wolves are in crisis, the Park (and the wider Zambezi Valley) remains a significant stronghold for this magnificent creature and is home to multiple painted wolf packs. However, due to the notoriety of the two packs that live on the floodplain, their struggles would inevitably attract attention.

Many reasons have been linked to this decline, and this article provides a background, explains the extent, and explores possible causes and solutions from the perspective of having followed them closely for the last eight years.

Seeds of destruction

First, what has happened to these packs?

In 2015, when Tait’s seven surviving females arrived on the floodplain, they met up with seven of Blacktip’s males to form the Nyamatusi Pack. It was a bit like “Seven Brides for Seven Brothers”, but they were so closely related, and in reality, it was “Seven Aunties for Seven Nephews”. The inbreeding had begun.

Sadly, unlike her sister and mother, Tammy was not a successful alpha female. Of her four litters between 2016 and 2019, only one pup survived a rainy season. In that time the pack shrank from 14 to just Tammy and three males. They lived mainly deep in the Nyamatusi Wilderness, where the large lion population had taken its toll and, last year, one killed Tammy. Not one of her pups survived her. (Read Tammy’s Tragic Story)

Meanwhile, Blacktip continued to be an incredibly successful alpha and produced litters of at least nine pups in 2016, 2017 and 2018. She died at the age of 10 in early 2019. It was her time and not unexpected. What was exceptional about her was that the survival rate of her pups was well above the average. In fact, most went on to become yearlings and later disperse.

Painted Wolf — Blacktip was an incredible leader – always the last to eat after her pups and pack had their fill.

She left behind her aged alpha male Jiani to lead a handful of adults and nine pups. Unusually, after her death, the males and females did not go their separate ways to form new packs as would be expected. Instead, Jiani mated with Whisky, his two-year-old daughter, producing five inbred pups, only one of which survives to this day. (Read Blacktip’s incredible story)

Jiani died last year and this year Whisky mated with her brother Gamma. She is currently denning, unusually in the same den where she was born. She starts her reign as alpha female of the Nyamepi Pack with seven adults, one inbred yearling and seven inbred pups.

Gamma (in mid-air) and Whisky (below him), leaders of the new Nyamepi Pack – the alpha pair are also brother and sister.

Weakened pups?

There is an obvious distinction between these four packs. Tait and Blacktip’s packs had a very high survival rate; while of the 36 pups born and successfully denned between Tammy and Whisky, only two survived a year. The other glaring difference is that Tammy’s and Whisky’s pups are inbred. While Tammy’s and Whisky’s offspring appeared on the face of it to be like any gorgeous painted wolf puppies, could they have been weakened by the inbreeding and has their higher attrition rate been nature’s way of keeping the gene pool diluted, even at the expense of a larger population?

This cannot be proven one way or the other, and further, where we know the cause of death, lion and hyena have been the culprit and not some genetic disease. But then maybe they were too mentally impaired to instinctively run faster? This is just random postulating, which leads us down an endless road of dubitable hypotheses that goes nowhere.

However, what is safe to say is that no one will argue that this level of inbreeding in the surviving ‘Dynasties’ packs is good for the broader painted wolf population in the wider Zambezi Valley – let alone for themselves. A study conducted by Stanford University, in partnership with PDC, already shows an “incredibly low genetic diversity” and this excludes samples from any of the latest inbred pups.

Speculating further

Peter Blinston, head of PDC, states, “Right now the population is really fragile, and we don’t understand why.” He offers several possibilities, and subsequent social media reaction has added many more. It’s worth examining some of the main ones in more detail.

Disease and snaring

Disease and snaring are the scourge of the modern-day painted wolves across most of Africa, with whole packs being regularly wiped out. Fortunately, Mana Pools is a ZimParks success story, and poaching is pretty much under control. In 2015, the old Chitake Pack were all found dead from suspected cyanide poisoning, but it seems likely that they were the unintended victim of elephant poaching. Snares are thankfully not a problem on the floodplain as communities live far away.

Disease such as rabies and distemper are also absent, unlike in Hwange where recent cases of the former have been identified by PDC, devastating the packs concerned.

Within Mana, PDCs partner, Stanford University have detected some parasites and bacterial infections in some individuals. Still, it is not clear whether this is unique to Mana Pools or whether they have any detrimental effect. Certainly, no animals have been found dead from an unexplained disease.

Tourism pressure

Mana Pools is unique in Africa in that guests are allowed to walk in the park with the wildlife. But no one who has been to Mana in September or October is impressed by the number of people that are sometimes found sitting around the painted wolves in the afternoon heat. It can have a “lions of the Mara” feel to it, and many complain, but at the same time are reluctant to give up their seat to watch the greeting ceremony.

Often, I will turn away when I am by myself and come across such a crowd. But when I am with my guests, who have crossed continents to see the famous painted wolves of Mana Pools, this is much harder to do.

Is our behaviour having a detrimental impact on the dogs? It is impossible to say. They seem very relaxed with us, but maybe our presence is denying them a deeper, more relaxed sleep they desire or need; weakening them for when they need the energy to fight a hyena or lion. Who knows for sure? This is more speculation but a possibility we should be sensitive to.

While guides and guests are generally respectful, what is undeniable is that too many people misbehave when they are with the packs on foot, and disturb them. They get too close, surround the pack, cut off their pups from the pack or bump them from resting place to resting place in a desire to ‘get one more shot’, even when it is clear that they are agitated. I’ve seen some groups boisterously drink cans of beer in front of them. Surely this beautiful and endangered creature deserves more respect than this?

They certainly look relaxed with us around them, and they probably are, but they have no voice to say otherwise.

Den visits

A lot of criticism has been levelled at tourists and operators visiting the dens. I spent a significant amount of time at Blacktip’s and Tammy’s dens in 2016 when photographing for Painted Wolves: A Wild Dogs Life under the continuous guidance of ZimParks and PDC.

Often, I was with the BBC. Both of us had powerful lenses with a reach of over 1250mm, which meant we did not need to go anywhere near the den itself. In my book, I describe the extraordinary measures I went to, to avoid any disturbance. The BBC crew were also highly professional, and our whole ethos was to stay quiet, do our jobs and leave when we had got what we needed or on any signal from the wolves that they were not comfortable with us being there.

Dens are incredibly sensitive places and require the utmost respect and a good knowledge of how to behave. Occasionally, guides bring their guests to the den. Most are professional and respectful, but I have witnessed horrific behaviour, including a guide who took eight guests right up to the hole and peered in. He never saw me as I was buried in a bush some way away, screaming inside.

My concern is twofold. First, how do you police bad behaviour and second, if every operator took their guests to the den, would it not have a catastrophic effect on the dogs? I can only police myself, and as such I will never take my guests to a den in Mana (see my policy) and nowadays only rarely visit them with PDC to secure unobtrusive photographs for their research.

Having said all this, in the last eight years, I have only heard of one pup dying at a den, or when moving from den-to-den and that was one of Blacktip’s – taken by a leopard. The record of all the Mana Pools packs in raising their pups to become nomadic is almost 100%.

Hyena and Lion

Whenever there is a confirmed kill of a painted wolf in Mana Pools, lion and hyena are usually the culprits. Leopard and crocodile have had a marginal impact, baboons were occasional suspects, and elephants just like to make a lot of noise chasing them.

Lions seem to be the greatest threat to the adults – especially in the Nyamatusi Wilderness Area.

The large lion pride in the Nyamatusi are particularly aggressive towards the wolves and have accounted for the significant number of casualties in both Tammy’s and Tait’s packs.

Meanwhile, it is a feeling among many guides and rangers that there has been a marked increase in the hyena population on the floodplain over the last three years. This is anecdotal, but perhaps ZimParks new predator research programme, aided by Bushlife Conservancy, will be able to corroborate this in time.

Hyena account for the death of many pups – last year three of Whisky’s five pups were killed in one night.

The Drought

Some have suggested that the drought may have lessened their prey base, but this seems unlikely. The floodplain provides an abundance and, if anything, the weakened impala made things easier.

What is of more concern is that the high number of starved animal carcasses last year could deliver a further proliferation of hyena this year – because of the copious scavenging opportunities during the drought.

Is there a solution?

All the above have been put forward as factors to demonstrates the possible reasons for the declining painted wolf population on the floodplain. While it is blatantly evident that lions and hyena are their chief nemesis, it is not to say that the other factors, either singularly or in unison, are not exacerbating the problem.

While there is not much that can be done about their natural antagonists, there are things that are being done and could be done further, to improve the prospects and welfare of the Mana Pools packs on the floodplain.

Gene Genie

One clear issue is genetics and what seems necessary is new blood on the floodplain. In an innovative collaboration between, ZimParks, conservation, tourism and communities, a new pack has been brought into Mana Pools from Hwange National Park.

The Mpindo Pack were denning in the middle of Mpindo Village and causing significant damage to local livestock. The community contacted PDC to remove the pack. The pack was successfully translocated to the centre of Hwange National Park, but they soon returned.

Left: In an innovative partnership, ZimParks, Painted Dog Conservation and Wilderness Safaris collaborated to bring new genes to Mana Pools. Right: 19 painted wolves under lockdown – honoured guests, courtesy of Wilderness Safaris in Chikwenya.

This time the community could not sustain further damage, and the painted wolves’ existence was in peril. But still, the community contacted PDC and, with the support of ZimParks and Wilderness Safaris, the pack was captured again and translocated by air to Mana Pools. There are now 19 painted wolves with new genes in a boma in Chikwenya waiting to be released to add to the resident population.

Their impact, when released, is uncertain and will be keenly studied by PDC and ZimParks. It is hoped that this otherwise doomed pack will contribute to the genetic diversity of the local population, adding to its strength. Whether they move up to claim the floodplain will be interesting to observe.

Better behaviour

Further interventions to rebalance the ecosystem in favour of painted wolves are problematic and contentious. Still, there are things that we, as tourists, photographers, guides, and operators can do to reduce the pressures on the painted wolves.

This relies on greater education, a strengthened code of conduct concerning our behaviour around the packs when on foot, and perhaps a means to enforce it.

I will put my hand up and say that when I first came to Mana, I made ignorant mistakes. I got too close, scared their prey when they were on the hunt and failed to recognise, in my eagerness to ‘get that shot’, signs that they really did not want me around. Mea culpa!

But, through gentle and more robust encouragement from brilliant Zimbabwean guides, guidance from PDC and my own research and personal development, I soon learnt to treat them with far more respect.

These packs mean the world to me, and now that I see them in a fragile state, it is even more important to recognise that what was seen as acceptable even just a few years ago is not today. I have further moderated my behaviour; giving them more space, limiting my time with them and ensuring that getting a great photograph is well down my list of priorities when they are in front of me. There may be more; I certainly see no reason to visit their dens during this period of fragility.

I suspect that most of the guides and operators would agree to a more robust code of conduct. It would be great if interested parties could get together to develop this collaboratively, not just for the welfare of the wolves but also for a better experience for their guests.

The Bigger Broader Brighter Picture

The headlines suggest that the painted wolves of Mana Pools are much diminished. From the two-pack, fifty-plus population of 2014, it is only the in-bred Nyamepi that are left laying claim to the floodplain today.

However, Mana Pools is not just the floodplain. A far greater expanse lies beyond the Mopani line, south to the escarpment, and stretches east and west along the mid-Zambezi valley.

A glimpse from a distance through the trees confirms seven new pups for Tim and Laili of the new Illala Pack. There is no need to disturb them.

Three of Blacktips daughters dispersed and met up with one unrelated male called Tim and are now denning on the eastern extremes of the Park. They have formed the Ilala Pack and have at least seven new pups.

In Ruckomechi, Taku, another of Blacktip’s daughters, is running a small but successful pack and I found two of Blacktip’s sons, Talon and Bear, in a new pack called the Dandawa, up by Kanga in October last year. Seven others have since joined this pack – and that was before denning.

Behind the floodplain, there is the rarely seen Cheruwi Pack found around the Nyakasikana area, and the Chitake and Kavinga packs against the escarpment.

Heading west are regular sightings of painted wolves in the Sapi, and in the Chewore there are confirmed sightings of a thirty-plus-strong pack seen last year with a very large litter. Further upstream a pack is regularly seen around Mongwe and another beyond the escarpment around Marongora.

PDC is expanding its resources in the mid-Zambezi Valley and is now able to significantly increase their research and monitoring from their new permanent base at Nyamepi.

