Page 17 – Africa Geographic

Nyungwe National Park

Aptly referred to as the land of a thousand hills, Rwanda is a country that embodies the genuinely remarkable spirit of Africa. Once torn apart by genocide and bloodshed, the Rwandan people have demonstrated a steely determination in both acknowledging their history and refusing to be defined by it. Some call it the Rwandan miracle: the country’s economy has grown by an average of more than 7% per year since 2000, and the poverty rate has fallen by 57% percent. Its people have turned hate and fear into the warmth and generosity of spirit that today epitomises Rwanda.

This forward-thinking, disciplined reconciliatory approach has also bolstered the country’s conservation reputation, supported by a robust tourism industry that continues to go from strength to strength. While gorilla trekking in Volcanoes National Park or a safari-going in Akagera National Park are both extraordinary experiences in their own right, Rwanda is also home to the most extensive protected tracts of montane forest in Africa – Nyungwe National Park.

The Park

Nyungwe National Park covers 1,019km² (over 100,000 hectares) of forested mountains, burbling streams, sun-starved valleys, and extensive swamps seemingly hiding a myriad of new species waiting to be discovered (or rediscovered). Though historically established as a reserve in 1933, Nyungwe National Park was only designated as a national park in 2004. It is tucked in the south-west corner of the country, towering above Lake Kivu and contiguous with Kibira National Park in Burundi to the south. Nyungwe is a biodiversity hotspot bursting with life. As part of the Albertine Rift and ranging in altitude from 1,600-3,000m, it is home to the largest high-altitude montane forest in East and Central Africa – a vitally important habitat in its own right. The land comprises the watershed between the Congo and Nile Rivers and some believe it is home to the most remote source of the Nile River, a stream that originates on Mount Bigugu.

Walking in the canopy

The vast majority of Nyungwe is covered by ancient forests that engender a truly mystical atmosphere and teem with life of every size and shape. In mature tropical forests like those in Nyungwe, the canopy forms a complex aspect of life in the forest. With limited exceptions, human tourists tend not to display the arboreal skills of the primates that they seek and, as a result, were once restricted to exploring the forest floor. However, in 2010, the Rwanda Development Board found a way to lift the tourist experience to new heights by installing a canopy walkway of nearly 160m long, which rises over 7om above the ferns below.

For those unaffected by a fear of heights (and even, perhaps, for those searching for a new and innovative way to overcome them), the three separate bridges offer unparalleled views of one of the most scenic national parks in Africa. This extraordinary vantage point forms part of the Igishigishigi Trail (a word that refers to the tree-ferns below but doubles as a tongue-twister), and the forest below is resplendent, often draped in a blanket of cloud that only adds to a sense of the surreal.

Swinging through the canopy

As a mostly forest-dominated park, it is only natural that one of Nyungwe’s significant drawcards is its extensive primate populations and its treetops are dominated by several species of monkey and troops of chimpanzees. There are two habituated troops of chimpanzees within Nyungwe and chimpanzee trekking is popular with visitors. Given the distances chimps can cover at any one point in time, visitors should prepare for an early morning and a long day spent walking through the forest. However, this will be rewarded by an hour spent in close proximity to our closest relatives.

Chimpanzees aside, the other charismatic primates can be equally beguiling and entertaining. The owl-faced monkey was only recently confirmed to occur in Nyungwe, and this is the only population of this rare monkey species to occur outside of the Democratic Republic of Congo. The forest is also home to the largest mega-troop of Rwenzori pied colobus monkeys in Africa, numbering over 400 of these striking black and white monkeys. This well-habituated mega-troop also attracts the company of a myriad of additional primate species such as the grey-cheeked mangabey, L’Hoest’s, Syke’s, silver, red-tailed monkeys, and the olive baboon. Chimpanzees are also drawn to the colobus monkeys, though for entirely different reasons: food. They hunt the smaller monkey species and an opportunity to witness a chimpanzee raid is a once-in-a-lifetime experience, as the forest explodes into shrieks of terror and the excited howls of the hunting chimps.

Singing in the canopy

For avid birders, Nyungwe offers the best forest in East Africa for Afro-montane birding. Forest birding is notoriously difficult, which in many ways makes the glimpses of the Albertine Rift endemics even more rewarding (and well worth a slight crick in the neck). As a recognised Important Bird Area, there are over 330 bird species recorded in Nyungwe, including the Albertine owlet, red-collared mountain babbler, and Rockefeller’s sunbird, none of which have been recorded anywhere else on the eastern side of the Albertine Rift. Every year, keen twitchers laden with binoculars, dog-eared bird books and large lenses flock to the park to boost their birding life-lists.

The birding opportunities are spectacular throughout the park. Still, experienced birders confirm that the park’s western section, with higher rainfall levels and richer soils, offers the best of them. While the search for the red-collared mountain babbler may prove challenging and require a degree of patience, visitors can tick off the mountain masked apalis, Ruwenzori turaco, dwarf honeyguide, handsome francolin, and Neumann’s short-tailed warbler along the way. Nowhere else in the Albertine Rift offers such high densities of relaxed birds on the undisturbed trails. For the truly dedicated, there is always the remote chance of joining the ranks of those fortunate enough to have seen a Shelley’s crimsonwing or the Albertine owlet in the wild.

Forest birding is very much dependent on the vocalisations of the various species, which in turn means that a visit to Nyungwe with the intention of bird watching is best timed for when the birds are at their most vocal. This is usually between January and June, with the caveat that certain migratory species will depart around April, which also tends to be the wettest month of the year. Excellent bird guides trained by the Rwandan authorities are at your disposal, including Claver Ntokinyima (author of Wild Rwanda) who resides in, and works for, the park.

Africa Geographic director, and one of Africa’s top birding guides, Christian Boix, returned from Nyungwe with an urge to write Wild Rwanda, the region’s most authoritative “where to find” birds and mammals guide. Its Nyungwe section will be an invaluable tool to set you on the right track to target your most coveted Albertine Rift Endemics and learn as much about this forest gem as possible.

Hidden by the canopy

While the primates and birds tend to take centre stage in Nyungwe, there are in fact over 75 species of mammals wandering the forest paths, climbing the ancient trees, or slinking through the undergrowth. Camera trap studies have revealed that the park is home to an assortment of creatures, from Congo clawless otters to lithe servals and golden cats. Here, even the rodents are fully adapted to arboreal life, and the Lord Derby’s scaly-tailed squirrels glide between trees by extending a membrane between their front and back limbs like true flying squirrels. Recent camera trap studies have also revealed that the rare Central African oyan (related to genets) can be found lurking in the canopy.

The park’s exceptional biodiversity also extends to the oft-overlooked plant life, and there are over 1,000 different recorded plants, of which 250 are endemic to the Albertine Rift. 140 of these plant species are orchids, which add their splashes of colour to the blanket of green and brown around them.

Just a few years ago, Christian was on safari in Nyungwe with AG clients when he noticed an attractive frog hidden in the undergrowth. This particular frog turned out to be the Bururi long-fingered frog (Cardioglossa cyaneospila), a species once thought extinct and only recently rediscovered in Burundi in 2011. It had never before been recorded in Nyungwe National Park. (You can read more about Christian’s frog discovery here.) With its dense forests and impenetrable swamps, there is no telling just how many species are still waiting to be discovered in Nyungwe.

Everyone’s cup of tea

Tea is one of Rwanda’s largest exports and several major tea plantations – including Kitabi, Gisoyu and Gisakura – are found along the fringes of Nyungwe National Park. Not only do these plantations provide vital employment for local communities and educational experiences for tourists, but they also serve as buffer zones around the park.

Buffer zones are just one part of the Rwanda Development Board’s extensive efforts to protect areas such a Nyungwe from illegal logging, poaching, and the collection of herbal plants for use in traditional medicine. A set percentage of annual park revenue from Nyungwe, Akagera and Volcanoes national parks is allocated to communities surrounding these protected areas, and a variety of upliftment and educational programmes have been implemented to safeguard their futures.

There are also several beekeeping cooperatives active near the park headquarters. While beekeeping is a traditional practice in the area, the members of the cooperatives are now producing additional products such as candles, as well as honey, which are sold to visiting tourists. Those interested in learning more about the surrounding communities’ traditions can also visit the cultural centres and villages, some of which also offer campsites and other facilities.

The experience

The dense forests and rugged landscapes of Nyungwe necessitate exploration on foot. An extensive network of immaculately maintained trails offers varying physical difficulty levels, each with its unique attractions, including waterfalls, hidden pools, and breathtaking views. For now, any guest wishing to explore one of these trails will need to book ahead and must be accompanied by one of the professional guides.

Find out about Nyungwe for your next African safari. We have ready-made safaris to choose from, or ask us to build one just for you.

As might be expected for an experience that involves hiking in a rainforest, appropriate footwear is an absolute must – preferably waterproof but, most importantly, worn-in and sturdy. The climate in Nyungwe is relatively mild, with temperatures seldom reaching over 30˚C. Still, it receives high rainfall levels (up to 2,000mm annually), so waterproof gear for valuables is essential. Long trousers and sleeves will protect against the forest’s more intrusive insects, and it is worth keeping in mind that the weather can be capricious and high altitudes mean cold temperatures at times.

Accommodation options around the park are varied, and a trip can be tailored to meet every traveller’s requirement, from luxurious lodges boasting spectacular views and outstanding hospitality to budget campsites, and everything in between. Intrepid travellers with their own transport could also choose to stay on the banks of Lake Kivu and travel to and from the park on relatively good roads.