Painted Dog Conservation now has a permanent research station at Nyamepi and have expanded their capacity to intensify their research into the painted wolves throughout the mid-Zambezi Valley.

A Temporary Hiatus?

It is hard to explain why the males and females of the Nyakasanga Pack did not disperse separately after Blacktip’s death to meet some of the other dispersals in Mana. This is not behaviour that I have ever seen reported anywhere in Africa.

While we can speculate, no answer can be made with any accuracy, but I rather romantically like to think that Blacktip was such a dominant alpha, and the cohesion of the pack so strong, that no one wanted to leave. It was certainly the feeling you got when you were with them.

But, as I have mentioned, this occurrence is very rare indeed, and it is fascinating to be able to witness a pack that seems to break all the rules. Remember that these were the guys that first started predating on baboons – again something never seen before.

It will be interesting to continue to monitor the inbred pups’ survival rates, the success of dispersals and how the new blood of the Mpindo will invigorate the concentrated gene pool. This pack is likely to dominate the headlines for some time and remain a fascination to visitors when the COVID crisis permits.

It’s still a paradise.

With the significant painted wolf populations in the hinterland, I have little doubt that the abundant floodplains of Mana Pools will remain a fantastic home for painted wolves, with the capacity to carry two large packs from the Sapi to the Ruckomechi Rivers. The question will be whether the Nyamepi Pack will be strong enough to hold onto this prime piece of painted wolf real estate.

The strong partnership between Zimparks and PDC has become a powerful ally for the painted wolves. Everyone who visits Mana should feel part of that partnership to ensure that this remains the best place to see painted wolves in the wild.

With new genes and better, more respectful behaviour, we can ensure that we are doing our best for a species that is already under significant pressure and does not need any more.

“R-E-S-P-E-C-T . . . Find out what it means to me!” (the late and great Aretha Franklin)

Some say ban tourists, but that would be a disaster. For the painted wolves to survive, they need people to come and enjoy and celebrate their magic. Unlike for much of their recent history, when we treated them as vermin, they are now better off with us than without us, and for that, we should be proud.

Further, seeing the park empty and the devastation that COVID has caused, reminds us all how much we rely on tourism to support wildlife, communities, and the incredible parks and rangers that keep these animals safe. Filmmakers and photographers spread the magic of the park beyond immediate visitors to those that are yet to come.

All must be welcomed, but we must remain mindful that we are in their home and we have a duty to respect that. If we do all this, then there is no reason why the painted wolves of Mana Pools cannot continue their legendary status and remain a mecca for visitors from around the world.

Nicholas Dyer

Nick is an award-winning wildlife photographer, author, photographic guide and conservationist.

Raised in Kenya, he spent much of his life working in the City of London as a fund manager before running his own investment marketing business. In 2011 he returned to Africa to focus on photography and conservation.

Nick has an enormous passion for painted wolves spending the last eight years following three packs on foot in Mana Pools, studying, photographing and documenting their lives with deep intimacy, giving talks and lectures on them around the world.

He is the co-author of the highly acclaimed coffee table book, Painted Wolves: A Wild Dog’s Life, which he wrote with Peter Blinston and is Chairman of the Painted Wolf Foundation which he set up to help raise awareness of this highly endangered creature and support their conservation in the field.

Nick leads specialist safaris across Africa to see and photograph these incredible creatures, offering his guests a unique insight and experience while contributing to their conservation.

Trophy hunting ban could harm conservation on private fenced farms in South Africa – says study

Editorial note: This report relates to PRIVATELY OWNED, FENCED farms and game reserves in South Africa.

With the ever-present threat of human encroachment threatening wildlife throughout the world, protected areas are a core means of protecting the remaining biodiversity. These protected areas can take many different forms, from state-owned and operated national parks and management areas to private land conservation areas. As is the case with state-owned conservation areas, these private land conservation areas (PLCAs) require several management activities that in turn require funding. How this funding is sourced varies greatly from ecotourism to the sale of bushmeat and trophy hunting. Researchers from the University of Rhodes in South Africa set out to examine the effect that a local or international ban on trophy hunting would have on the future of these private land conservation areas through formal interviews with the landowners themselves.

The study was centred around PLCAs in South Africa on the basis that South Africa has one of the largest trophy hunting industries on the continent, which is estimated to generate some R1.96 billion per year ($130 million). In South Africa, PLCAs fall under different levels of protection, including private nature reserves, which are legally gazetted under the Protected Areas Act, or legally binding biodiversity agreements based on contracts. Others still are informally protected in the sense that their conservation potential is not legally recognised, but the area receives protection through the landowners applying a biodiversity conservation model. These informally protected PLCAs are estimated to comprise 14% of South Africa’s land area – fenced off sections of farmland maintained to sustain wildlife.

The researchers interviewed landowners in the Eastern and Western Cap provinces to understand how much revenue each generates through trophy hunting and to understand how land use might change in the event of a ban, as well as the impact it would have on both wildlife and the surrounding communities. Between 2014 and 2015, 72 such PLCAs were randomly selected to analyse their revenue sources for that financial year. A second set of interviews were conducted with 22 different landowners in 2018 to ascertain what the perceived impact of a trophy hunting ban would be.

Of those interviewed that undertook trophy hunting, the revenue generated equated to an average of 36%, though the researchers acknowledged a vast range within this average, from 4% up to 95% of all revenue generated. Other revenue was generated through ecotourism (32%), live game sales (15%) and hunting for meat (12%), with nonwildlife revenue accounting for only 5% of their yearly income. The later, more in-depth, interviews focussed purely on areas that offered trophy hunting. Of those interviewed, 36% of the landowners stated that they would transition away from wildlife-based land use and convert to farming livestock in the event of a trophy hunting ban. Many suggested that to do so would require retrenching their staff contingent and removing or selling all wildlife. Another 27% stated that they would sell the land outright, either because they did not believe any other option would be economically viable or because they had no interest in any other use of the land.

Another 36% of the interviewed landowners suggested that they would transition to other wildlife-based land uses, including ecotourism, as well as selling wildlife or hunting for meat. However, many expressed concerns as to the cost of transitioning to ecotourism, as well as the potential of a saturated market with high tourist expectations as to accommodation and wildlife viewing. Many were concerned that higher volumes of customers would be required to generate the same revenue as trophy hunting, and many felt that their property was not well-positioned on the main tourist routes. 95% of those interviewed believed that a trophy hunting ban would harm conservation, with declines in wildlife numbers and damage to ecosystems.

While the researchers acknowledge that the sample size of this particular study is small, it is the first of its kind to investigate the possible effects of a trophy-hunting ban on single-landowner PLCAs. They argue that vociferous public pressure is having more of an impact on global policy regarding trophy hunting than research and science. While the study does not seek to analyse any of the moral implications of trophy hunting, it does highlight that a ban of trophy hunting could result in the loss of many private conservation areas, many of which are part of key ecosystems in the region. This, in turn, could have a profound effect on biodiversity and wildlife numbers, as well as many human livelihoods.

The researchers argue that this impact cannot be ignored and that a social-ecological approach should be taken to these private conservation areas to increase the owner’s capacity to cope with such a trophy hunting ban. “Such a focus could increase the uptake of scientific evidence in the trophy hunting debate and could serve to identify non-trophy hunting alternative sources of income in the event of a ban.”

The full study can be accessed here: “Impacts of a trophy hunting ban on private land conservation in South African biodiversity hotspots”, Parker, K., De Vos, A. et al. (2020), Conservation Science and Practice.

Chameleons – 6 must-know facts

The chameleon, literally translated as “ground lion” from the ancient Greek, is one of the most unique reptiles on the planet. Throughout Africa and Asia, chameleons sport spiralled prehensile tails and odd, tong-like feet, as well as a wide decorative variety of horns and crests. The largest species, the Parson’s chameleon (Calumma pasonii) and Oustalet’s chameleon (Furcifer oustaleti) come close to the size and weight of a small house cat. In contrast, the smallest species, the dwarf leaf chameleon (Brookesia micra) can comfortably crouch on the head of a match.

chameleons — **Left**: A Parson’s chameleon (Calumma parsonii) is the largest chameleon species in the world – the size of a house cat. **Right**: A Brookesia micra chameleon – the smallest chameleon in the world

Blending in and standing out

Their colour-changing ability is legendary, but the mechanism behind it is both intricate and fascinating and has only recently been fully explained. Unlike creatures such as octopi or squids that modify pigment dispersal within their skin cells, chameleons actively change the structure of their skin to modify which light waves are reflected. Underneath a top layer of pigment cells containing yellow and/or red pigments, specialized skin cells called iridophores contain crystals of a substance known as guanine (a nucleotide base). When the chameleon is relaxed, the crystals are tightly packed together, reflecting shorter light waves (blue light) that bounce back through the cells containing yellow pigments (xanthophores), making the chameleon appear (mostly) green. If a chameleon is stressed or excited, the cells containing the crystals “flex”, changing the layout of the crystals to reflect longer wavelengths, and creating the bright and expressive colour-changes. Below these layers of cells lie the melanophores which pump melanin pigments to the surface of the skin when a chameleon is submissive or frightened, making them appear brown or black.

Despite common misconception, this control over their skin cells doesn’t allow chameleons the ability to magically match the colour of their backgrounds. In fact, their being able to change skin colours has little to do with camouflage at all. Instead, it is a way for a chameleon to communicate with other chameleons and intimidate potential rivals or would-be predators. Changing their skin colour also has a vital thermoregulation function, especially for chameleons that inhabit extreme desert climates such as the Namaqua chameleon. A pale colour reflects heat, while a dark colour absorbs it.

Glow in the dark

As if chameleons weren’t other-worldly enough, there are some chameleons in Madagascar that have tubercles in their bones that fluoresce under ultraviolet light. When 31 species of Calumma chameleons were exposed to UV light, and in areas where bony protrusions around the face and crests lie close to the surface of the skin, the patterns of fluorescence were particularly striking. This fact was only recently discovered, and no one knows why it is that they do this. The most likely explanation is that it is an extension of their colour-changing abilities – a form of communication and a method of sexual selection, particularly since males have more tubercles than females.

Keeping one eye on the past and the other on the future

Naturally, communicating through the fluorescence of UV light would be relatively useless if chameleons were not able to see ultraviolet light. Their vision is highly developed, and a chameleon is almost entirely visually-oriented – their eyes have an enormous independent range of motion, allowing them a panoramic view of the world around them. While their vision is monocular, research has shown that this is highly coordinated in itself, with a “tracking” eye that follows potential prey, and a “converging” eye that swings round to focus on it just before it launches an attack.

Unusually, chameleons have a negative (concave) lens, but their corneas are positive (convex), which allows them to focus their depth perception precisely. This also makes them the only vertebrate in the world that can focus monocularly, and they do not need both eyes to be looking at the same point to gauge depth. So acute is their daylight vision that they have no rod cells at all, making them effectively blind at night.

Their vision has several different advantages, not least of which is that it allows the chameleon to fully assess the world around it with limited head movement. This helps them to avoid alerting prey, as well as avoiding the attentions of predators, as chameleons are popular snacks for snakes and birds alike.

A Johnston’s three-horned chameleon (Trioceros johnstoni) in Uganda

The telescopic tongue

The elastic recoil of a chameleon’s tongue propels them to accelerate the tongue to reach 100 km/hour in 1/100 of a second. This amounts to over 41 g, the highest acceleration of any reptile, bird, or mammal and over four times that of an F16 fighter jet. It can also extend to over double the length of the chameleon’s body. A modified hyoid bone has an extended entoglossal process, and the accelerator muscles are wrapped around this at rest. When these muscles contract, they squeeze structures known as intralingual sheets which shoot out like an unfolding telescope.

The tip of the tongue is covered in glands and acts like a suction-cup, with complex muscles contracting to fasten the edges around the prey. The power of this tongue allows the chameleons to catch prey up to a tenth of their body mass, which for the larger chameleon species can mean small birds.

African origins

Given that Madagascar is home to around half the world’s chameleon species, the natural assumption for a long time was that they had evolved there and then spread throughout the rest of Africa and into Asia. However, recent evidence suggests that chameleons came from mainland Africa. One of the oldest chameleon fossils ever recovered was found on Rusinga Island in Kenya. The fossil is believed to be from a species that lived 18 million years ago. Upon analysis, researchers confirmed that it belonged to the same genus as chameleons found only in Madagascar. Evidence shows that ocean currents at the time (between 50 to 15 million years ago) moved towards Madagascar, making it more likely that chameleon ancestors rafted from mainland Africa. Interestingly other endemic Malagasy animals such as the aye-aye are believed to have similar origins.

**Clockwise from top left: 1)** A flap-necked chameleon (Chamaeleo dilepis) in Zambia shedding its skin. 2) A nose-horned chameleon (Calumma nasutum) in Madagascar – it’s classification still to be confirmed. 3) A plated leaf chameleon (Brookesia stumpffi) in Madagascar. 4) A West Usambara blade-horned chameleon (Kinyongia multituberculata) – endemic to the Usambara Mountains

A crisis of conservation

The exact number of chameleon species in Africa is unknown, as new species are being discovered regularly, particularly in forested areas. There are, however, believed to be around over 210 species throughout the world and the SSC Chameleon Specialist Group have found that over a third of these species are threatened with extinction. Madagascar, in particular, is home to around half the world’s chameleon species, including typical chameleons (Chamaeleoninae) and dwarf chameleons (Brookesiinae). Of the Madagascar chameleons, 52% are threatened, and 70% are considered threatened or near-threatened. Nineteen of these species are endangered, and four are critically endangered: the Belalanda chameleon (Furcifer belalandaensis), the Namoroka leaf chameleon (Brookesia bonsi), the bizarre-nosed chameleon (Calumma hafahafa), Tarzan chameleon (Calumma tarzan) and the Ambre Forest stub-tailed chameleon (Brookesia desperata).

Throughout Africa, there are another six species of chameleon listed as critically endangered and the Chapman’s pygmy chameleon, endemic to its forest home in Malawi, has not been seen in over 25 years. Chameleons are slow-moving and range-restricted, meaning that they, like many other reptile species, face tremendous pressure through habitat loss. The precious and unique endemic species stand little chance against the tide of human expansion without urgent protection of their habitats.

In many African belief systems, the unfortunate chameleon is considered to be something of a bad omen. However, far from being a harbinger of disaster, chameleons are innocuous, inoffensive reptiles with many captivating features.

Further reading: Where have all the chameleons gone?

Understanding rinderpest

In June 2019, The Pirbright Institute in Surrey destroyed the most extensive laboratory stock of rinderpest virus remaining in the world. With the disease officially declared eradicated in 2011 and a digital record made of the genetic code, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization and World Organization for Animal Health had begun to put pressure on labs around the world to reduce risks of accidental release. The rinderpest outbreak of the late 19^th century was one of the most devastating plagues in African history – it killed 90% of Southern and East Africa’s cattle and the subsequent starvation killed as many people as the Black Death. It wiped out a third of Ethiopia’s population. Its effect on the continent’s wildlife was equally extreme, and the ramifications are still felt well into the 21^st century.

The virus

The virus that caused rinderpest was a member of the genus Morbillivirus, which also includes the measles and canine distemper viruses. Humans are unaffected by rinderpest, but measles evolved from rinderpest somewhere around the 11^th century, allowing it to make the zoonotic jump to human beings. Like all viruses, the rinderpest was incapable of reproducing without a host – proteins on the surface of the virus’s surface allowed it to bind to receptors on the host cell membrane before fusing with the cell and emptying its genetic contents into the cytoplasm. From there, the virus essentially hijacked the cellular processes of the host to replicate before the newly created virions would bud off the cell membrane and infect the next set of cells. Though the virus initially targeted the lymphatic and respiratory systems, virions were present in all bodily fluids, making it easily transmittable.

The disease progressed rapidly and caused ulcerating sores in the soft tissues of the affected animals, along with a multitude of other symptoms including extreme fevers, loss of appetite, diarrhoea, and weakness, usually resulting in death after around ten days. While the name “rinderpest” means “cattle plague”, it was highly contagious and not specific to cattle – it jumped to wildlife species including giraffe, buffalo, warthog, and antelope such as kudu and wildebeest. It had a fatality rate of up to 100% for previously unexposed animals, meaning that it decimated vulnerable populations of wild animals.

The virulence of the virus, short incubation period and rapid progression of symptoms made it extremely difficult to control. After it was introduced to the Horn of Africa around 1887, it moved southwards leaving devastation in its wake, before reaching Southern Africa in 1896. Efforts to control the virus eventually eradicated it in Southern Africa in 1905, though other parts of Africa were less fortunate.

Vaccines

It was known that any animal that survived a rinderpest infection was immune for the rest of its life. There was also anecdotal evidence of farmers using the bile of infected animals to attempt to inoculate other animals, which carried risks of actually causing an infection. Naturally, the enormous economic, animal and human costs of rinderpest outbreaks ensured that a great deal of attention was devoted to developing a vaccine around the globe. Though there were several breakthroughs in developing vaccinations, it was Walter Plowright who is credited with developing the tissue culture vaccine in 1962 (based on similar techniques used to create the polio vaccine) that conferred lifelong immunity and was cheap and easy to produce.

A major outbreak in the 1980s originating in Sudan spread throughout Africa and, once again, killed not only livestock but local wildlife as well. This led to the African Rinderpest Campaign, which gradually rid most of Africa of the disease through a combination of vaccination programmes and close monitoring of outbreaks. In 2011 the Food and Agriculture Organization declared rinderpest officially eradicated. As such, rinderpest joined smallpox as the only infectious diseases to have been successfully eliminated.

Africa’s wildlife and the Serengeti trophic cascade

The cost of rinderpest virus outbreaks in Africa to human lives was staggering and largely incalculable. In some parts of Africa, the way of life for certain tribes and people that survived was irrevocably altered. With the scope of this human tragedy in mind, it is easy to see why the effect that it had on wildlife is often under-represented in discussions around the history of rinderpest. Yet some populations of wild animals remain under threat today at least partly due to its effects, especially those affected by the 1993-1997 outbreak in East Africa. That particular outbreak decimated populations of buffalo and eland, and the population of the lesser kudus (Tragelaphus imberbis) in Tsavo National Park in Kenya was believed to have declined over 60%. Roan antelope were also particularly susceptible to its effects. While many animal species face several threats, including habitat loss and poaching, rinderpest had a devastating impact on already struggling populations.

As is now well know, if not well understood, imbalances in natural ecosystems can have completely unforeseeable consequences and diseases play their own role in this effect. White-bearded wildebeest of East Africa were particularly hard hit by the virus and by the middle of the 20^th century, the migratory wildebeest in the Serengeti-Maasai Mara ecosystem numbered under 300,000. However, from the mid-1970s, as Plowright’s vaccination research eradicated rinderpest in the area, the wildebeest population exploded to reach today’s equilibrium of around 1,5 million animals. This, in turn, led to what researchers describe as a “trophic” cascade, essentially: more wildebeest ate more grass which left less fuel for fire which increased the number of trees and mediated the balance between woody and grass plant cover. Pathogens like rinderpest with the capacity to devastate wild animal populations do more than only affect the animals that catch them – they can change the face of an entire ecosystem.

Cheetah brothers go on international walkabout

A coalition of male cheetahs has attracted the attention of various research organizations, who watched in amazement as the cheetahs set off on a journey that took them across international borders in search of a territory.

Transboundary protected areas, which span international boundaries, are vital in protecting the integrity of natural animal movements and, by extension, contribute immensely to the conservation of genetic diversity. The Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA) spans five countries: Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, protecting and unifying vital Southern African ecosystems in an area roughly the size of France.

Panthera, the global wild cat conservation organization, describes how they have been working with other research groups including the Botswana Predator Conservation Trust, Kwando Carnivore Project, and the WWF to share research, information and conservation efforts as part of the KAZA Carnivore Conservation Coalition. The cheetah males were initially discovered by researchers in the Nkasa Rupara National Park in Namibia and, when they were about a year and a half old, scientists from the Kwando Carnivore Program immobilized and fitted one individual with a tracking collar. He was nicknamed Rupara, and the other two were dubbed Nkasa and Mudumu.

Male cheetahs often form coalitions, which usually (but not always) consist of littermates, meaning that the three cheetahs are most likely brothers. Sadly, Mudumu disappeared during their travels and, while it is impossible to say for sure, researchers from Panthera believe that the cause was most likely anthropogenic, mainly because the coalition was recorded as spending time near a busy road.

Using the data from Rupara’s collar, researchers watched as the cheetahs moved around Mudumu and Nkasa Rupara national parks, reinforcing the suspicion that they may have been born somewhere in that region. Then, in March 2020, the cheetah crossed the Kwando River and moved into Botswana. Their 10-day journey led them along the Selinda Spillway, into Vumbura (where tourist guides spotted them) and through the Khwai Concession and Moremi Game Reserve. Rupara and Nkasa were once again identified by Megan Claas and Ed van Mourik of the Botswana Predator Conservation Trust in May 2020. They were observed displaying territorial behaviours like scent-marking, suggesting that the two boys intend to settle in the Okavango Delta. As Dr Funston, the Southern Africa Regional Director of Panthera’s Lion Program, explains, male cheetahs select territories based on the area’s potential value to females moving across massive home ranges.

As Rupara and Nkasa have moved across enormous areas, following an instinct to disperse and find a suitable territory, the two males have provided an obvious example of why these vast regions of connected, protected areas are so important to conservation and genetic diversity. Though unwittingly, they have also nurtured important partnerships between research organizations working towards the same goal. The information obtained on their movements helps to advance understanding as to cheetah dispersal and, as Panthera explains, “conservation scientists, researchers and practitioners are using this research to foster real conservation outcomes in this remarkable transfrontier conservation area”.

Change is coming to the safari industry

This story is about how technology and human nature are shaping the future of your dream hand-crafted safari.

Of course, clouding the situation right now is that COVID-19 has brought the worldwide tourism industry to its knees. For this story though, let’s ignore that particular elephant in the room. There is another elephant in the same room that I address in this story.

How the safari industry works

The safari industry is a bit like the proverbial swan gracefully gliding across the calm waters – you don’t see the legs paddling furiously beneath the surface.

By way of a brief description, there are ‘Heads’ (holidaymakers – you), and there are ‘Beds’ (lodges & hotels). To get Heads into Beds there exists a complicated web of intermediaries, each with specific skills and focus areas. As a rule (there are exceptions), Beds do not have the resources (time, skills or financial) to find, woo and transact with the volume of Heads required to fill all the Beds. They are focused on delivering the very best experience on the ground. They are also too busy dealing with elephants destroying water pipes, black mambas in the staff quarters and guests throwing a hissy fit because they did not see the leopards that their Facebook friend and part-time safari expert guaranteed they would see.

And then there is the logistically complicated task of selecting Beds and stitching together a complicated itinerary for each Head – often involving multiple accommodations, local and international flights and specifically-requested guides and wildlife/other experiences. This is the job of the web of intermediaries that service the safari industry. You may only encounter one such intermediary – your chosen travel agent/safari consultant – who is often but not always based in your home country. Some travel agents/safari consultants based outside of Africa have an in-depth understanding, after many years of travel experience, and they will stitch together your dream safari piece by piece. Others are mere order-takers who leave the granular work to specialists that live in Africa, where it all happens.

These intermediaries come in many forms, some specialising in finding Heads (agents) and some in selecting the most suitable Beds and stitching together complicated itineraries (tour operators). Some intermediaries do both of those things, and more. It’s a complicated industry, rooted in a crumbling traditional view of supply chains, that is continuously evolving as technology introduces automation and renders SOME of these skills null and void (remember when you last used a travel agent to book a flight?). Technology is, without doubt, introducing some improvements to your safari planning; but not always – keep reading.

The race to the bottom

Humankind is on a drive to reduce everything to a quick and easy process and discounted price. That all sounds good – right? No – sometimes this means a race to the bottom. Let me give you a very relevant example that affects us all, every day. Remember when we used to trust the news? That changed years ago when we decided that free content trumps paid content. The value added by professional journalists was deemed by us to be worthless, and so we walked away from professional publishers and introduced the age of democratised publishing, where we become publishers. Thanks to Google, we also evolved to become experts on every trending topic, from pandemics to human-wildlife conflict and race relations to the economy – and we broadcast and argue our expertise with great conviction. As a result of the avalanche of self-opinionated garbage that clogs our feeds, we no longer trust what we see, and we cannot distinguish between fact and fiction. We even share fake news with our imaginary social media friends in a desperate plea for credibility. In this way, we accelerate the race to the bottom. We got what we paid for.