Munazi Eco Lodge (currently under construction and due to open in early 2024) will be a fully-catered camp featuring 10 (ten) ensuite chalets set deep within the forests of Nyungwe National Park – the perfect option for immersing yourself in the forest experience.

DID YOU KNOW that African Parks offers safari camps (lodges and campsites) where 100% of tourism revenue goes to conservation and local communities? Find out more and book your African Parks safari.

Watch this informative video on Nyungwe:

The future of the canopy

The announcement that African Parks has partnered with the Government of Rwanda to manage Nyungwe National Park should see the same success as the partnership in Akagera that has seen tourism flourish over recent years.

The world-famous zoologist and author, Jonathan Kingdon, wrote in his book Island Africa that the mountains of Nyungwe are “Africa’s Galapagos Islands – islands encircled by golden monkeys, gorillas and iridescent sunbirds, by giant Lobelias, everlasting flowers, Ruwenzori turacos and all the questions they raise. They deserve greater recognition, protection and study than they have received so far.”

Some 30 years after these words were written, that is precisely how the Rwandan people have chosen to protect their precious remaining wild spaces and, as a result, the future of one of Africa’s most precious ecosystems – it’s irreplaceable canopies, mysterious valleys and colourful creatures – has been secured.

Research tip: Wild Rwanda by Africa Geographic director and safari guru Christian Boix is essential reading for your next Rwanda safari

The story behind the Namibian elephant auction

This article was originally published on the Conservation Namibia website

The recent decision by the Namibian government to sell 170 elephants has been met with public outcries, media articles full of unsubstantiated accusations and considerable confusion. In order to judge why this decision was taken and what other options could be available for these elephants, we need to consider the historical and current context, rather than simply assume the worst of the accusations to be true.

Towards the end of 2020, the Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism (MEFT) announced their intention to sell a total of 170 elephants[1] from four different locations in Namibia (see map below). The stated reasons for the sale were increased human-elephant conflict[2] in the four areas, which has been exacerbated by the recent drought. In each area, the elephants to be taken were entire family groups (i.e. females and young) plus a few bulls. Those wanting to buy these elephants had to employ qualified Namibian game capture teams and move them to a suitably fenced private reserve in Namibia, or if they wanted to export them to another country, adhere to all CITES export and import requirements.

The four human-elephant conflict hotspots falling on freehold farmlands from which the 170 elephants would be taken, shown on inset map of elephant distribution across northern Namibia (darker green = higher densities). The south-eastern conflict hotspot is caused mainly by bull elephants moving from the far eastern population primarily during the wet season (the elephant counts are done during the dry season). Note that 31% of the elephant population in Namibia occurs outside National Parks, and all of target populations for removal are far from the international boundaries and are not part of the transboundary elephant population in the Zambezi Region. (Source: MEFT 2020)

The important points to note from the tender advert are MEFT’s insistence on taking whole family groups (rather than individuals) and their concern that the buyer and destination abide by national and international law. The requirements set forth here would weed out the unscrupulous buyers who would prefer to take young individual elephants that can be tamed (or broken) for the purposes of human entertainment. The requirements for proper fencing in Namibia are likely to ensure that the elephants do not simply start causing conflict in other areas of the country, or return to the capture location.

There are some details left out of the tender advert that are nonetheless crucial to understanding the thinking behind the decision. I have obtained a draft copy of a document called “An Overview of Elephant Conservation and Management in Namibia” that accompanies the Draft National Elephant Management Plan. This document details all of MEFT’s recent public consultations, past and present elephant research and monitoring, and approaches to reducing human-elephant conflict by MEFT and non-governmental organisations. The information contained in this extensive document (commissioned by MEFT, but prepared by an independent consultant) provides valuable insight into the reasoning behind MEFT’s intention to sell 170 elephants.

Understanding the historical context

The history of elephants in Namibia, as with most things in Africa, is tied up with the history of colonialism, war and land development. Rock art engravings reveal that elephants occurred throughout the country before waves of colonisers eradicated almost all of them in the southern half of the country during the 1800’s. The remaining elephants in the more remote northern regions were killed in high numbers by the South African military, colonisers, and local people in the mid- to late-1900’s. Severe drought in the north-west during the 70’s and 80’s added to the elephants’ woes in this region. Even elephants in Etosha National Park were not safe, and this population was eradicated in 1881, only to return 70 years later.

Around the same time that elephants were pushed out of the central parts of Namibia that are most suitable for agriculture, the land was settled and fenced. Today, these farms are still privately owned (known as freehold land), and the people living on these lands usually farm for commercial purposes with livestock or wildlife. The infrastructure on the livestock farms includes windmills and diesel pumps to provide water for cattle troughs and fences within livestock farms have been erected to manage livestock grazing. The farms that have converted to wildlife are fenced with high game fences to keep valuable wildlife in, and while internal fences have been dropped, water is still pumped for game species to drink (some of these species are particularly expensive, such as sable and roan antelope).

In the communal “homelands” established during apartheid, rural Namibians were dispossessed of their traditional rights to hunt and were branded as “poachers[3]” when they hunted to survive the severe drought of the 70’s and 80’s. Today, nearly 60% of these communal lands have been gazetted as communal conservancies[4], as a means for the people living there to regain their historical rights to using wildlife on their land. This programme has reduced elephant poaching tremendously, particularly by allowing people to benefit from photographic and hunting tourism.

The current situation

A dam and gate destroyed by elephants trying to access water on the Kavango Cattle Ranch.

All of these historical details are necessary to understand the situation with Namibian elephants today. Elephants have not only recolonised Etosha, but have recovered in the communal conservancies in the north-western and north-eastern parts of Namibia. Until recently (1990’s and 2000’s), however, the freehold farmlands have remained free of elephants. The infrastructure mentioned above has thus been developed without the need to protect it from thirsty and often destructive pachyderms.

Human-elephant conflict is continuously managed in the communal conservancies by their game guards[5] and Event Book[6] monitoring system, and the Human-Wildlife Conflict Self-Reliance Scheme has been set up to assist farmers in communal areas that lose crops to elephants (note that water infrastructure is not covered). Further, the wildlife-based industries in conservancies create a direct link between elephant presence and benefits in the form of conservancy income, tourism jobs and elephant meat. While mitigating conflict will always be part and parcel of the communal conservancy programme, these efforts have generated a fairly high level of tolerance for elephants among conservancy members.

The human-elephant conflict that is addressed in MEFT’s tender for selling 170 elephants is targeted at elephant populations that have moved onto freehold farmlands from neighbouring communal lands and National Parks. Farmers that operate commercially are generally wealthier than their communal counterparts and elephants have been absent for many years on freehold lands. The government’s focus has therefore been to help poor communal farmers living with elephants in conservancies, but the recent drought has brought elephants back to the freehold lands they lived on 50-100 years ago. The elephants that arrived recently have found a land of plenty – water all year round (albeit pumped for livestock) and many large trees that have grown in their absence. More and more elephants have found their way onto these farms in the last few years as the drought has pushed them to search for greener pastures.

The damage to infrastructure by elephants dwarfs the crop damages reported in communal conservancies. During the consultations held for input into the Elephant Management Plan, several freehold farmers calculated losses amounting to N$ 100,000-200,000 (US$ 6,800-13,600) per year. Fixing a single windmill damaged by elephants costs N$ 30,000-50,000 (US$ 2,000-3,400). With an estimated 180 freehold farms affected by elephants, infrastructure damages could come to N$ 9 million (US$ 600,000) using a conservative estimate of N$ 50,000 per farmer per year. By contrast, the payments to offset the cost of crop losses throughout communal conservancies amounts to about N$ 2 million (US$ 140,000) per year.

This windmill that was broken by elephants will cost N$ 30,000-50,000 to repair.

Given the costs of living with elephants, it is unsurprising that the farmers MEFT consulted were requesting a solution. Urgently. Farmers suggested that MEFT reduce elephant numbers, allow elephant hunting to cover costs incurred, and assist with the costs of infrastructure repair and protection. The resounding cry from the consultations was: HELP!

Short-term options for helping farmers

The situation as it stands is untenable; doing nothing is not an option. Long-term mitigation plans (discussed in the next section) are necessary, but farmers cannot keep haemorrhaging money until these plans come to fruition. Since MEFT does not have the resources to compensate farmers whilst awaiting a more permanent solution, something else must be done in the short-term to help these farmers.

The advert to sell the elephants and translocate them elsewhere reveals MEFT’s first choice of action. Elephants have been sold and successfully moved to private reserves in Namibia in the past (for example, some of the elephants on Erindi Game Reserve[7] are privately owned and others are leased from the government), so this sale seems to be an effort to replicate past success. If elephants can be moved from where they are not wanted to where they can live in peace and generate tourism revenue, we have a win-win situation.

The recent drought and damage to the tourism industry due to the COVID-19 pandemic may, however, undermine this plan. If no Namibian buyers could be found, then perhaps reserves in other countries that have experienced elephant declines would be interested. Angola and Zambia come to mind, as they have habitats similar to parts of Namibia and could be interested in restocking some of their protected areas. The costs involved in moving entire family groups over large distances may prove prohibitive, however.

The simplest and cheapest option would be to cull the elephants currently occurring on freehold farms and sell the meat to recoup the costs. Several farmers suggested this course of action during the public consultations. This is clearly not MEFT’s preferred option (as they would have done it already), but it might become necessary if there are no willing takers for the elephants in the conflict hotspots.

Others have suggested chasing the elephants out of the farmlands, but this is impractical and inhumane. The distances one would have to chase these family herds to get to the nearest protected areas from the conflict farms would cause much more severe stress than culling. There is also no guarantee that the elephants would stay in the protected area – the same drivers that are causing elephants to leave these areas (too many other elephants, need for food and water) would still be present and some parks do not have sufficient fencing to prevent future breakouts.

Long-term options for conflict mitigation

Water points can be protected from elephants by building walls around them, but it will take time and money to protect the large number of vulnerable water points in northern Namibia.

The proposed sale of 170 elephants is meant to take about half of the elephants in each of the populations that are being targeted. So it is clearly a measure to try and limit damages in the short-term whilst searching for longer-term solutions. Building walls around water points[8] have proven to be successful in conservancies, particularly if a solar pump is installed (diesel pumps get expensive when elephants are drinking the water). Adding a strand of live electrical wire around the perimeters of farms where elephants are not wanted may also be feasible in certain areas.

A few of the farms in the Kamanjab area south of Etosha have turned to tourism for their income, but these elephant-tolerant farm owners are surrounded by others that are still farming livestock. Transforming the Kavango Cattle Ranch in the north-eastern conflict hotspot into a game reserve might also work if sufficient funding is available to make the transformation (this Ranch is managed by the Namibia Industrial Development Agency on behalf of the Ministry of Trade and Industry). An elephant-proof fence would then need to be erected around the Ranch to prevent elephant movement onto neighbouring freehold farms. In all four conflict hotspots, however, there are farmers who are not interested in developing their farms for tourism, especially in the wake of COVID-19 that has devastated the tourism industry.

Farms that are part of the Kavango Cattle Ranch are highlighted. Collared elephants (coloured dots) spent most of their time on the Ranch and did not enter the Mangetti National Park to the east (Source: MEFT 2020, data supplied by N/a’an ku sê).

Several farmers suggested that the government supports private elephant ownership, which at the moment is limited to only a handful of farms. This would give farmers greater freedom in terms of managing their elephant populations through hunting, culling, or live sales to other farmers (these actions would all still require permits, as elephants are specially protected in Namibia). Freehold farmers could then access similar elephant-related benefits to communal conservancies, which would help to offset the costs incurred from living with them.

Support rather than criticism

Considering the substantial recovery of elephants since Namibia’s independence, the nature of the current conflict, and MEFT’s efforts to resolve it without culling elephants, one would think that the elephant sale would be met with international interest and support. While previous elephant translocation efforts[9] in other African countries have been heralded as wonderful conservation initiatives, this offer to translocate elephant herds to suitable locations has been met with harsh criticism.

One of the key sore points is the conflict hotspot near the village of Omatjete, as concerned parties assume that the elephants targeted by this action are those roaming west of Omatjete in the Ugab River. These desert-adapted elephants have a high tourism value; the communal conservancies in this area benefit from their presence and therefore tolerate them. Elephant Human Relations Aid[10] (EHRA) has invested heavily in protecting the water points in this area and monitoring these elephant herds.

This particular criticism would thus be well-founded if it were not based on a misunderstanding of which elephants are being targeted. The elephants in the lower reaches of the Ugab (west of Omatjete) are not the same ones that are causing havoc on the freehold farms east of Omatjete, which are the ones that MEFT is targeting (see map below). If the elephants that are currently on the freehold farms are sold, as per the tender advert, one could use that money to electrify the fence line between the communal conservancies and the freehold farms and thus establish a longer-term solution.

The purple areas are communal conservancies; the polygons with grey outlines are freehold farms; blank white space is communal land that is not in a conservancy. Elephant monitoring data from EHRA sightings (triangles) and collared elephants (dots) shows their focus on communal lands in the west. The highlighted farms have all reported problems with elephants that are from a different population to the desert-adapted elephants in the west. (Source: EHRA)

With some context and a better understanding of the situation, my hope is that those reading this article would consider ways to support MEFT and the farmers. Long-term investment into conflict mitigation and tourism is required in all four of the conflict hotspots. Near Omatjete, some of the communal conservancies need joint-venture tourism partners to realise the same benefits as those located further west. There are also many communal farmers here that have not established conservancies, and they require assistance as much as the nearby freehold farms. All of the hotspots on freehold land require protection for their water points, while strategically placed electrified fencing would ensure that the elephants stay where they are welcomed (or at least tolerated).

In the wake of a devastating multi-year drought and the COVID-19 pandemic that has crippled tourism, Namibian farmers on both freehold and communal lands stand in dire need of support. MEFT and its partners have stepped in to help the communal conservancies with the COVID resilience fund[11], and the tender advert is intended to provide much-needed relief also to freehold farmers suffering from elephant damage. At this moment in time, Namibian conservation efforts could do with fewer critics and more genuine supporters.

[1] https://www.namibiansun.com/news/namibia-to-sell-170Fhr-elephants-2020-12-04/
[2] http://conservationnamibia.com/articles/2019nam-elephants.php
[3] http://conservationnamibia.com/blog/b2020-poacher-conservation-leader.php
[4] http://conservationnamibia.com/factsheets/communal-conservancies.php
[5] http://conservationnamibia.com/factsheets/game-guards.php
[6] http://conservationnamibia.com/factsheets/event-books.php
[7] https://erindi.com/
[8] https://www.namibian.com.na/206425/archive-read/Kunene-mitigates-human-wildlife-conflict
[9] https://www.africanparks.org/largest-elephant-translocation-history-concludes-malawi
[10] https://www.ehranamibia.org/
[11] https://www.nbc.na/news/environment-ministry-launches-conservation-relief-recovery-and-resilience-facility.30524

CEO note: Epic images + livestock loss compensation

CEO NOTE: 26 February 2021

This is a copy of our weekly email newsletter. Subscribe here to receive the newsletter.

I have a brief story to tell, and it goes some way to explaining why conservation is in such a mess these days.

Two talented, passionate people have taken up the cause of lion conservation and made a career of it. Neither lives in Africa. Both have recently featured regularly on international television and news media. BUT they occupy opposite ends of the acrimonious debates about the role of trophy hunting in wild lion conservation. And they regularly slag each other off on social media – often flinging out reams of information at their adoring followers.

We approached each to write a story for us, including providing FACTUAL evidence backing up their oft-repeated claims about the evils/benefits of trophy hunting of wild lions. Neither knew that we had approached the other. Both submitted their stories to us, but neither has responded to our fact-check questions, despite repeated requests going back many months.

And there you have it. While INFLUENCERS slug it out for dopamine-infused social media fame, Rome burns. It is what it is.

Keep the passion

Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic

From our Editor-in-Chief

In the wake of Hukumuri’s death, lots of people are now interested in human-wildlife conflict (HWC). Many wanted to replace Romina Mathonsi’s livestock. The issue of compensation for livestock killed by wild predators is complicated. Some research shows it exacerbates HWC. Other research indicates precisely the opposite. I went to find out how or if compensation is given on the Greater Kruger National Park’s western borders by the national park, the private reserves, and the provincial governments. I also spoke to NGOs working in the HWC space. I doubt Romina Mathonsi (or anyone who has lost livestock) gives a flying hoot about the reams of research, conferences and committees deciding whether or not compensation is a good idea. She needs goats. Thornybush River Lodge, didn’t muck about. They bought two goats and delivered them quietly to her. So as the debate rages, at least Ms Mathonsi has some comfort. Find out more in our first story below.

Our second story below tackles the conservation effect of farming wild species and legalising trade in their parts for human consumption. Interestingly for me, apparently stigmatising wildlife consumption helps reduce demand.

The subject of our third story below, looks at the slightly taller, red-eared version of the domestic moggy, but, to paraphrase Basil Fawlty…cuddle that, and you’ll never play the guitar again.

Finally, the seventh week of glorious African celebration through your images in our Photographer of the Year, which carries a prize of 10 000 USD and a six-day safari to Khwai in Botswana. Here’s all you need to know about entering. We are looking for pictures that evoke emotion and tell an African story.

Story 1
https://africageographic.com/stories/compensation-for-damage-causing-animals-near-kruger-np/
HUKUMURI FOLLOW-UP
Is there compensation when rural villagers lose livestock and crops to wildlife on the western border of Kruger NP? We ask questions and find out

Story 2
https://africageographic.com/stories/african-wildcat/
TOUGH MOGGIES
The African wildcat is one of Africa’s “Secret 7” – tough little cats are just as untamed and fierce as their iconic big cat cousins. Read more here

Story 3
https://africageographic.com/stories/does-the-farming-and-legal-trade-of-wildlife-do-more-harm-than-good-new-study/
SUSTAINABLE?
Farming and legal trade of wildlife could increase demand for wildlife products and so be negative from a conservation perspective – research

Story 4
https://africageographic.com/stories/photographer-of-the-year-2021-weekly-selection-week-7/
BEST PHOTOS
Week Seven of our 2021 Photographer of the Year

DID YOU KNOW: There is growing evidence that manta rays have complex social lives and communicate using their cephalic lobes (flaps that push zooplankton into their mouth while filter-feeding). Click here to read more.

WATCH: Epic camera-trap footage near Gabon’s Pongara National Park of chimpanzees, leopards, black-legged mongoose, African civets and mandrills. (0:53)

Compensation for damage-causing animals near Kruger NP

Clockwise from top left: A domestic bull watches a buffalo calf through the reserve fence; a fence broken by an elephant bull; tracks of an elephant herd in communal grazing lands; an elephant bull making himself at home in communal grazing land – the remnants of the fence he broke are bottom left; a domestic calf killed by lions.