The rise of the DIY safari

Back to the safari industry – where the same thing is happening. Technology that delivers enormous amounts of information, some accurate and some not, on tap (pun intended) has convinced us that we can save money and precious time by going DIY.

I once met a lady at a lodge in Kafue National Park, Zambia who was furious because she only found out on arrival that her chance of seeing leopards was not good. You see, her online research had told her that Luangwa Valley in Zambia is one of the best places in Africa to see leopards (it is). And so, to realise her dream of seeing a leopard, she booked a few nights at Lunga River Lodge (which is in a wooded area of Kafue, not the leopard paradise of Luangwa) as a short break during a business trip in Zambia’s capital city of Lusaka. Those two missing letters made all the difference. I kid you not.

Last year my safari planning team had a client abscond with our carefully-crafted gorilla trek itinerary in Uganda. The client took our hand-crafted itinerary and applied some DIY panel-beating. Along the way, they dropped our suggested lodging suggestion and chose their own (cheaper) accommodation in a quaint town a ‘short’ (according to Google Maps) distance from the gorilla trek headquarters in Buhoma, Bwindi. By contrast, our choice of accommodation was a two-minute stroll down the road from the gorilla trek briefing and departure point. Heavy rains the night before their intended gorilla trek made the road into Buhoma impassable, with bogged down vehicles all over the place. They missed their hike, forfeited the trek permits (US$750 each at the time) and made do with a Uganda safari sans gorillas. At least they saved a few hundred Dollars on our quote and experienced a quaint rural Ugandan town with its 24/7 music, barking dogs and hooting.

Sometimes DIY works – for example, if you want to fly into Cape Town for an Airbnb & Uber vacation visiting the fantastic variety of attractions, restaurants and wine farms – that is entirely doable. But for the majority of rural African safari experiences where you seek wildlife encounters, you are best served by experienced safari experts. There is no doubt that technology is increasingly assisting the process of researching your safari options and details – a good thing – but the sheer volume and complexity of possibilities and unpredictable natural events mean that you need an experienced human helping out at some stage. And if something goes wrong (missed flights, vehicle breakdown, personal injury etc.) you will need an experienced problem-solver on the other end of the phone.

Newbie gunslingers

Aside from the free safari advice being dished out liberally on social media by the many Google-empowered experts, another result of technology is the emergence of what one industry colleague refers to as ‘kitchen agents’. These are the mushrooming numbers of gunslingers who, after one trip to a conference facility outside Johannesburg that features an animal park, decide that selling safari packages blends well with their other part-time activities. They usually have no industry accreditation or insurance, and they will most likely spend your deposit on maintaining their lifestyle. Quite why you would trust their advice, let alone give them your money, is beyond me – but each to their own. And yet their numbers are growing.

The blunt instruments of the safari industry

And then we have massive automated hotel booking engines such as Booking.com and Expedia. These behemoths realised that humans want the best price and an immediate answer, and that is what they provide.

But at the moment, they are simply not able to cater to the many layers of logistical complications and uncertainty about wildlife movements inherent in African safaris. They will take your booking and, off a base of zero understanding of when and how, they will offer nothing more than a convenient transactional gateway. One amusing story springs to mind, told to me one night by a seasoned safari industry colleague while we stared at the flames and enjoyed our whisky and cigars at his rustic bush camp. Michel, all smiles, told me about how a guest who had booked via Booking.com was surprised on arrival that he could choose any tree to park his rented car under – he had paid a premium for a reserved parking bay. Why trust your dream safari to software that likens a tiny and remote bush camp in the wilds of Africa to a crowded big city hotel? There is no cost saving for you and nobody at the other end of a phone call if you miss your flight and need help. Again, the mind boggles.

The future and the other elephant in the room

We all know that your dream African safari is best hand-crafted by experienced, passionate humans that have actually been there, done that. Technology plays a powerful role in that process, but some things are best left to experienced humans.

But we also know that humankind is on a mission to reduce everything to algorithmic efficiency. Along the way, margins will be squeezed out of personal service industries like safari planning, and many experienced safari consultants will be left with very few clients. NOTE: Those margin savings will NOT go towards reducing the cost of your dream safari – they will go straight to the bottom line of the automated giants that already have us all (yes, you as well) by the throats. If you are confused about why I say that the likes of Facebook, Google, Booking.com and Amazon have us all by the throat, start reading my story from the beginning again. And ask yourself this: With all the efficiency and immediateness that technology has brought – have you benefited from a reduction in your cost of living?

This replacement of humans with software is referred to as ‘disintermediation’. It’s what we call progress. We are getting rid of most journalists, taxi drivers, and other experienced humans that provide personal service and replacing them with automated processes that direct us to a handful of dominant online platforms. And that is why the future will probably see most people (hopefully not you) picking their safaris from a generic list of algorithmically perfect options with no humans involved, and hoping that nature plays ball and delivers what they paid for.

And that, my friends, is the other (larger) elephant in the room that is staring down at the passionate, dedicated people of the African safari industry …

Keep the passion.

Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic

North Luangwa

Africa’s Great Rift Valley extends southwards into north-eastern Zambia. Here, the Luangwa River, a tributary of the Zambezi, has carved out a unique and beautiful landscape. This remote area is home to Zambia’s only black rhinos and has one of the highest lion densities in the region. North Luangwa is remote and wild, accessible only by air or if equipped with excellent 4×4 driving skills, so we had come to explore this fantastic place on foot. With few roads and even fewer people, you are unlikely to see anyone else for the duration of your safari.

River crossings, by vehicle and on foot, are a regular occurrence in North Luangwa

On our route there, we stopped overnight at Chikolongo campsite on the outskirts of the park, high on the dramatic Muchinga escarpment which accounts for 24 % of North Luangwa NP – just one of its diverse range of habitats. The next day we headed down the escarpment and into the park, driving for a couple of hours before arriving on the bank opposite the camp across the wide and sandy Mwaleshi River. Having had some vehicle issues, we were rather reluctant to drive across, and after a little arm waving and exaggerated miming to the team on the opposite bank, a couple of camp staff were dispatched on foot to assist us with our luggage. We all waded across the shallow water together, arriving at Mwaleshi Camp in time for lunch.

north luangwa — Mwaleshi Camp, on the bank of the Mwaleshi river

Walking out from camp that afternoon, we were given safety instructions: “stay behind the guide, single file, no loud noises, pay attention, and do NOT wander off”. We walked through long grass, across rivers, ducked under branches and occasionally stopped to untangle ourselves from ‘wait-a-bit’ thorn bushes. The bushveld is very different when experienced on foot – you become aware of every rustle and crackle in the undergrowth, the snap of every twig underfoot.

Our first afternoon walk lasted three hours. A magnificent martial eagle soared overhead, and lilac-breasted rollers displayed vibrant colours as they swooped through the air. Rattling cisticolas shouted warning calls and grey go-away birds, with their distinctive cries, were everywhere. We watched the insect-catching antics of bee-eaters, the ungainly flight patterns of hornbills and had an up-close look at the various nest styles of some of the 12 different weaver species found in North Luangwa. The air was heavy with the heady aroma of Natal mahogany blossoms.

Cresting a rise as we approached the river, we found three lions lying in the sand, about 30 metres ahead. We sat on the ground and watched them sleep. A persistent honeyguide called repeatedly, trying to get our attention and almost revealing our location to the lions, who from time to time raised their heads to see what the commotion was about. As we sat, our guide Brent explained that the honeyguides hope to lead us to a beehive, in the hope that we extract honey and leave some for them. He also explained that honeyguides are brood parasites, laying their eggs in the nests of another bird species, very often bee-eaters. They physically eject the host’s chicks from the nest or puncture the host’s eggs with the needle-sharp hooks on their beaks, and any of the host’s young that do hatch are stabbed to death by the honeyguide chicks, to eliminate competition. Incredibly, honeyguides have also developed the ability to produce eggs and young that mimic the egg size and gape of their hosts so that the interlopers can pass undetected in their foster homes. It also seems that their ability to produce eggs of similar size to those of their varied host species is not just to prevent choosy hosts from ejecting mismatched eggs, but also to fool other honeyguides, who would otherwise destroy the eggs because of fierce competition for suitable host nests.

Leaving the lions and the honeyguides, we headed back to camp. Sunset turned the river orange and scarlet as we walked along the bank. The smell of potato bush hung in the air, as did the trademark popcorn smell of a genet’s scent markings. Back in camp that night we ate dinner by lantern light, overlooking the darkened river. Hyena calls filled the night sky, lions roared on all sides, and a young elephant across the water trumpeted in alarm.

A typical day’s walking safari in North Luangwa starts at about 5 am. After coffee and breakfast around the campfire on the riverbank, we set off for what would be a five-hour walk. Taking off our shoes, we crossed the river. Almost immediately we saw the spoor of the previous day’s lions, but they proved elusive, always seeming a few steps ahead of us. The sun rose and the tsetse flies became a little more blood-thirsty. We skirted the mopane scrubland edge and watched the tantalising lion footprints heading deeper into the forest. We continued, walking through sand, over river pebbles, past woodland and across grassland. The occasional nocturnal creature rustled in the undergrowth as they made their way home, while birds and other daytime creatures started to wake up.

We were pursued by a succession of honeyguides, each one seemingly keener than the one before to lead us to the ‘honey prize’. A couple of Cookson’s wildebeest (one of the valley’s endemic subspecies) crossed our path, followed by a lone bull elephant, walking along the top of the riverbank. He found a tree laden with fruit and paused for a leisurely meal. Along our walk, ilala palms marked the ancient trails taken by elephants, who had eaten the ginger-chocolate tasting palm fruit and deposited the seeds in their gigantic droppings as they walked. As the day grew warmer, we moved into a grove of bushes on the edge of an almost-dry pan. There was a trickle of water remaining, just damp enough to attract elephants, baboons and warthogs, but not quite deep enough to conceal a small crocodile.

5 am starts and wading through rivers are all part of the experience

Lunch and a ‘swim’ in the shin-deep water of the Mwaleshi River right below our room, followed by a siesta, had us refreshed and ready to head out again on foot in the afternoon. Brent gave us a lesson in animal psychology. Explaining to us that if we ‘walked with purpose’ in a straight line, focussed on a destination, we appeared to other animals as a potential threat – like a predator. However, when we stopped to look at plants or birds or footprints, giving the appearance of milling about aimlessly, then our behaviour was less threatening, allowing us to get a lot closer to our quarry. We also learnt that among the larger general wildlife species, there are at least two distinct types of breeding/territorial behaviour. There are those like the wildebeest, where a lone male will guard what he feels to be prime real estate, and which he hopes will attract a bevvy of eligible females into his domain. Then there are those like the zebra, where a male will maintain a harem of females and exert his energy rounding up his females and fending off any rival males.

The rest of our afternoon was filled with animal tracks: the swish marks of a crocodile’s tail, the scrape marks of a hippo’s chin bristles in the sand elephant footprints large and small, lion, leopard and hyena tracks, the indentations of Crawshay’s zebra footprints in the damp river sand and signs of a trifecta of elusive nocturnal creatures – honey badger, porcupine and aardvark.

Walking in the wilderness provides the perfect opportunity to appreciate the nuances of nature – like chameleons, lion tracks in the sand and a monkey orange fruit covered in tooth marks.

A three-hour walk (or one hour’s drive) downstream from Mwaleshi, in a beautiful part of this mostly unexplored park, is the newly opened Takwela Camp. In the Game Management Area opposite the National Park, at the confluence of the Mwaleshi and Luangwa rivers, the camp offers both walking safaris and game drives. Nestled among groves of African ebony, mahogany, winter thorns and sausage trees, with the occasional ilala palm, the camp is perched three metres above the river. Our room was the perfect vantage point to watch an African fish eagle hunting. He plummeted down to grasp a fish in his talons, resting briefly on the bank before flying off to feast in private. White-fronted and little bee-eaters continued swooping out over the water once he’d gone.

A necklace of fifty or more hippos stretched across the river, resting their chins on a sandbank in the shallow water, grunting and squabbling and sounding like a flotilla of motorboats revving their engines. These creatures fascinated us, and we would spend many hours watching their territorial quarrels and wide-mouthed displays as they jockeyed for prime positions in the water.