A cure while searching for prevention

On the 12th of February 2021, we posted a story on the circumstances surrounding the death of a famous leopard Hukumuri. Many people asked what they might do to help all concerned (animal and human). This article attempts to explain the complex issues around compensation for damage caused by wild animals.

An outpouring of emotion

The death of Hukumuri unleashed a wave of emotion: outrage, sadness, helplessness, fear.

There was also an outpouring of reasoned compassion. Sympathy extended to Hukumuri, to African people living in close proximity to potentially dangerous animals and to Ms Mathonsi who, to remind you, has seven children and lost two pigs, two goats and a dog to Hukumuri. Some wanted to know how they might help to stop this sort of thing from happening again. Many expressed an earnest desire to give money to Ms Mathonsi in order that she might replace her herd.

I wish we could simply have posted her PayPal account on social media, and told those generous souls to have at it. Ms Mathonsi would no-doubt have replaced her herd many, many times over. Unfortunately, it simply ain’t that simple – in 2021 it should be, but it ain’t.

Firstly, Mrs Mathonsi has never heard of PayPal. She might have a bank account but will have no digital access to her bank because of a combination of ridiculous data costs, poor education, and physical separation from an actual bank. Secondly, Ms Mathonsi is not the only one who lost livestock to leopards in the recent past – perhaps to Hukumuri, perhaps to others, no-one really knows. Thirdly, Ms Mathonsi lives in a village awash with cultural complexities that I’m not going to vaguely attempt to delve into save to say that were she suddenly to receive a windfall, she’d immediately become a target.

So what can those kind souls who want to help do?

Well, I think the best thing we can do is explain how compensation for wild animals is effected on the western borders of the greater Kruger National Park, and then provide a few guidelines.

Compensation pros and cons

In this case, compensation means a cash (or kind) payment for a loss incurred to a Damage-Causing Animal (DCA) that has escaped from a reserve. It must be remembered that compensation is just one part of a very complex set of interventions used to mitigate human-wildlife conflict (HWC). It is a deeply emotive and powerful intervention however.

A look at the literature around financial compensation for incidents involving wild animals indicates mixed effectiveness in Africa and beyond. In summary, if managed correctly with effective reporting, adequate resources, a proper legal framework and long-term commitment, compensation has a positive impact on conservation. That said, if reporting is open to abuse and there is no legal framework then compensation can result in people encouraging DCA incidents or inventing them – nothing earth-shattering there ^[1] ^[2] ^[3]. A little more earth-shattering are reports of incidents where people will specifically cut fences and chase elephants out, claiming that they are DCAs so that the animals will be shot and the meat can be consumed.

The greater Kruger boundary

The border of the greater Kruger National Park in South Africa is more than 700 kms long. There are in excess of two million people living in rural villages living along the borders. There are many more in the region but not all live close enough to the park for DCAs to be an issue. It is important to understand that the KNP in South Africa is fenced along the entire border – this is unusual in Africa. The fence provides a hard boundary and often there is no buffer zone separating people from the fence.

The people living in these villages are poor. Villagers survive on a combination of government grants (for the elderly, unemployed mothers, the indigent and the disabled), livestock, gardening or small-scale farming. Unemployment is above 70% in many areas.

Most villages have electricity but few residents can afford it. Potable water is normally collected from communal taps which frequently run dry. Medical care is appalling and often far away. Schooling, provided by the government, ranks somewhere near the bottom of the world in various measures^[4].

The purpose of this rather detailed socio-economic description is to illustrate how utterly devastating it can be when a wild animal comes out of the park and kills livestock or destroys crops – when your livelihood and those of your children is tied up with your little maize crop, your herd of goats or your cattle.

Who gives what to whom?

Although a number of reserves and lodges do not offer direct compensation for incidents involving DCAs, they do provide support for a number of community projects (water provision, education bursaries, game drives for local children, farming, medical etc.). The effectiveness and proportional generosity of these interventions form the basis for countless PhDs, endless conferences and reams of politically-charged commentary. Support of this nature comes from the lodges themselves and not the reserves they are on.

With all this in mind, we wanted to find out about the compensation policies of SANParks (operators and custodians of the Kruger National Park), the private reserves on the western boundary, and the state-operated Manyeleti Game Reserve.

By law, when an animal escapes from the greater Kruger, it becomes a problem for the province in question. In the Kruger that is either the MTPA (Mpumalanga Tourism and Parks Authority) or LEDET (Limpopo Economic Development Environment and Tourism). One of these authorities has to decide what to do with escaped animals and whether or not they are declared DCAs. So when an elephant, for example, breaks out of the Kruger, it becomes the responsibility of the province – not SANParks – although often SANParks will be brought in to help with the situation because the provincial authorities cannot deal with the situation for financial or logistical reasons.

Community members of Phalaubeni Village discuss damage-causing animal incidents

South African National Parks (SANParks)

SANParks – Kruger National Park is responsible for the longest length of boundary bordered by rural villages. They have a compensation plan that, in broad strokes, does the following:

When claims can be verified compensation is given for livestock killed by escaped lions, spotted hyenas, cheetah and wild dog.
Livestock killed by leopards is generally not compensated for, as these cats are free-ranging and found outside of reserves.
No compensation is given for crop destruction due to the difficulty in verifying such incidents.

Each incident and request for compensation must be investigated by the relevant conservation agency official (provincial or SANParks). Photographic evidence and other forms of information must form part of the submitted claims.

Compensation can be difficult to do effectively. It is complicated and requires on-going discussion and engagement both inside and outside of the organisation. However, livestock compensation next to Kruger is necessary, has born positive results and will continue to do so as it adapts through the various lessons learnt.

To summarise what a highly experienced conservationist once said to me: if you are going to treat animals as assets, then the custodians or owners of those assets must take responsibility for them. If your asset causes damage, then you have a moral duty to try to reduce the impact felt by the person in whatever way you can. This creates goodwill. Without goodwill, your asset simply becomes a hindrance to the person’s livelihood and when that happens, people may take matters into their own hands.

The financial cost of the compensation is most likely relatively low compared to the benefits. Especially when considering that only a relatively small fraction of people actually own cattle, and have likely been affected by predators directly and would need compensation. In contrast, many more people express a perceived fear of stock loss or danger from wild animals. So addressing the impact through actions such as compensation can go a long way in influencing perceptions at a broader scale.

Sabi Sands Game Reserve

There is no compensation given for human-wildlife conflict. The Sabi Sands defers to the MTPA for all incidents involving DCAs. That said, the Sabi Sands will fund helicopter and capture operations if their fence is breached provided such operations are deemed viable and appropriate.

Timbavati Private Nature Reserve

No compensation plan – deferral to the MTPA or LEDET depending on where a DCA animal escapes.

Balule Game Reserve

There are no rural communities that live near the Balule fence. The reserve does not have any specific compensation policies in place for DCA incidents. Since the surge in rhino poaching, the boundaries are monitored constantly – at least twice a day on foot, continually with digital alarm and camera systems. Any breach of the fence by human or animal is immediately acted upon which lessens the chance of predators escaping. This is more or less the case for the Sabi Sands, Timbavati and Klaserie.

Manyeleti Game Reserve

The Manyeleti defers to their land custodians, the MTPA. They do not pay compensation or make any decisions on DCA incidents.

Thornybush Private Game Reserve

Thornybush has no specific compensation plan for DCAs. That said, ad hoc compensation claims are assessed on an incident by incident basis.

Klaserie Private Nature Reserve

The Klaserie does not have a compensation plan because, as an official told me, they do not have villages directly on their borders.

Abelana Game Reserve

Abelana (the business) does not have a specific compensation policy. That said, the landowner is the community on the eastern border of the reserve. Relations with the community are of the utmost importance to the well-being of the business. Because of this priority, the eastern fence line is patrolled almost permanently and repaired continuously. To date, Abelana has not had any DCA incidents. They will, however, treat any DCA claims on an ad hoc basis and consider compensation.

Makalali Game Reserve

Makalali, does not have any villages on the borders and therefore does not have a compensation scheme. There is a big buffer zone between Makalali and the nearest village. They do however have insurance that should cover them in the event of an animal causing damage in a village or on the main road. In instances where elephants have broken out and caused damage to the fences of neighbouring properties, the reserve has reimbursed the owners and reclaimed this from their insurance.

They do have breakouts of animals from time to time because, as the warden admitted, it is very difficult to maintain 90kms of fence in permanent, perfect condition. None of these breaches of the fence has resulted in a DCA incident.

The provincial authorities

The MTPA, through their spokesman, told me emphatically that ‘…the MTPA doesn’t pay community members who lost livestock due to wildlife.’ That said, there is anecdotal evidence that ad hoc compensation has been paid from time to time. It is possible that the MTPA does not want a flood of compensation claims and therefore does not have an official policy for compensation but this is a guess.

I made multiple attempts to contact LEDET and was promised some information but none was forthcoming. Going on hearsay from people intimately involved with HWC issues, it would seem that LEDET does not pay compensation.

Compensation for damage causing animals — Clockwise from the top left: K2C environmental monitors (EMs) learning about conservation; EMs patrolling the fence; EMs investigating a broken piece of the boundary fence for incursions; a long piece of fence pushed over by elephants.

Ye olde adage – prevention is better than cure.

It would seem that compensation is a cure or medicine required for as long as the ‘sickness’ that are DCA incidents occur. The better we become at preventing DCA incidents, the less this cure will be required. Until then, compensation – well managed, funded and equitable – has shown some positive results, not only in improving relations between people and parks but also helping reserve authorities to identify hotspots where fences are regularly breached. These areas are monitored and this has reduced DCA incidents in hotspots on the western boundary of the greater Kruger.

I spoke with Mike Grover of Conservation South Africa and Vusi Tshabalala of Kruger to Canyons Biosphere (K2C), both of whom are dedicated to making the confluence of people and parks amicable, equitable and mutually beneficial.

One of the programmes that K2C facilitates, involves employing a number of environmental monitors from 74 communities on the western boundary. A pilot project in five villages, sees the environmental monitors deployed specifically to assist with human-wildlife conflict. Their role is to educate community members, identify problems through patrols and tracking, and then facilitate communication with the right authorities when an issue is identified.

Further afield, in the Mozambican part of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park, a specialised herding scheme allows for community members to graze their cattle in the reserve. The scheme, using specialised bomas and highly-trained herdsmen has reduced cattle losses to predators from 22 animals a month to zero – and this is INSIDE the Transfrontier Conservation Area!

It is initiatives like this that will ultimately provide the prevention and negate the need for the difficult-to-administer cure that is compensation.

So how can you help?

Your best bet is find an NGO (not for profit), research what they do, and contribute to their work trying to mitigate human wildlife conflict – arguably Africa’s greatest conservation challenge. There are some highly experienced, specialised and knowledgeable people with decades of experience in this space and they need support. In many cases they are having measurable success in making sure that tragedies like the death of Hukumuri, become less and less frequent.

Also, of course, you can travel responsibly. Research the lodges and reserves you visit. Make sure that their initiatives align with efforts to reduce human-wildlife conflict.

^[1] Maclennan, S. D. et al. 2009. Evaluation of a compensation scheme to bring about pastoralist tolerance of lions. Biological Conservation.

^[2] fao.org/3/ap537e/ap537e.pdf

^[3] Bauer, H. et al. 2015. Financial compensation for damage to livestock by lions Panthera leo on community rangelands in Kenya. Oryx, volume 51, issue 1.

^[4]https://www.businessinsider.co.za/heres-how-sa-pupils-maths-and-science-skills-compare-to-the-rest-of-the-world-2020-12

Photographer of the Year 2021 Weekly Selection: Week 7

Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.

The competition runs from January to June 2021. Get your entries in now and join us in celebrating Africa! Proudly brought to you by Hemmersbach Rhino Force and Natural Selection.

Here are the best submissions for this week

Laser eyes. Kruger National Park, South Africa. © Joschka Voss

Let me scratch your ear for you. Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa. © Anna-C. Nagel

A flap-necked chameleon channelling its concealing prowess. Kolwezi, Lualaba Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo. © Kirkamon Kabello

Intimate lashes. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe. © Annamaria Gremmo

Carder bee (*Anthidium sp.*) – about 5mm long. Ruiru, Kenya. © Robin James Backhouse

Time to move on… with haste. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. © Anne-Françoise Tasnier

Gardening. Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa. © Antionette Morkel

The lion king and the real force behind him. Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. © Artur Stankiewicz

Can I help you with something? Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania. © Barbara Fleming

A young leopard playing with his impala lamb meal. Kruger National Park, South Africa. © Chris Jolley

‘Don’t mind me, I’m just going to park here for a while.’ Zebra and pied crow. Rietvlei Nature Reserve, South Africa. © Ernest Porter

Morning mist floating through the trees. Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya. © Giovanni Frescura

A Cape clawless otter comes up for air. Katrinasrust Trout Farm, South Africa. © Graeme Gullacksen

The epitome of vast, desert isolation – an oryx seeks shade. Namib-Naukluft National Park, Namibia. © Hans Wagemaker

The heart-warming scene of paternal lion affection. Liuwa Plain National Park, Zambia. © Andrew Macdonald

A high-casqued chameleon (*Trioceros hoehnelii*) living in Nairobi suburbia. © Robin James Backhouse

White rhino mother and calf under the moon. South Africa. © Joschka Voss

A balancing act. Endangered Zanzibar red colobus monkey and baby. Zanzibar, Tanzania. © Julie Lovegrove

A flap-necked chameleon realises he may have been spotted. Kolwezi, Lualaba Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo. © Kirkamon Kabello

Flashes in a field near Amber Mountain reveal a pair of ring-tailed mongoose chasing each other in the grass. Madagascar © Linda Klipp

A black-bellied pangolin climbing through the trees, feeding on termites. Central African Republic. © Liz Hart

Lanner falcon in perfect, predatory stoop. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa. © Philip Jackson

Moody mountain gorillas. The far one is the silverback; the other a blackback. Virunga National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo. © Ricardo Ferreira

Stallion. Kruger National Park, South Africa. © Anna-C. Nagel

A white-tailed mongoose (*Ichneumia albicaudaI*), caught in a camera trap, living near Nairobi. Ruiru, Kenya. © Robin James Backhouse

Reticulated giraffes standing tall. Ol Pejeta Conservancy, Kenya. © Sara Jenner

Members of the Kara Tribe, the smallest ethnic group of the Omo Valley. The Warsa festival is a celebration of daily life. Initially, men jump in groups in front of the women; later women respond with their own leaps and moves. Omo Valley, Ethiopia. © Zay Yar Lin

African Wildcat

“In ancient times, cats were worshipped as gods. They have not forgotten this…” ~ Terry Pratchett

A cat stretched out on the best seat in the house, lazing in the sun, is the very picture of domestication. They purr contentedly and rub up against their human servants’ ankles, demanding to be timeously fed, or regard the excitable family dogs with a kind of contemptuous smugness from a place of safety. Yet as every cat owner knows, there are times when these cats stalk their surrounds, pupils wide and teeth and claws at the ready, embroiled in their own hunts, scuffles, and romances. In these moments, domestic cats don’t appear particularly domestic.

Their instincts are a throwback to a time when their ancestors stalked Africa and Asia, surviving by their wits and reflexes, and preying on any number of small mammals, birds, amphibians, and arthropods. Some of these cat ancestors were drawn to human settlements and abandoned their wild existence to enslave their human owners. Yet others remained wild and, to this day, African wildcats continue to live as they have for thousands of years. Rangy and hard-bitten, they slink through the continent’s savannas, forests, and wetlands – seldom seen and often overlooked but every bit as wild as the other members of the feline family.

The true ancestors of domestic cats

In many ways, African wildcats are to cats what wolves are to dogs, with some important differences. While a history of domestic cats may seem out of place in an article on a wild creature, it goes to the heart of understanding the challenges faced by conservationists in classifying and protecting African wildcats.

The process of cat domestication was a complex one, and fossil evidence is in short supply, making piecing the events together somewhat tricky. Historians and scientists now believe that domestic cats went through two different periods of domestication – first in south-west Asia around 10,000 years ago and then, once again, in Egypt about 3500 years ago. Genetic analysis indicates that domestic cats may have two different source populations that can be traced to different periods but confirms African wildcats are the true ancestors of domestic cats.

As with dogs, scientists believe that cats were domesticated along a commensal pathway. Essentially, the wildcats (initially in Egypt and the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East) would have been attracted to human settlements for a variety of reasons, including warmth and increased food availability. Over time, people realized the benefits of keeping cats for pest control and gradually a shift took place from a purely pragmatic mutualistic relationship to one that extended to companionship (and selective breeding). A skeleton of one wildcat uncovered in Egypt and dated to somewhere between 3,600 and 3,800 years ago shows evidence of healed fractures that suggest the injured cat was cared for by a human.

Unlike dogs, modern cats have retained more genetic and behavioural similarities with their wild relatives, most likely because, while domestic dogs have been largely isolated from their ancestral wolf populations for thousands of years, domestic cats have continued to breed with their wild cousins. This, in turn, has ultimately led to one of the greatest threats facing wildcat populations not only in Africa but across the globe.

What’s in a name? Everything.

Given that domestic cats have only been “domesticated” for around 4,000 or so years and have continued to breed with their immediate wild neighbours, they are almost indistinguishable genetically from wildcat populations. These genetic and morphological similarities have made the classification of several smaller cat species extremely complicated and often contested. So much so that even the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature only confirmed the domestic cat as a separate species in 2003.

The Felidae family or cat family evolved around 10 million years ago, and the Felis genus diverged some 7 million years later. This genus of small and medium-sized cats encompasses several different species and subspecies including domestic cats (F. catus), the jungle cat (F. chaus), the black-footed cat (F. nigripes), the sand cat (F. margarita) and the African wildcat (F. lybica).

The IUCN Red List still lists the African wildcat as a subspecies of the European wildcat (F. silvestris), which in turn has been allocated a conservation status of “Least Concern”. However, this is likely to change after a 2017 report by the IUCN’s own Cat Specialist Group recognized the African wildcat as a separate species – Felis lybica. The report also tentatively proposed three different subspecies distinguished primarily on distribution: F. l. lybica (found in North Africa), F. l. cafra (the Southern African wildcat) and F. l. ornate (found in Asia).

Species and subspecies distinctions may seem pedantic in animals that are almost identical on so many levels, but these distinctions are fundamental to conservation efforts. Classification as a separate species allows zoologists to draw substantive conclusions as to the animal’s conservation status. It also makes the process of identifying specific threats more selective. In the case of the African wildcat, it is the threat to its genetic integrity that menaces the population.

The conservation (cat)astrophe?

In a 2010 study by the Ecology Global Network, scientists estimated that there were some 600 million domestic cats in the world. By contrast, while there are no estimates of African wildcat populations (the logistics and their widespread distribution make counting them an almost impossible task), there is no doubt that they are massively outnumbered.