Early the next morning we crossed the river in canoes and set off on foot into the park. Handsome kudu and waterbuck gazed passively at us. We followed the tracks of leopard, hyena, genet, aardvark and paused to examine a somewhat pungent civet toilet (civetry). We saw traces of its varied omnivorous diet: digested and excreted rodents, lizards and frogs as well as insects, fruit and berries. A civet is one of the few carnivores capable of eating toxic invertebrates like millipedes, and we saw the remains of the distinctive rings of ‘shell’ left from a digested millipede called a shongololo, (which can grow up to 38cm in length). Finding ourselves with elephants on all sides, never close enough to pose a real danger but close enough to get our adrenalin going, we made a tactical retreat.

Final sundowners in the park were spent on the riverbank, overlooking the same large congregation of hippos, who continued to agitate and disagree over territory. The following day, as we crossed the river to head back to civilisation, we found a pair of shy lions resting on the cool sand in the shade of a mahogany tree. As we were driving out of the park, we rounded the corner to come face to face with a hundred-strong herd of buffaloes – the perfect farewell to our safari.

Want to go on safari to North Luangwa? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.

W National Park in Benin now falls under African Parks management

African Parks has concluded a management agreement for W National Park in Benin, adding the 18^th national park to its management portfolio. The National Park is contiguous with Pendjari National Park, and together the two national parks make up half of the one million hectare (10,000 km²) W-Arly-Penjari Complex, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and the largest intact ecosystem in West Africa spanning Benin, Burkina Faso, and Niger.

This ecosystem is home to the only viable populations of West African lion, cheetah and Korrigum antelope and is named for the “W” shape of the River Niger in the park. African Parks began their work in Benin with Penjari National Park in 2017 in a partnership with the Ministry of Living Environment and Sustainable Development, the National Agency for Heritage Promotion and Tourism Development, and the National Centre for the Management of Wildlife Reserves. Together with the efforts of The Wyss Foundation and the National Geographic Society and with the support of La Fondation des Savanes Ouest-Africaines (FSOA) and The Wildcat Foundation, African Parks has made remarkable strides. In the face of escalating regional insecurity, they have successfully doubled local employment; initiated livelihoods programmes including sustainable fish harvesting and beekeeping; fitted satellite collars on key species for monitoring purposes; and established a well-trained team of over 100 rangers.

In recognition of W National Park’s critical importance as an anchor ecosystem, the Benin government and associated organisations committed to its conservation and worked with African Parks to put together a Priority Intervention Plan to upgrade infrastructure and increase the capacity of the park management. This has evolved to the fully delegated management mandate signed on the 25^th of June and is part of “Revealing Benin”, a national investment programme that underlies Benin’s ongoing efforts to restore protected areas.

This is the third national park to come under African Parks management in 2020, with Iona National Park in Angola and Chinko in the Central African Republic added earlier this year. In the announcement of the management mandate for W National Park, African Parks explains that the Benin component of the W-Arly-Penjari Complex is vital for delivering essential ecosystem services, supporting livelihoods, and serving as a national tourism asset. They “envision that through this partnership…W and Pendjari can serve as a source of hope for ecological recovery while engendering greater cooperation to boost security, stability and prosperity for not only northern Benin but the entire region”.

About African Parks: African Parks is a non-profit conservation organisation that takes on the complete responsibility for the rehabilitation and long-term management of national parks in partnership with governments and local communities. With the largest counter-poaching force and the most amount of area under protection for anyone NGO in Africa, African Parks manages 18 national parks and protected areas in Angola, Benin, Central African Republic, Chad, Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Republic of Congo, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. For more information visit www.africanparks.org, Twitter, Instagram and Facebook

Rescued pangolins given a rare second chance

Pangolins are entirely inoffensive, remarkable creatures: shy, solitary, and slow-moving, they are entirely reliant on their tough keratin scales to protect them against potential predators. Unfortunately for pangolins, these scales cannot save them from the main threat to their very existence. Pangolins are the most trafficked animals on the planet, prized for their meat and the (entirely false) attribution of medicinal properties to their keratinous scales, blood, and foetuses.

This ever-increasing demand drives the poaching of hundreds of thousands of pangolins every year throughout Africa and Asia, resulting in local extinctions and threatening remaining populations. Yet there are organisations dedicated to protecting these unique creatures and now, in a world first, conservationists have managed to successfully release 7 Temminck’s (ground) pangolins back into the wild where they were previously extinct. These “Phinda pangolins” are the first pangolins to exist in Kwa-Zulu Natal since the 1980s.

Each individual Phinda pangolin has its own tragic story, and all were rescued through the combined efforts of the African Pangolin Working Group, police units belonging to the Endangered Species Unit, Organised Crime and K9, as well as the Green Scorpions and the Hawks. The African Pangolin Working Group rescues 20 to 40 pangolins every year during sting operations, and these hapless pangolins are always extremely dehydrated and malnourished, often with underlying infections such as pneumonia. Many have been without food and water for up to two weeks. These individuals are rehabilitated through the extensive efforts of the Johannesburg Wildlife Veterinary Hospital, a non-profit organisation that is at the forefront of treating rescued pangolins that have been kept under appalling conditions.

Once fully rehabilitated, these seven pangolins were selected as part of a much larger initiative that is intended to establish a viable population of Temminck’s pangolin in Kwa-Zulu Natal, reversing the anthropogenic extinction. With this in mind, the sexes of the pangolins were carefully considered to give this population the best possible start – four females and three males were chosen as the first of hopefully many.

Releasing pangolin back into the wild can be a challenging business, yet it is an indispensable aspect of their overall conservation. &Beyond Phinda Private Game Reserve was chosen as the release site for several reasons. Most importantly, it is a suitably large area with an expert monitoring team on the ground. Pangolins can cover vast distances, especially those that have been released into a new area, and this creates a potential threat to their chances of survival. Allowing them to wander off through fences, across roads and into community areas or surrounding farms was simply not an option. The expert team at Phinda was available to ensure that this was not allowed to happen.

Each pangolin was fitted with two tracking devices to make it easier to track their progress as they adapted to their new home. A VHF transmitter allowed the monitoring team to track them using a hand-held receiver, and a satellite transmitter allowed for long-range monitoring. This is a costly process, but experience has taught researchers that VHF monitoring alone can be tricky if the pangolins decide to go on a long walk. The small tracking device packs, with a combined weight of just 250g, were secured by drilling small holes into the scales on the pangolins’ backs (a reminder that these scales are keratin, so the pangolin doesn’t feel anything) and then held in place by a small screw or epoxy resin. The result is a set-up small enough that it doesn’t impede the pangolins’ day to day behaviour but sufficiently secure so as not to be accidentally dislodged.

The diet of the Temminck’s pangolin is highly selective, consisting of a small subset of termite and ant species. In the past, rescued and released pangolins have failed to survive, often because they did not know the area and were unable to adapt to their new homes and find food. In this instance, the release team was determined that this would not be the case, and they developed a specific standard operating procedure for the release and how the pangolins would be monitored subsequently. Before the pangolins were released onto the reserve, they spent up to three weeks in an “acclimatisation” phase, where they were taken on daily walks to become accustomed to their new home. Once released, the pangolins were extensively monitored for months – initially daily, then twice weekly. The &Beyond team now continues to monitor them, with regular weigh-ins to ensure that the pangolins are healthy and well-fed. Sadly, while all seven pangolins survived the initial six-month post-release, one died due to illness, and a crocodile killed another.

Nevertheless, the survival of the remaining five pangolins is a triumph in the otherwise grim world of pangolin conservation. Phinda reserve manager Simon Nayler explains that “it is still early days, but initial efforts have shown the reintroduction of these stressed animals is positive and can be done”. He describes it as a privilege to see pangolins in Kwa-Zulu Natal once again. This project could run for decades, as Professor Janssen of the African Pangolin Working Group explained to the Africa Geographic team, as more pangolins are released into suitable areas of Zululand, effectively reversing a local extinction. And for the five individual Phinda pangolins, it means a second chance to live out their lives in the wild.

The project would not have been successful without the combined efforts of the African Pangolin Working Group, the South African Police Service, the Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries, KZN Wildlife, the Johannesburg Wildlife Veterinary Hospital and &Beyond Phinda Private Game Reserve.

Further reading: Pangolins – The Most Trafficked Mammal on Earth

The real economic value of Greater Kruger National Park

A 2020 study has revealed the considerable economic contributions of the Kruger National Park and the surrounding “contiguous reserves” that together compose the Greater Kruger National Park (GKNP). The study is a joint effort between researchers from the University of Florida and South African National Parks (SANParks).

In considering the public, private, and community-owned components as a whole, the study attributes different values in financial, social, and political domains to each. The researchers suggest that the GKNP should be considered as a whole when working towards management frameworks and policies. The private reserves, while constituting only 12% of the total land area, were responsible for over 60% of the total employment, tax and GDP contributions. Conversely, the Kruger National Park accounts for almost all domestic visits, performing a vital political and social function.

Across the total 22,686km² (23 million hectares) of the entire open system, there are close to 8,000 beds and some 700 different camp and lodge sites. As a general rule, the Kruger National Park itself is oriented towards budget self-catering options, while the private reserves tend to cater to more luxury, high-end safari experiences. For the study, anyone living within 50km of the GKNP boundary fence was considered to be “local”, which equated to approximately 2.9 million people, including many in semi-rural and socio-economically disadvantaged communities. The study reveals that from a period between 2016-2017, there were 3.5 million bed nights and day-visits to the GKNP, of which 35% on average were foreign tourists. As would be expected, the highest visitation by far was to the Kruger National Park itself, while the provincial reserves (Manyeleti Nature Reserve, Letaba Ranch Game Reserve and Makuya Nature Reserve) accounted for only 1% of the total visits.

Magnitudes of tourist spending vs management funding

Of the estimated R5.8 billion trip-related spending in South Africa by GKNP photographic tourists, all but R0.9 billion (which went into travel costs) was received in the local area. The total number of people employed in the GKNP equated to around 10,388, with R1.17 billion spent on wages and salaries in one year. In terms of both tourist spending and employment, the surrounding private reserves accounted for the majority. In total, the GKNP contributed R2.6 billion to South Africa’s GDP for 2016/17, including R975 million in tax revenue. When accounting for chain multipliers and induced spending of wage-earners, this contribution could be considered almost tripled to around R6.6 billion to the national economy.

Considered as an overall system, 80% of funding for reserve management of the GKNP is generated by photographic tourism, but this does not apply evenly across the surrounding private reserves. While in the National Park visitor fees go directly into covering conservation costs, the private reserves rely primarily on a levy system charged to commercial operators. The report suggests that resistance to levy hikes has resulted in managers of the private reserves having to seek alternative funds from donors and consumptive tourism. In some of the private reserves, consumptive tourism and trophy hunting account for up to 80% of the management income. In contrast, the provincial reserves are almost entirely reliant on public funds.

The presence of the Kruger National Park served as a powerful catalyst for the growth of a large and vibrant economy in the surrounding area, with substantial conservation, social and economic benefits as a result. The provincial reserves, however, are struggling with several challenges including poor infrastructure, high wage bills and low funding, as well as claims by neighbouring communities on the existing revenue streams. These issues, combined with weak governance and a lack of accountability at provincial and community-level could undermine the entire system, say the authors.

The system’s most significant capacity for institutional resilience comes through the diverse functions each component offers, something that will be particularly relevant during the current COVID-19 pandemic (which occurred after the compilation of this article). Importantly, the researchers call for an extended approach in assessing the value of each component of the GKNP and, given that their approach has yielded a much larger economy than previously thought, this needs to be taken into account for high-level strategies. Though the private reserves generate the most revenue, their relationship with the national park is symbiotic; it allows them to capitalize on the brand as a whole, creating a public-private mosaic.

The study concludes that the “partnership in the Greater Kruger National Park between private reserves and the national park is key, not only for branding but for stabilizing the system’s high-performing economic engine with political and cultural ballast.”