As available wild spaces have vanished one by one, human populations have expanded, bringing domestic and feral cats with them. Given their genetic similarities, sexual encounters between domestic cats and wildcats are inevitable, and hybridization is common on the fringes of wildcat distribution ranges.

In a 2014 study, researchers concluded that in South Africa at least, levels of hybridization are still relatively low, especially in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier National Park which is a population stronghold for the African wildcat. The DNA samples collected from wildcats that indicated the highest levels of interbreeding came from individuals in the Kruger National Park. Given the high human population density on the Park’s border, this is hardly surprising.

A project such as Alley Cat Rescue aims to mitigate this impact through domestic and feral cat sterilization programmes, focussing their attentions on specific border areas. These programmes also implement vaccination schemes to reduce the risk of disease transmission between domestic and wildcats.

Is it a wildcat or an escaped moggie?

To the uninitiated, an African wildcat could look for all the world like a slim domestic cat. There are, however, subtle differences between the two. African wildcats are slightly taller than the average domestic cat, and their legs are proportionately longer, which gives them a more upright posture, particularly when sitting. Their walking gait is more like that of a serval or cheetah than the average domestic cat.

The variety seen in domestic cat coat colours is a product of selective breeding, and this variety is not reflected in the coat colours of the African wildcat. Instead, their almost uniform colour ranges from red to sandy and brown to grey, with very faint stripes known as the mackerel-tabby pattern. The end of their tails is ringed with black, the backs of their ears are characteristically russet, and the underside of their paws are pitch-black.

Behaviour

Like their domestic congeners, African wildcats have proved to be extremely adaptable and, as a result, occupy a wide number of different habitats from deserts and grasslands to savannas (though their range does not extend to rainforests). Their diets are varied and unselective – anything, including small mammals, birds, reptiles, and arthropods are all targeted. Some individuals have even been known to prey on young livestock animals such as lambs or kids, putting them at risk of conflict with farmers. African wildcats are reliant on keen senses, particularly their hearing, to identify prey. Their ambush approach is well-honed, and they demonstrate extraordinary patience in stalking – often biding their time for hours at a time.

Unusual circumstances for an opportunistic jackal. Erindi Private Game Reserve, Namibia

One of the common effects of domestication (seen in domestic dogs, cats and other animals) is an increased breeding frequency. Female domestic cats reach sexual maturity as early as four months old and are capable of producing three litters of kittens every year. In contrast, the African wildcat generally only produces one litter during the wet season.

Being one of the smallest members of the cat family, their natural predators are numerous and include the larger cat species and birds of prey.

Conclusion

For the most part, African wildcats are somewhat underappreciated – they look so similar to feral cats that they are often dismissed as such, despite their status as one of the “Secret 7” (serval, wildcat, large-spotted genet, civet, porcupine, aardvark and pangolin). Yet these gangly, tough little cats are just as interesting, untamed, and fierce as their iconic big cat cousins.

Does the farming and legal trade of wildlife do more harm than good? New study

The debate surrounding the farming and regulated, legal trade of wildlife is one of the most polarizing discussions in conservation. Supporters of both sides have reached an effective deadlock over the historical and perceived advantages and disadvantages of each approach. A new study by the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife in the USA investigates the effects of bans/legalisation on the Chinese consumption of animal parts. The results caution against legalising trade.

In summary, the findings show that:

The legalisation of trade impacts personal and social perceptions of the use of wildlife parts;
The legal trade of wildlife reduces the stigma and increases the personal acceptability and social approval of animal parts’ consumption for both medicinal and non-medicinal purposes;
The effects of wildlife farming are more pronounced on the perceptions surrounding the use of mammals: farming mammals reduces the stigma attached to using mammal parts;
Reducing the stigma attached to the use of animal parts could see a massive increase in demand;
Trade and farming of one species has knock-on effects on the stigma attached to other, non-target species; and
For bans to be effective, they need to be purpose-specific – directed at both medicinal and non-medicinal use.

The background

One of the primary questions at the heart of the wildlife trade debate is the effect that legalisation has on demand for the animal part concerned – does a legal wildlife trade saturate the market or increase it? Following on from this question is whether or not farming wildlife can meet this demand and reduce poaching of wild populations. Yet even though these conversations dominate conservation circles, little empirical evidence exists to answer these complex questions. The study by Dr Rizzolo, an expert in conservation criminology, is based on an experimental vignette survey conducted in Mainland China to address some of these unknowns in a more quantifiable manner.

The survey

When used for research purposes, vignettes are essentially short stories about a hypothetical person or situation presented to the participants of the survey. The participants are then asked a series of questions based on the context of their specific vignette. In this case, the various scenarios presented in the vignettes focussed on four species (bears, tigers, snakes, and turtles) and two different uses of the animal product (medicinal or non-medicinal). It also dealt with three legal situations: the product is illegal; the product is legal and from a farmed animal; or the product is legal and from a wild animal.

Once the respondents had read the vignette, they were presented with a series of questions around the acceptability of wildlife consumption, the social approval of wildlife consumption and the legal repercussions for the various wildlife species. The survey was conducted online with a sample of 1002 adult respondents, and the demographic variables (age, gender, and income) were approximately representative of China’s population as a whole. The sample did include more highly educated respondents than is representative of China as a whole. However, given the link between social status and wildlife consumption, the researchers were comfortable that the survey captured the demographic relevant to the questions at hand.

Legal trade of wildlife = increased acceptability and social approval

The results of these surveys provide empirical evidence for the stigma effect on wildlife consumption. There is strong evidence that the legal context of a particular animal part affects not only influences perceptions of legal punishment, but also the level of acceptability and social approval for wildlife consumption. Naturally, while this acceptability does not automatically alter behaviour (purchasing and using animal parts), it does act as a decisive motivating factor. The fact that illegality decreases both acceptability and social approval challenges the idea that demand can be saturated through legal products – because demand will invariably increase with legalisation.

Interestingly, the study also indicates that legalisation and wildlife farming are related but distinct policy contexts. Hypothetical bans had a uniform effect on the survey responses for all species concerned, but the impact of legal wildlife farming was more nuanced. Where parts from mammals (in this case, bears and tigers) were concerned, wildlife farming increased the acceptability of their consumption and reduced the stigma surrounding their use.

Furthermore, wildlife farming and wildlife trade bans can also impact the consumption of non-target species. For example, in a hypothetical scenario where snake consumption was banned, this correlated with increased acceptability of the consumption of bear products and social approval of the use of tiger bones. On the other side of this spectrum, legal bear farming was associated with the increased acceptability of tiger bone and skin. The reason for use (medicinal or non-medicinal/consumptive) also affected perceptions of the use of non-target species. This demonstrates just how complex the effects of wildlife farming and trade bans can be for all wildlife, even those species not directly under discussion.

The conclusion

The author acknowledges that there are limitations to this research, including the lack of qualitative data that could have provided some insight into the respondents’ motivations. In addition, the stigma attached to the use of wildlife products is only one of several factors that influence the acceptability of consumption.

However, the study offers important insights into how the legalisation of wildlife trade and wildlife farms affects consumers and, ultimately, the demand for wildlife products. The data indicate that for bans to be effective, they need to be tailored to the species, the product, and the type of use. Where mammal-based medicinal products are concerned, a ban that explicitly targets medicinal use is needed to reduce demand, rather than just a species-level consumption ban. Notably, the study concludes by suggesting that “bans on wildlife consumption and decreased wildlife farming of mammals can have conservation benefits”.

Studies such as this are of profound importance in the realm of African wildlife conservation, as conservationists and policymakers debate the legal trade in rhino horn (both from wild and farmed animals) and the farming of lions for their bones. Understanding the real demand for animal parts once the illegal stigma is removed is vital to determining whether there is any truth to the popular theory that farmed wildlife will keep wild populations safe.

The full report can be accessed here: “Effects of legalisation and wildlife farming on conservation”, Rizzolo, J., (2021), Global Ecology and Conservation

For further discussion in an African context, see Will legal international rhino horn trade save wild rhino populations?

CEO note: Hukumuri – the furore

A striped leaf-nosed bat (*Macronycteris vittatus*), usually pale grey but, in this case, a rare and gorgeous orange form. Gorongosa National Park, Mozambique. Photographer of the Year entrant ©Piotr Naskrecki

CEO NOTE: 19 February 2021

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Turn up the mic; I’ve got something to say.

It’s no secret that Covid-19 and other viruses originated in the wildlife markets of China. Of course, this needs to be officially confirmed so that society can find a way to avoid further illness, death and economic misery – as we are currently experiencing. But here’s the thing: this pandemic was forecast by health experts and China was warned about the ‘wet’ markets. Despite that, what are the chances that the government of China will be held ACCOUNTABLE for the tidal wave of death and economic misery that has swamped us all? The world surely needs to keep the government of China in a good mood if our stuttering economies are to recover, and we will all certainly continue to buy mobile phones, computers, clothes and other goods made in that country. Expect a light slap on the wrist for the government of China, for the evil wildlife trade to continue unabated (it has already recommenced, after a brief hiatus) and for the next wave of viruses to come rolling off the factory floor.

On a lighter note, check out the NEW FEATURE on our website where you can easily find our best stories – based on species, places, safari tips and safari report-backs. From our home page, go to ‘Our stories’ on the menu and see the drop-down menu of delicious content offerings. Off you go!

Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic

From our Editor-in-Chief

Our two stories below will invoke entirely disparate emotions.

The first will leave you frantically making excuses to your employer for why you need a few weeks off. My wife and I honeymooned in the Kgalagadi last year (note: camping in the desert is an excellent test of whether newlyweds have made a great choice or a catastrophic mistake). It is a mystical desert of astonishing life. Whether you camp or choose more salubrious accommodations, the Kgalagadi will plug you right back into wilderness.

The second story is a tragedy on multiple fronts. A tale that has created heated debate, anger, sadness, compassion, learning and, lamentably, vitriolic attacks. Most people reacted with compassion, expressing a desire to help. Hukumuri was a magnificent leopard. He died too soon. If there is an atom of positivity to be taken from Hukumuri’s tragic demise, it is that his fame has created an awareness of human-wildlife conflict challenges; a greater appreciation of the fact that there are people, straining well below the breadline, who must live with beautiful, threatened but potentially dangerous African wildlife.

Lastly, another stupendous collection of images in our Photographer of the Year, which carries a prize of 10 000 USD and a six-day safari to Khwai in Botswana. Send in your images. Here’s all you need to know about entering. The only criterion is that the pictures must be a celebration of Africa. (They should not include, as one hopeful submitted, a selfie using nothing but a coat hanger to cover the bits no-one wants to see. That’s just odd).

Story 1
https://africageographic.com/stories/kgalagadi/
PREDATOR HEAVEN
Safari on your mind? The Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park offers one of the most spectacular and intimate immersions in nature imaginable

Story 2
https://africageographic.com/stories/the-death-of-hukumuri/
DEATH OF THE KING
Hukumuri, the beloved leopard, is dead- shot by the authorities because he was killing livestock & posed a threat to people in rural villages

Story 3
https://africageographic.com/stories/photographer-of-the-year-2021-weekly-selection-week-6/
BEST PHOTOS
Week Six of our 2021 Photographer of the Year

DID YOU KNOW: Hippos are important silicon distributors in water systems – enriching the water with this vital element when they defecate

WATCH: Lion brothers play like kittens in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. (3:36)

Photographer of the Year 2021 Weekly Selection: Week 6

The competition runs from January to June 2021. Get your entries in now and join us in celebrating Africa! Proudly brought to you by Hemmersbach Rhino Force and Natural Selection.

Here are the best submissions for this week

A bark-mantis camouflaged on…bark. Langata area, Nairobi, Kenya. © Karim Kara

‘Would you pass me a napkin please?’ – a member of the famous cheetah coalition of five, Tano Bora, in the middle of a zebra meal. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. © Aditya Nair

A hyena calculates the effort versus reward of tucking into a calloused elephant foot. Khwai, Botswana. © Shaun Malan

Contemplation. Mahale National Park, Tanzania. © Ana Zinger

Giant emperor moth (*Pseudoimrasia deyrollei*). Gorongosa National Park, Mozambique. © Piotr Naskrecki

Hippobotanist. Kruger National Park, South Africa. © Antionette Morkel

A little egret executes a perfect wingbeat, feathering the surface on a cloudy afternoon. Randburg, South Africa. © Bilal Mosam

A diademed sifaka posing with a somewhat amusing expression. Andasibe-Mantadia National Park, Madagascar. © Callum Lootsma

A resident lion pride has specialised in crocodile hunting on the lakeshore. The vultures aren’t fussy about what they clean up. Matusadona National Park, Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe. © Caroline Landrey

Wizened wonder – a chimpanzee looking up to its companions in the canopy. Kibale National Park, Uganda. © Christian Passeri

A black crake observing neighbours in the Musiara Marsh. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. © Dave Richards

An African wildcat hunting for unsuspecting sociable weavers. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa. © Dean Polley

A brown hyena can’t believe the temerity of a thieving black-backed jackal. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa. © Gonnie Myburgh

Mane shower. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. © Guillaume Niger

A southern speckled sand snake and a large mouse that climbed the wrong tree. Samburu National Park, Kenya. © Jane Wynyard

Listening and looking. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa. © Jenny Rood

‘I think they’ve seen us’ – tree squirrels caught mid-game. Kruger National Park-South Africa. © Joschka Voss

A crafty rock monitor lizard. Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Game Reserve, KwaZulu Natal, South Africa. © Zander Rautenbach

Back or front? Hips do lie. Caterpillar of unknown hawkmoth species shows its rear end. Langata area, Nairobi, Kenya. © Karim Kara

Nestward-bound after a hard day at work. Kolwezi, Lualaba Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo. © Kirkamon Cabello

Can’t talk now…… frog in my throat! Green night adder with amphibious supper. Kogatende, Northern Serengeti, Tanzania. © Marc Mol

The marsh owl has light orange ‘windows’ in its primary feathers that, when shot in the right light, show up very brightly. Bapsfontein, South Africa. © Mattheuns Pretorius

Mozambican long-fingered bat (*Miniopterus mossambicus*) emerging from the Codzo Cave. Gorongosa National Park, Mozambique. © Piotr Naskrecki

Luluka, one of the Maasai Mara’s well-known leopards, with her disobedient cub. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. © Nitin Michael

Protection. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. © Paolo Torchio

Pied kingfisher with breakfast frog. Chobe National Park, Botswana. © Gonnie Myburgh

Mozambican student, Rosa Félix Tivane, releasing a paradise flycatcher after recording its biometric data. Gorongosa National Park, Mozambique. © Piotr Naskrecki

Detail of a crocodile fish eye, the underwater master of disguise. Bazaruto Archipelago, Mozambique © Ricardo Ferreira

Silhouettes in solidarity. Ndutu Conservation Area, Tanzania. © Alex Felez Buchholz

A lion licks her chops mid-meal. Khwai, Okavango Delta, Botswana. © Shaun Malan

Two harlequin shrimps devour their starfish prey, immobilised by clipping the soft tube feet attaching the starfish to a firm surface. Sodwana Bay, South Africa. © Veronique Pretorius

An ultraviolet-illuminated rock scorpion living in a cave that was home, a few thousand years ago, to a group of San people. Chikukwa Cave, Chimanimani Mountains, Mozambique. © Piotr Naskrecki

In Madagascar, whale sharks are called marokintana which, in Malagasy, means ‘many stars’ – an apt name for such a beautiful animal. Nosy Be, Madagascar. © Veronique Pretorius

A brown noddy takes off from paradise. Bird Island, Seychelles. © Yann Corby

KGALAGADI

As dusk descends over the red sands of the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, her animal choir prepares for another encore-worthy performance. First, the barking geckos emerge to set up the staccato rhythmic accompaniment for what is to come. The pennywhistle arpeggios of the pearl-spotted owlet – disproportionately loud for such a small bird – weave through the gracenote “brrps” of the scops owls and trills of the rufous-cheeked nightjars. Waiting patiently in the wings, a lion adds a booming baritone that echoes over the ancient, ephemeral, rivers, setting the stage for the main performance of the evening.

As the sun dips below the horizon, the scenery is bathed in the colours of the Kalahari, and a solitary jackal howls. One by one, its neighbours add their voices to the call and response melody, a haunting, lupine soprano that cuts through the night and raises goosebumps on human skin.

This is the song of the Kgalagadi

The Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park

The Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park covers an enormous 35,551km2 (3.5 million hectares) in the Kalahari Basin, incorporating national parks in South Africa and Botswana. In Botswana’s southwestern corner, the Gemsbok National Park covers nearly three-quarters of the Kgalagadi (28,400km2) while the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park and the !Ae!Hai Kalahari Heritage Park together comprise the South African section in the Northern Cape.

As the oldest transboundary protected area in Africa, the Kgalagadi enjoyed a de facto existence from as early as 1948, when informal agreements between the national parks ensured that the entire ecosystem was holistically managed. However, it was only in 1999 that South Africa and Botswana legally formalised these agreements, and the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park was officially opened in May 2000. Visitors are free to travel between the two countries within the park without a passport, provided they exit from their original country of entrance.

While the rolling red dunes and Kalahari sandveld plains are spectacularly beautiful, life in the Kgalagadi centres around its two ephemeral rivers: the Nossob and the Auob. The rivers hardly ever flow at surface level; instead, underground water supplies the surrounding camelthorn trees and other vegetation which, in turn, provide essential nutrients to the park’s herbivores at the end of the long dry season.

The basics

The Kgalagadi – which possibly translates as ‘the land of thirst’ – is not an appropriate destination for spontaneous exploration or the inadequately prepared visitor. Main camps aside, most of the wilderness camps and campsites offer only basic facilities and little in the way of phone signal. Though there are entrance gates on both the South African and Botswanan sides, most of the park infrastructure and camps are dotted throughout the South African portion of the park. In contrast, the Botswana side is vast and wild. Large distances and limited roads separate campsites with few facilities and no fuel. This section is only accessible with 4X4 vehicles.

Three main or “traditional” camps in the Kgalagadi are equipped with shops and fuel, as well as electricity (though only Twee Rivieren offers 24-hour power). Twee Rivieren, Nossob and Mata Mata are connected by the park’s main roads which are corrugated but accessible to 2X4 vehicles unless there has been unusually high rainfall. These main camps are the hub of park activity, and visitors can book guided drives (including night drives), guided 4X4 trails and walks.

The wilderness camps (powered by solar and gas) and isolated campsites are unfenced, offering an entirely immersive experience free from the trappings and distractions of modern life – including, in some luxurious cases, flushing toilets. As a result, the Kgalagadi is one of the few remaining wild spaces where visitors can lose themselves in nature and revel in the wildlife’s authenticity; especially the ubiquitous, bright-eyed ground squirrels that have learned to capitalise on the generosity (or messiness) of passing campers.