Summary Greater Kruger National Park figures for the 2016/17 season
Direct contribution to GDP	R 2.6 billion
Total contribution to GDP (including multipliers)	R 6.6 billion
Direct tax revenue	R 1.0 billion
Total tax revenue (including multipliers)	R 1.5 billion
Employment created	10,388 jobs
Wages and salaries	R 1.2 billion
Private reserves (±12% land area)	± 60% contribution of revenue and jobs
Total bed nights and day visits	3.5 million

The full report can be accessed here: “The Comparative Financial and Economic Performance of Protected Areas in the Greater Kruger National Park, South Africa: Functional Diversity and Resilience in the Socio-Economics of a Landscape-Scale Reserve Network,” Chidakel, A., Eb, C. and Child, B. (2020) Journal of Sustainable Tourism.

Lion cubs to bones – we interview Lord Ashcroft about ‘UNFAIR GAME’

Q&A with Lord Ashcroft about the captive lion trade and his book ‘UNFAIR GAME.’

There can never be any reason or justification to breed lions for tourist cub petting and adolescent lion walking, canned/other hunting or the bone trade. This ugly, cruel, morally bankrupt and biodiversity-destructive industry has to be shut down. One man who is out there fighting to stop this industry is Lord Ashcroft – international businessman, philanthropist, author, and pollster.

Lord Ashcroft instigated a covert operation to investigate the captive lion breeding industry in South Africa, and this shocking video reveals some of his findings. WARNING: the video contains harrowing footage that made our stomachs churn. Proceed with caution – you have been warned. Also to emerge from this exposé is Lord Ashcroft’s recently-published book ‘UNFAIR GAME – an exposé of South Africa’s captive-bred lion industry’ – a must-read for any serious wildlife eco-warrior. All author royalties will be donated to relevant charities in South Africa.

We spoke to Lord Ashcroft about the journey leading to this book.

How did you come to be involved in investigating lion breeding farms and canned lion hunting?

L.A: I have always loved nature, and South Africa is one of my favourite countries in the world. In 2018, during a trip to South Africa, I was told by various conservationists and experts about the scandal of lion farming and the horrors of canned lion hunting. I decided I had to find out more about this, so I launched an undercover operation shortly afterwards and then a second undercover operation – which my new book UNFAIR GAME details – to try to break it open.

What is your response to the claims by the proponents of lion breeding and canned hunting that, as farmed animals, these lions are essentially livestock and that the cruelty they are subjected to is no worse than that suffered by cows, sheep, pigs and goats when they are farmed throughout the world?

L.A: Lions are not livestock. They have never been and never will be livestock, whatever proponents of lion breeding and canned lion hunting claim. If lions were mere livestock, as opposed to being a creature revered throughout human history, why on earth does the South African state adorn South African banknotes with their image? Everybody knows that the lion is an internationally recognised symbol of strength and beauty. It has been acknowledged in this way for centuries in heraldry. Lions are indeed being farmed now on an industrial scale in South Africa, but this is a very new development. It’s mushroomed in the space of a generation. That doesn’t mean anything has changed regarding the status of lions in the minds of decent human beings. The willingness of unscrupulous people to farm lions doesn’t mean lions are anything like poultry or pigs or goats. Only somebody with a vested interest in exploiting a lion would try to justify their activities in this way and reduce a lion to the status of an organism that rolls off a production line.

Regarding the wild lions removed from Botswana to be used as breeding stock for the captive lion breeders, do your sources indicate that this is a widespread practice, or is it isolated to a few specific operators? Have you informed the relevant authorities of these goings-on, and has that resulted in any action on their part?

L.A: The information my team and I received suggests that removing wild lions from Botswana is now fairly commonplace. It is done out of necessity to widen the gene pool of the captive-bred lion population, which is often sickly. Because it is an underground industry, it is hard for anybody to be precise about this, but the poachers and hustlers seem to operate with relative ease. As to the second part of your question, my team did present a senior police officer in Pretoria with an extensive dossier of findings. He refused to read it and instead threatened to put at least one of my team in prison.

In your video, you touch on the justification used by lion breeders that they are supplying the existing demand in Asia for bone and that to remove the farmed supply would result in a massive upsurge in poaching incidents in wild lion populations to feed that market. Can you explain in more detail why you disagree with this reasoning?

L.A: I do disagree with the justification used by lion breeders that if they didn’t exist, there would be more poaching. Lion breeders always say their industry protects wild lions. In fact, the bone trade has done the opposite: it has established a market and a demand that has already harmed the wild population through poaching. This could, in future, have significant conservation implications. A market has been developed, and it must be fed, whatever the cost, even if that means plundering some of nature’s most precious species. This is a trade with links to criminals. It is indefensible.

The bone trade is appallingly grim. It’s also absurd. Who in their right mind would genuinely believe that consuming the bone of a big cat would improve their love life or their overall health? A major re-education programme is urgently required throughout Asia to root out this claptrap. It’s the only way to stamp it out.

You presumably went to considerable expense to rescue Simba and ensure his future. Research suggests that wild lion populations are declining at an alarming rate, not just in South Africa but throughout their remaining range in Africa – and many organisations devoted to protecting these wild lions are underfunded. Is there an argument that the money spent on saving one captive-bred lion could have been spent on efforts to save wild lions – or do you believe these causes to be separate issues, each as deserving as the other?

L.A: In deciding to save Simba, I reacted to a set of circumstances at the time. Simba was part of an undercover operation. Saving one out of a possible 12,000 captive-bred lions from certain death felt like a small but crucial victory in the war to end the captive-bred industry. This industry has been my focus, though I know that others focus on the wild population, and I applaud their efforts. In fact, as UNFAIR GAME makes clear, I believe that some tough choices lie ahead of us when it comes to what to do with the captive-bred population. Ultimately, it should not exist as a breed of lion. Some people will be shocked at this but euthanising all, or most captive-bred lions might be one solution. These are sad animals, bred to live miserable lives and then be killed. They can’t be re-wilded; they are often sickly because of inbreeding, and the expense of putting every captive-bred lion in a sanctuary would be prohibitive. There’s also a considerable risk that the trade would start again if this happened.

Lion breeding and hunting have been the subject of several shocking media exposés and reports, yet the practice continues. How can the average person help?

L.A: The lion trade starts as soon as cubs are born and taken from their mothers. These cubs are used as tourist magnets. So, a vitally important thing that people all over the world can do is cease having anything to do with cub-petting. Make it clear to anyone you meet that it is socially unacceptable to see lions anywhere other than in the wild and you should certainly never touch a lion either because they bite, scratch and carry all sorts of diseases. Lion cubs are often beaten or drugged to get them to behave in front of humans. When you think of all this, it doesn’t sound very attractive, does it?

Apart from the above, another way to help would be to buy my book (purchase details below) – 100% of the author royalties will be donated to relevant charities in South Africa. Reading and thinking about Unfair Game will empower you to know more and to be a better warrior for the cause as you spread accurate information to your networks.

Please feel free to offer further insights into the situation.

L.A: Lion farming is a terrible business. Behind the veneer of respectable tourist establishments, lions are being exploited at every stage of their lives for profit. The lion trade has clear links to international crime syndicates. All of this is appalling. But so is the risk of disease to humans that the lion trade poses. Farmed lions have weak immune systems. As they get older, they are subjected to a poor diet. All of this heightens their risk of bacterial infection. Anyone who goes near a lion is exposing themself to sarcoptic mange, ringworm, toxoplasmosis, babesiosis, giardiasis, cysticercosis, E. coli and echinococcus hydatid cysts – potentially fatal tapeworms.

But there is more. It is widely understood that Covid-19 originated in a Chinese wildlife market and spread around the world. Because of the big cat bone trade in Asia, of which South Africa is now a considerable part, experts quoted in my book say a major public health incident will occur in Asia as a result of its people’s rampant consumption of lion bones. It could be the infectious disease brucellosis, or botulism, or a new disease, like Covid-19. TB is also a massive risk.

I hope this, if nothing else, persuades everybody of the evil of lion farming.

Purchase UNFAIR GAME

Buy UNFAIR GAME online at Amazon or Biteback Publishing or from your local book retailer. Printed editions will be available in South African bookshops from 15^th of July.

About Lord Ashcroft

Lord Ashcroft KCMG PC is an international businessman, philanthropist, author, and pollster. He is a former treasurer and deputy chairman of the UK’s Conservative Party. He is also honorary chairman and a former treasurer of the International Democratic Union. He is founder and chairman of the board of trustees of Crimestoppers, vice-patron of the Intelligence Corps Museum, chairman of the trustees of Ashcroft Technology Academy, chancellor of Anglia Ruskin University, a senior fellow of the International Strategic Studies Association and a former trustee of Imperial War Museums. His books include Victoria Cross Heroes: Volumes I and II; Call Me Dave: The Unauthorised Biography of David Cameron; White Flag? An Examination of the UK’s Defence Capability and Jacob’s Ladder: The Unauthorised Biography of Jacob Rees-Mogg.

Follow Lord Ashcroft on Twitter

www.LordAshcroft.com + www.LordAshcroftWildlife.com + www.LordAshcroftPolls.com + www.LordAshcroftMedals.com

Leopards: silent, secretive and full of surprises

Of all Africa’s big cats, leopards are objectively the picture of perfection. Breathtakingly beautiful, charismatic, powerful, and mysterious, each leopard has its own pattern of rosettes and spots that are as individual and unique as their personalities. Their self-contained grace and nimble frames belie an extraordinary explosive strength and speed when needed and, like most cats, they have an innate ability to look entirely comfortable and at home wherever they happen to be at the time. This applies whether they are draped over the boughs of a marula tree or surveying the area from atop a termite mound, perhaps lounging in a sandy riverbed or, on the odd occasion, nestled in between the cushions of the couches on a lodge deck! Those who have spent time with leopards will tell you that every leopard sighting is unique – defined by the personality of the leopard itself.

The only truly predictable aspect of leopard behaviour is its unpredictability.

The basics

Leopards are by nature territorial and, in theory, solitary unless raising cubs, though it is not uncommon for young leopards to seek out the company of other leopards, driven by curiosity and youthful insouciance. Some territorial males even establish relatively tolerant relationships with the females in their immediate vicinity, though their meetings are usually based around an available meal! The territories of females tend to be smaller than those of the males and the males’ territories often encompass several female territories, allowing them to sire multiple litters of cubs. Female leopards are the genetic guardians of a region – once old enough, a female will most often establish a territory adjacent to that of her mother, with a minor degree of territorial shuffling as she reaches independence. Males, on the other hand, typically disperse at around 2.5-3 years of age in search of territory (and subsequent breeding rights) of their own and have been recorded moving hundreds of kilometres before establishing themselves. A male that moves into an area and takes over a territory will seek out and kill any existing offspring sired by the erstwhile territorial male; infanticide is one of the leading causes of cub mortality.

Most references to leopards describe them as nocturnal, and while it is undoubtedly true that they are often active at night, it is not uncommon to encounter a leopard moving or even hunting during the day, even in extreme temperatures. They are silent, efficient ambush predators and know exactly how to use their camouflage to best effect, often grabbing their prey before it registers what is happening. Their sheer strength allows them to catch and kill prey larger than themselves and they often stash these heavy carcasses in trees to avoid the attentions of other predators.

As consummate opportunists themselves, they will readily steal from other, smaller predators or munch on scavenged carcasses and there is little that a leopard will not eat. While statistically they target smaller to medium-sized ungulates (antelope such steenboks and duikers), this is highly area and individual dependent, and leopards have been recorded eating over 100 different species. These include termites, terrapins, beetles, catfish (watch), snakes, lizards, birds, porcupines, domestic pets, monkeys, warthogs, and hares. They have even been recorded raiding the nests of ground hornbills and martial eagles. As males can be double the size of the females, they tend to target larger prey on average and have been known to kill (and hoist) giraffe and buffalo calves. Considering that a giraffe calf can weigh more than a 100kg, this is no mean feat! Some leopards develop hunting techniques particularly suited to specific kinds of prey; specialist skills that can be passed on to future generations. Even a tsamma melon in an arid area is not offensive to the leopard palette.

Leopards are highly adaptable, aided by a relaxed approach to sustenance, a natural tendency towards secrecy and an unrivalled ability to disappear in plain sight. This is turn has resulted in leopards having the most extensive distribution range of any big cat on the planet. Even so, recent studies now suggest that leopards occur in only 25% of their historic range.

Quick facts

Social structure: solitary, territorial

Length: 0.90-1.90m, with the tail adding up to another 1m in length.

Mass: Males anywhere between 60-90 kg and females between 35-45kg

Gestation: around 90 days

Number of offspring: between 1-3 cubs

Average life span: around 13-16 years in the wild, up to 24 in captivity

Taxonomy

The Cat Specialist Group of the IUCN currently recognises 8 subspecies of leopards (Panther pardus), of which only one is African:

African leopard ( p. pardus) – the nominate leopard subspecies native to sub-Saharan Africa
Indian leopard ( p. fusca) – native to the Indian subcontinent
Javan leopard ( p. melas) – conservationists estimate that fewer than 50 individuals remain in the wild
Arabian leopard ( p. nimr) – considered to be the smallest of the subspecies.
Persian/Anatolian leopard ( p. tulliana) – range overlaps in part with that of the Arabian leopard
Amur leopard ( p. orientalis) – subspecies native to eastern Russian and northern China
Indochinese leopard ( p. delacouri) – a subspecies native to Southeast Asia, and, at present, the only of the leopard subspecies with its own IUCN Red List classification: critically endangered
Sri Lankan leopard ( p. kotiya) – an endangered subspecies native to Sri Lanka

Despite their considerably smaller physical size, Cape leopards are not considered to be a separate subspecies but, as with many species/subspecies classifications, the scientific discussion around leopard subspecies is ongoing. Studies involving complex genetic analysis continually contribute to the available information database. For example, research into mitochondrial DNA of African leopards shows that they exhibit greater genetic diversity that other recognised subspecies. For this article, all information refers to the African leopard.

It is important to note that “black” and “strawberry” leopards are not considered to be separate species or subspecies – instead, their unusual colouration is as a result of rare genetic traits.

Reproduction and leopard cubs

As mentioned above, one of the leading causes of cub mortality in leopards is male infanticide and to mitigate this, a female will mate with as many males as possible. She will, however, mainly target the dominant male in the area, and ‘target’ is a deliberately chosen word. A female leopard in oestrus is not subtle in communicating her intentions to a receptive male. She has little time for coquettish behaviour; instead, she launches into what can only be described as a full-blown seductive dance which culminates in an artless positioning of her hindquarters in a way that leaves little room for misinterpretation. These lurid displays can continue for up to a week, and at its peak, the pair can mate as regularly as once every two minutes, before eventually limping off in different directions in search of a substantial meal.

Female leopards give birth to their first litter cubs at around 2.5-3 years old, and these cubs are born with their eyes closed and entirely helpless. She will hide them in a suitable den site which can be anything from a hollow beneath tree roots to an abandoned aardvark burrow and, throughout her life, a female may reuse old den sites for subsequent litters. As the cubs grow, she leaves them for longer periods to hunt (and presumably have some space from their needle-sharp teeth and claws) and when the cubs are around two months old, she will start leading them to kills. Though leopard cubs are competent climbers from an early age, they are still very vulnerable, especially during the times they are left alone; cub mortality before independence can range between 50-90%. Other leopards, competitive predators such as lions and hyenas, baboons, snakes, and birds of prey are all potential threats to young leopards. At a later stage, their curious nature also has the potential to put them more at risk.

The cubs are dependent on their mothers for at least a year, and female offspring spend less time with their mothers at a much younger age than male offspring, who can spend up to 2 years or longer in their natal ranges.

Conservation status and threats

There are no reliable estimates of leopard numbers in the wild in Africa. However, researchers know that their numbers are declining. The species as a whole is currently listed as “Vulnerable” on the IUCN Red List as a result. Leopards are cryptic by looks and by nature and are the masters of hide-and-seek, which makes them somewhat difficult to count.

Anyone who has spent time with leopards has at one time, or another expressed astonishment at a leopard’s ability to vanish into the smallest patch of grass, sparsest bush, or even in plain sight in a patch of dappled light. A leopard’s coat is a marvel of nature yet has become one of the main reasons many organisations, such as Panthera, consider the leopard to be the most persecuted of all big cats. Studies have shown that every year, over 800 leopards in southern Africa are killed for their skins to be used in ceremonial regalia.

Their widespread distribution across at least 35 African countries also puts leopards at risk of human-wildlife conflict situations. Those that do wander onto agricultural land (or wildlife breeding farms) are at high risk of being killed by farmers, regardless of whether or not they attack livestock. As their available habitat decreases, this situation is bound to worsen.

In many African countries, the lack of accurate population data, combined with the leopard’s high levels of adaptability, allowed for massive overestimates of their overall populations, which in turn let to vastly unsustainable trophy hunting quotas. This misconception, the idea that leopards are abundant in the wild, still persists in some circles. Despite their listing under Appendix 1 of CITES, many countries even request (and are granted) enormous CITES trophy hunting quotas for leopards. Mozambique, for example, put forward a quote request for 120 leopard hunting permits based on an estimated 37,000 leopards. To put this into perspective, there are believed to be fewer than 5,000 leopards remaining in neighbouring South Africa, which is one of the few African countries where there is robust data available.

Final thoughts

Unbeknownst to them, leopards are often number one on a safari-goer’s “want to see” list. As the most elusive of the Big 5, they are the drawcard of a safari experience – extraordinarily photogenic with an innate, and presumably accidental, ability to adopt the most striking poses. There are private game reserves where these big cats have been habituated to the presence of safari vehicles for generations and, as a result, their day-to-day lives have been opened for observation, and we have come to appreciate their unique personalities. To our anthropomorphic interpretation, some leopards convey an awe-inspiring sense of authority and control, others (often young males) are comic and curious, some are decidedly grumpy and no-nonsense, and yet others are quiet, considered and composed. Yet no matter how well we come to know these cats, an inimitable sense of mystery will always prevail.

20 roan antelope die of dehydration in fenced Kruger camp – ranger dismissed

A South African National Parks (SANParks) section ranger was dismissed for “gross negligence” after 20 rare roan antelope died of dehydration in the N’waxitsumbe fenced breeding camp in a northern section of Kruger in 2019. This fenced camp of 2km long by 1,4km wide was set up to breed roan antelope for introduction into the Kruger, and now only has nine remaining roan.

In response to a series of questions put forward by Annerie Weber to parliament, Barbara Creecy, the Minister of the Department of Environmental Affairs, Forestry and Fisheries confirmed that the section ranger of Vlakteplaas (situated in the north-west corner of Kruger) had been convicted after an investigation by the Environmental Crime Investigation Unit of SANParks. No criminal charges were laid against the section ranger due to a lack of evidence of criminal activity.

The N’waxitsumbe breeding camp water is supplied by a large reservoir that feeds water into a trough for the antelope in the enclosure. The reservoir is in turn fed by a borehole powered by a diesel pump. The drinking trough has a ball valve to ensure that it remains at three-quarters full and does not overflow. It is unclear which aspect of this system stopped working and led to a lack of water.

There are at least three such breeding camps in Kruger, where rare or endangered wildlife is fenced off to reduce the risk of predation until numbers reach sufficient levels for the animals to be released back into the reserve.

In response to the death of the 20 roan antelope, Minister Creecy explained that an action plan had been developed to ensure the safety and security of the remaining nine roan in the N’waxitsumbe breeding camp, to be overseen by the regional ranger of the Nxanatseni North Region and the head ranger of the Kruger National Park. This action plan will include weekly visits with mandatory reports on the condition of the fences, water supply and food provision, as well as an assessment of the health of the animals.

While the overall roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus) population in Africa is classified as ‘vulnerable’ on the IUCN Red List, there were believed to be fewer than 350 individuals in formally protected areas in South Africa in 2016. The roan antelope population in the Kruger National Park plummeted from a population of around 450 in 1986 to fewer than 30 individuals in 2003. The population has failed to recover, and it is estimated that the current roan population of the Kruger numbers no more than 50 individuals after this loss. Researchers and conservationists have identified several possible reasons for this decline, including the installation of artificial water points in the drier sections of the Kruger. These water points attracted large numbers of zebra, wildebeest, and buffalo and attendant predators such as lions. The increased lion predation on roan led to increased adult mortality in the already small roan antelope population, resulting in a population crash. Other recent studies point to the susceptibility of roan to diseases such as anthrax as a contributing factor.

Minister Creecy’s written answers regarding the case can be accessed here: Internal Question Paper No. 19 of 2020/1076 and 1077

The numbers quoted for the roan antelope population in South Africa were extracted from the Red List of Mammals of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland.

Subsequent story on a related topic: Kruger roan deaths by neglect – more of the same, says informant

Botswana elephant graveyard: mystery death toll rises to 400

Editorial note: Subsequent to our story below the Botswana Government has issued a brief update, which we provide as a footnote to this story.

It’s no secret that elephants have been dying in northern Botswana during the last few months and that samples taken from carcasses by government officials have yet to shed light on the cause of death.

Rather than add to the speculation already out there about the cause/s of death and why the sample results are not yet available, we contacted various trusted sources to compile this list of known details/observations

THIS IS WHAT WE KNOW:

The first reported elephant deaths were in March 2020, with higher volumes reported from May onwards;
The death toll has now risen to approximately 400 elephants of both sexes and all ages;
Most carcasses are in the NG11 area, near the village of Seronga on the northern fringes of the Okavango Delta. Read this account of the impacts of elephants on people living in the area: Life with Elephants;
30% of deaths occurred in the last two weeks and 70% about one month or more ago;
Tusks have not been removed from the dead elephants and carcasses show no sign of having been chopped to extract the ivory;
Some elephants died in an upright position, suggesting a sudden death;
70% of the carcasses were seen near waterholes/pans;
There have been no reports of similar deaths in Namibia – a short distance north of NG11;
Live elephants near water sources were observed to be lethargic and disoriented, and some appeared to have little control over their legs. One was seen wandering in circles;
A dead horse was seen in one waterhole/pan;
No other species carcasses have been seen in the area, and vultures feasting on the elephant carcasses appear unaffected.

Note: None of the images used in this story contains locational data, and so they cannot be used by those wishing to collect ivory illegally.

Botswana government update on 2 July 2020:

PRESS RELEASE – ELEPHANT MORTALITY IN SERONGA

The Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism wishes to inform members of the public that, following the mysterious deaths of elephants in the areas around Seronga since March 2020, to date, 275 elephant carcasses have been verified against the 356 reported cases.

Furthermore, investigations regarding the unexplained deaths of elephants are still ongoing.

The public is also informed that three Laboratories in Zimbabwe, South Africa and Canada have been identified to process the samples taken from the dead elephants which will be interpreted against field veterinary assessments of clinically ill and dead elephants.

Members of the public are assured that tusks are being removed from the dead elephants and carcasses within proximity to human settlements continue to be destroyed. The ongoing investigations, into the deaths of the elephants, have revealed no evidence of poaching so far.

The Ministry will, therefore, keep the public informed of any developments.

[Signed]
K. D. Maselesele
FOR/ A.g Permanent Secretary
MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, NATURAL RESOURCES, CONSERVATION AND TOURISM

Can CITES be fixed? Practical suggestions that make sense are being ignored

There is no escaping the fact the mechanisms driving CITES are categorically failing the species that the treaty was enacted to protect. The system has come under fire over recent years from numerous directions, including a comprehensive report jointly compiled by the EMS Foundation and Ban Animal Trading, which exposed several failing points throughout the process in South Africa’s trade in wildlife with China. There is little question that the CITES permit system is outdated and inefficient, providing far too much leeway for abuse and illegal operations. Recent international focus has steadily shifted from outright condemnation of the illicit trade of wildlife to the realization that this has to be remedied alongside the process of bringing the legal trade under some degree of control.

CITES was meant to provide this control – it is the main treaty and organization that governs the international trade in over 36,000 species of plants and animals. From a sympathetic perspective, the underfunded organization is faced with having to manage the polarized demands and requests of over 183 member parties, to find a way to reconcile ideological disagreements and trade realities with some form of middle ground. And it is not succeeding. So, what is the answer? Some call for the system to be scrapped altogether, and others suggest fixing the existing system from within.

A CITES overhaul

Nature Needs More (NNM) and For the Love of Wildlife (FLOW), Australian non-profit organizations, have compiled a full report into the substantive changes they believe would help to control the legal trade in animal species, which in turn will prevent the illegal trade from exploiting loopholes. Africa Geographic approached Nature Needs More with several questions relating to their numerous recommendations, open letters, and requests for meetings with CITES and their response speaks to the dedication shown in looking for practical solutions. The organization’s starting point is that CITES-regulated legal trade in flora and fauna has an estimated worth of US$320 billion per year, while the CITES core budget to administer legal trade is US$ 6 million per year. The disparity in those numbers is enormous, to the point of absurdity, and utterly contrary to other international trade models. CITES needs to modernize, says NNM (a position difficult to dispute), and they propose three steps to affect this modernization:

Implementing an ePermit system through cost recovery

The current CITES systems are not managing the massive increase in trade volume that has occurred since its inception in the 1970s. While a handful of developed countries have implemented bespoke electronic permit systems at great expense, a low-cost solution exists and is available to all Parties to the treat. Only one, Sri Lanka, has fully implemented the eCITES system – the others claim a lack of funding. NNM approached world-leading experts in trade analytics who described the CITES trade database as the “worst designed and most impenetrable data source they have ever come across”. But this cannot be rectified until the various countries have all implemented an electronic permit system so that the data comes from one unified source.

Reverse listing

Reverse listing is the opposite approach to the one currently adopted by CITES. The basic CITES starting point is that all species can be traded unless restricted on one of the Appendices, which means that species can be traded until it is proved that they need protection. Recent research shows how this has failed, with some species waiting over nineteen years for classification. A reverse listing system would base the default position on no trade and shift the burden of proof to those promoting the trade.

Industry contributing to the costs of trade

In reality, due to signatory country arrears, CITES receives less than $6 million per annum – and yet has to regulate, monitor and enforce trade worth about US$320 billion. This disparity, the organization argues, can only be resolved by regulations that will force the industry to pay the cost of regulation. This would be similar to the European Medicines Agency which has an annual budget of $350 million, of which 90% comes from industry member fees.

Electronic permits – an undeniable and imminently doable priority

At present, the forgery and modification of paper import and export permits are so common as to be considered the norm, rather than the exception. This allows dishonest exporters and importers to lie about whether traded species are captive-bred or wild-caught, the volumes included on the shipment, the species included in the shipment and intended final destination of the imported species. This, in turn, makes it almost impossible to estimate the scale of either legal or illegal trade, as the records are patchy and, at times, non-existent. It is not difficult to understand why NNM, FLOW, and other such organizations point to the implementation of electronic permits as a priority.

According to them, rolling out an ePermit system which would function within existing customs structures would cost about US$150,000 per country, less than $30 million in total (a figure confirmed by UNCTAD and CITES). Yet communications with CITES, as well as from UNCTAD and governments in signatory countries all point to the fact that funding is the critical issue in preventing the rollout of the eCITES BaseSolution. One CITES official even suggested to NNM that it would need a donation from a philanthropist to get the ball rolling. To be clear, the suggestion is that an international trade industry valued at $320billion per annum requires philanthropic donations to implement the most basic of monitoring systems.

According to a 2016 World Bank Report, $200 million was spent over six years for “promoting the sustainable use model” as part of the funding to tackle the illegal wildlife trade. NNM and FLOW have therefore questioned why $30 million could not be made available to better manage the existing trade if $200 million can be found to promote even more trade in wildlife.

Philanthropy or the cost of business?

One of NNM’s suggestions is that businesses that benefit from the trade in wild species could be called upon to cover this once-off cost. They mention luxury brand companies such as Kering, LVMH, and L’Oréal as examples – all companies that use CITES-listed species in their products. At this stage, there is no legal or political pressure on these companies to do so. Still, when NNM approached the Global Fashion Agenda, they responded that their brands and retailers have a low level of knowledge in this area. Given that the trade in wild species is one of the driving factors behind the loss of biodiversity, says NNM, this speaks to a failure on the part of organizations that should be raising awareness with brands that use these species. Such a lack of knowledge would not be the case under a reverse listing system, explains NNM, as the industry would have played their role in proving that trade was sustainable.

Furthermore, those that profit the most from the trade – the importers – contribute almost nothing apart from token costs. NNM explains that when they approached governments about industry contributions, the governments were more receptive. For any other major industry, it is standard practice for the industry to bear at least part of the cost – why should the wildlife trade be any different?

CITES response

NNM and FLOW reported to us that they sent their first letter to the then Acting Secretary-General David Morgan in 2018, with no response. After months of trying, they once again contacted the new Secretary-General to reiterate their suggestions and request a meeting. This meeting was agreed to in an email in March 2019 but never materialized, and all further attempts to contact the Secretary-General have been ignored. To date, they have had no further contact or received any comments or responses to their proposals.

The organization also proposed that CITES provide transparent and verifiable trade analytics for the top 50 listed species over the last decade – a request that would, in theory, go a long way to proving that the “sustainable use” model is working. The request was made during discussions with the IUCN and CITES representatives who were specifically addressing sustainable use and was met with a significant degree of deflection. NNM says that they will repeat the request in a more formal setting later this year.

Final thoughts

The process of drafting, signing, and enacting a treaty is an invariably protracted process and setting up the foundations for a system of monitoring trade even more so. While ideological differences make CITES an inevitably controversial topic, the fact remains that it is an existing framework. Its systems are antiquated, and its enforcement seems to be tragically limited, yet when organizations like NNM and FLOW come forward with substantive suggestions for change, they are met with lumbering inertia. And that responsibility rests with the Member States – the force to change this inertia can only come from them.

But while NNM and FLOW have recognized this and set out to lobby various representatives of the governments concerned, the truth remains that in many instances, controlling wildlife trade is not a priority for many countries. The reality is that a complete cessation of wildlife trade is not going to happen in the foreseeable future and, as NNM explains, “[w]e need to move to the point of introducing real and pragmatic solutions to ensure that the legal trade system is suitable for current and future trading volumes.” The impetus for this change has to come from the governments that purport to act as guardians of their country’s wild species.

The above is a summary of the proposals put forward by Nature Needs More and For the Love of Wildlife. The full reports, background and proposals can be accessed here: Three steps to modernize CITES

Serengeti

In northern Tanzania lies a world-renowned wilderness so expansive that the original inhabitants, the Maasai people, named it as a “place where the land runs forever”. A land synonymous with the very essence of an African safari, where the magnificence of the scenery and the expansive atmosphere is matched only by the quality of wildlife viewing. This is the Serengeti, named for the Maa word siringet – the perfect combination of sweeping grass plains, rocky outcrops, leafy woodlands and fertile, volcanic soils for the region’s populous herbivores and well-fed predators.

In the Serengeti ecosystem, the land really does seem to run forever – at roughly 31,667km² (almost 3,2 million hectares) of protected area, it covers a large portion of Tanzania’s north-western corner. It is so vast that it dwarfs the contiguous ecosystem of the Maasai Mara by a factor of ten.

Cheetahs assess their options amidst the grazing herds of white-bearded wildebeest and plains zebra

The facts

The northern-most stretches of the Serengeti National Park merge across the international border of Kenya into the Maasai Mara, creating a vital East African ecosystem (more on that later). To the west lie the Grumeti and Ikorongo Game Reserves, south is Maswa Game Reserve and east is the Loliondo Game Control Area. Nestled to the southeast is the ancient caldera of Ngorongoro Crater and the surrounding Conservation Area. To the east of Loliondo looms Ol Doinyo Lengai, literally translated as “the Mountain of God”, one of Africa’s few active volcanoes; and one of many that have played a role in shaping one of the most abundant wildlife ecosystems in Africa.

Serengeti National Park	14, 750 km² (1,475,000 hectares)
Ngorongoro Conservation Area	8,292 km² (829,200hectares)
Maswa Game Reserve	1,415km² (141,500 hectares)
Grumeti Game Reserve	410 km² (41,000 hectares)
Ikorongo Game Reserve	600 km² (60,000 hectares)
Loliondo Game Control Area	6,200 km² (620,000 hectares)
TOTAL area under conservation	31,667 km² (3,16,600 hectares)

Under Tanzanian laws and policies, there is a historically complex distinction between National Parks, Game Reserves, Game Control Areas and Conservation Areas.

National Parks are afforded the highest levels of legal control over human activity and habitation within the park and are managed by the Tanzanian National Parks Authority, TANAPA. Game Reserves are similarly protected but are managed by the Tanzania Department of Wildlife with regions set aside for hunting. Game Control Areas allow for the use of land and resources other than for conservation and tourism reasons – including human residence, cultivation and the keeping of livestock.

Conservation Areas are areas of land recognized not only for their ecological importance but their historical value as well. Managed by its own specific Authority, the Ngorongoro Conservation Area is a designated World Heritage Site and is, quite literally, home to some of the footprints of human/hominid history. The archaeological research in Olduvai gorge and Lake Ndutu has yielded a timeline of our evolution as a species and traces our transitions right through to the use of stone tools and the eventual progression to iron.

The combination of National Parks and Game Reserves, together with the less restricted forms of land use accounts for the protection of around 80% of the entire Serengeti ecosystem.

The Great Migration

The Serengeti-Mara ecosystem is home to the Great Migration – the largest overland migration on earth, and for the majority of the year, the herds are moving through the Serengeti itself. In February, the short grass plains in the southern section of the Serengeti National Reserve provide the perfect birthplace for hundreds of thousands of white-bearded wildebeest calves. Those that survive the attentions of the many predators will begin their life-long, roughly circular journey spanning the two countries with over a million other wildebeest. As the calves grow, they can cover more ground, and the herds flow north through the Grumeti Game Reserve and surrounding areas, eventually crossing into the Maasai Mara around July, before looping back into Tanzania around October.

Nothing can truly convey the experience of sitting in the middle of the migration, surrounded by animals as far as the eye can see. The wildebeest are constantly vocal, with grunting contact calls interspersed with what can only be described as the desperate sound of the males trying to further their genetic future. The background cacophony is a permanent soundtrack to the spectacle of the Great Migration.

While the migration is known for multitudinous hunts and dramatic river crossings, there is also a strangely comic aspect for those that have the patience to sit and watch the more “ordinary” wildebeest sightings. Few would describe the white-bearded wildebeest as great thinkers of the animal kingdom, but the calves are always playful, despite the seemingly precarious nature of their very existence, and the mating season is hilarious. A male will gallop off in pursuit of a potential opponent, and after a (usually) brief clash of horns will return to where he left his females only to find that they’ve wandered off, at which point he looks dejected for a short time before galloping off to start again. The smell completes the sensory extravaganza that is the migration – a combination of leather, grass and cow with a hint of something sharp that might, metaphorically, be described as the scent of panic.

The full experience

Quite aside from the huge herds of wildebeest, zebra and various antelope species that find themselves caught up in the migration, the Serengeti thrums with life throughout the year. Big cat sightings are a certainty: lions pose majestically on picturesque kopjes, leopards seclude themselves in the boughs of huge sausage trees and cheetah stretch out to their full stride through the golden grass. The sheer openness of the plains dwarfs elephant families, and large herds of buffalo stare down their noses at passing safari vehicles. A fortunate visitor might even spot one of the black rhinos that were brought in from South Africa to boost the population in the Serengeti.

The rainfall patterns are very similar to those of the Maasai Mara, with seasonal rainfall peaks in November/December and April/May. As in the Maasai Mara, the volcanic history of the area means that when it rains, the soils in certain areas become boggy, but the relevance of the timing of the rains extends beyond weighing up the chances of getting stuck. Tsetse flies are present in the Serengeti all year round, but their numbers increase significantly during the summer months and rainy season. The guides know how to avoid the pockets of tsetse flies, but wearing neutral clothing will help to avoid attracting attention.

Enjoying a packed lunch on the vast Serengeti plains

Endless plains and beyond

It is no exaggeration to say that a visit to the Serengeti ecosystem is essential for avid safari-goers. The vast space and relatively low lodge density mean that for the most part, you can experience the spectacular scenery and wildlife in relative peace. Naturally, the river crossings in the north and birthing in the south attract large numbers of visitors and sightings can be quite busy at times. And yet the vastness of the Serengeti translates into plenty of opportunity for privacy and wilderness, even during the busy tourism months.

Shaped by volcanic forces and fed by numerous river systems, there is something primordial about the boundless plains of the Serengeti and the ceaseless movements of over a million animals driven by the search for sustenance. History, both ancient and recent, has created one of the most spectacular wilderness ecosystems on the African continent.

A walking safari in the Serengeti – one of the best ways to savour this vast ecosystem. Hippos congregate in a rapidly-drying river during the dry season.

Further reading about two very different safari experiences in the Serengeti:

Want to go on safari to the Serengeti? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.