Clockwise from the top: Tashebube Rooiputs; Camping at Nossob; ‘Nothing to see here…’ a young lion finishes his shower at Mabuasehube. Campfire at Rooiputs.

The wildlife

Arid it may be, but the Kalahari ecosystem is a complex web of life well-adapted to extremes. The Kgalagadi itself is probably not suited to first-time safari-goers, particularly not those intent on ticking off the Big 5, because elephant, rhino and buffalo are not present in the park. Nevertheless, the wildlife viewing in the Kgalagadi is exceptional for two main reasons: the profusion of predators and the opportunity to appreciate the underappreciated.

A predator profusion

Of the 60 or so recorded mammal species in the park, nearly a third of these are predators. For most people, top of the list are the lions of the famed Kalahari black-maned pedigree. The Kgalagadi is considered a vital Lion Conservation Unit (as designated by the IUCN Cat Specialist Group) and it is not uncommon to fall asleep to their roars only to wake up in the morning and discover their tracks crisscrossing the previous night’s braai site. Cheetahs and leopards complete the big cat trifecta, especially during the dry season when the desolate landscape makes it somewhat easier to pick them out at a distance. Russet-coloured caracals with their characteristic black ear tufts are relatively common and the Kgalagadi is home to one of the largest (and genetically purest) wildcat populations in Africa.

Of the other large predators, brown hyenas are particularly well-adapted to desert habitats. These shaggy predators patrol the dunes and scrublands in a constant search for their next carcass or moisture-rich tsamma melon. Their spotted cousins are less numerous but more vocal and conspicuous, often wallowing in pans during the heat of the day.

The smaller canid species are some of the Kgalagadi’s most captivating residents. When not serenading each other, black-backed jackals use their canine wiles to eke out a tenuous existence in the inhospitable landscape. Whether they are scrapping over a leftover piece of leathery skin, bravely snatching a morsel of meat from beneath a lion’s nose or launching acrobatic attacks to catch unsuspecting sandgrouse, time spent with jackals is never wasted.

Like the jackals, Cape foxes (also known as silver-backed foxes) can be equally entertaining, particularly for those fortunate to spend time at den sites with young kits, which must surely rank among the world’s cutest baby animals. Unlike the insectivorous bat-eared foxes (which are also present), the Cape fox is the only true fox species in sub-Saharan Africa.

The underappreciated

The Kgalagadi experience is one of quality over quantity, and rushing from sighting to sighting is not a recipe for success. Instead, time, patience and attention to detail yield greater rewards to the discerning visitor, especially if it means a few hours spent at one of the waterholes at dusk and dawn.

Even within the confines of the camps themselves, life abounds. The aforementioned ground squirrels are so commonplace that they are often overlooked. Close observation of familiar individuals, however, reveals that they lead complex and intriguing lives. Their habit of using their tails as built-in parasols and charismatic personalities make them extraordinarily endearing. Yet, they are also consummate survivors, and their reflexes are lightning-fast, as this brave mother demonstrated in her battle with a Cape cobra.

From honey badgers, meerkats, and mongooses to elephant shrews, whistling rats and chameleons, appreciating nature in all her glory is the very essence of exploring the Kgalagadi.

Clockwise from top left: The flowers of the three-thorn (Rhigozum trichotomum) are a delicious spring treat for a springbok; A spectacularly lucky Kgalagadi sighting of mum and two cubs in spring green; A posing oryx completes an atmospheric shot at Lesholoago.

Jumping for joy…

At the risk of repetition, the best wildlife viewing is at the end of the dry season. The animals are forced to congregate around available water resources (particularly the pumped pans), and vegetation is sparse. However, the park is magnificent regardless of the time of year and the transformation effected by the seasons and the arrival of the rain around December is remarkable. Seemingly overnight, the barren, desiccated landscape is revitalised and carpeted in new life’s green flush. As the thunderstorms roll overhead, annual flowers spring up out of nowhere, painting the scenery in flamboyant colours that seem decidedly out of place in a desert.

Herds of blue wildebeest, gemsbok, red hartebeest, and eland congregate in celebration of the rains, migrating within the park to secure the best resources for the birthing season. There is a palpable sense of relief among the animals that survive the savage dry season, and this is particularly apparent in the herds of springbok that seem to jump for joy. Their unique, pronking leaps provide hours of entertainment. While there are solid biological explanations for this behaviour (displaying physical fitness to predators and potential mates), to many of us, these antelopes simply seem to be enjoying themselves.

A bateleur demonstrates the perfect landing technique.

The experience

The only luxury lodge in the Kgalagadi is !Xaus Lodge which is found on the border of the southern section of the park, in the !Ae!Hai Heritage Park. This 580km2 section of land was set aside for both the ‡Khomani San and Mier communities, and profits from the lodge are fed back to these communities.

The Kgalagadi is a land of extremes, and visitors should be prepared to face them. At the height of summer, the temperatures soar above 40˚C every day, and the relentless sun beats down on the red sands, lifting temperatures to around 70˚C on the surface. As already mentioned, most of the camps are rudimentary, and few are equipped with fans, let alone air conditioning. By contrast, the temperatures at night in winter can drop to well below freezing and where there is plumbing, it is not unusual to wake to pipes frozen solid. Comprehensive planning and research will ensure that visitors get the most out of the Kgalagadi experience.

A stroll around the campsite at night with a UV light will reveal the scorpions emerging to take advantage of the cooler temperatures. This, combined with regular snake sightings, should be sufficient to convince even the most experienced camper to wear sensible footwear at night and carry a powerful flashlight.

Want to go on a safari to Kgalagadi? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.

CEO note: A poached rhino carcass & the takeaway food wrappers

CEO NOTE: 12 February 2021

This is a copy of our weekly email newsletter. Subscribe here to receive the newsletter.

WOW, our tragic breaking news story of a few weeks ago about the plummeting Kruger rhino populations has certainly rattled a few cages and grabbed worldwide attention. Many international news media and conservation/activist organisations took up the story and made it their own. My team and I are proud of this role we play – as originators of factual content.

Our own Jamie Paterson (scientific editor) conducted two radio interviews and helped spread the actual situation to an even larger audience. Listen to her brief interviews below. I was particularly affected by her story in the one interview of takeaway food packaging strewn around the bloody poached rhino carcass – another day at the office for these evil ones.

The South African government’s high-fiving press releases about fewer rhinos poached will now fall on a few more EDUCATED ears and be treated with caution. That said, I see that many news media platforms simply cut-and-paste this misleading information to a gullible public desperate for good news.

Our first story below features the region in Kruger National Park favoured by those in the know. The Makuleke Contractual Park is a special place if you seek remote areas with huge trees, giant elephant bulls, JAW-DROPPING biodiversity and fascinating human history. Next, we celebrate the discovery of a tiny chameleon in Madagascar – although of course nature has known of its existence for a while. Our third story is what you need to know about the aardwolf – that seldom-seen hyena that so many ardent safari-goers have yet to see. What a fascinating creature!

And, finally, we celebrate yet another week of entries to our Photographer of the Year. Competition for the US$10,000 cash prize and a rather special Botswana safari is hotting up. PLEASE send the link below to photographers you feel may benefit from the exposure and prizes 🙂

Story 1
https://africageographic.com/stories/makuleke/
SAFARI SECRET
Two rivers and three countries merge in northern Kruger – expect spectacular biodiversity and a historical hotspot at Crooks Corner

Story 2
https://africageographic.com/stories/meet-the-worlds-smallest-chameleon/
TINY GEM
This dwarf chameleon is officially the world’s smallest chameleon, measuring just 22mm. Found only in Madagascar, this is Brookesia nana

Story 3
https://africageographic.com/stories/aardwolf/
KNOW MORE
The aardwolf is one of the most specialised carnivores on the planet – and a highly sought-after species on game drives

Story 4
https://africageographic.com/stories/photographer-of-the-year-2021-weekly-selection-week-5/
BEST PHOTOS
Week five of our 2021 Photographer of the Year

DID YOU KNOW: There are eight recognised species of baobab: six native to Madagascar and one native to each of mainland Africa and Australia. Read more about baobabs here.

WATCH: How South African police are tackling pangolin poachers. (2:44)

LISTEN: Cape Talk Radio interview with AG scientific editor Jamie Paterson about the ongoing dramatic reductions in Kruger rhino populations (6:28)

LISTEN: SABC News interview with AG scientific editor Jamie Paterson and several other experts about the ongoing dramatic reductions in Kruger rhino populations (5:47)

Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic

The death of Hukumuri

Hukumuri, a famous Lowveld leopard, is dead. He died on 16 January 2021 – shot by the local authorities in a rural village after he killed livestock and a dog. These are indisputable facts, and an ongoing investigation may reveal more detail. Huk, as some know him, was a favourite amongst tourists to the northern Sabi Sands Game Reserve and amongst online live safari followers. He was not in the Sabi Sand Game Reserve at the time of his death, and the game reserve management had no hand in his death.

We have, as far as possible, in the short time available, tried to establish exactly what the facts surrounding Hukumuri’s death are. We have spoken to park officials, and yesterday Jamie visited Mr Nabot Mathonsi, the village headman, and the homestead of Romina Mathonsi who lost valuable livestock – almost her entire life’s savings. Here then are our findings, followed by our personal thoughts about a leopard we knew and loved.

This, then, is what we know with relative certainty:

The Mpumalanga Parks and Tourism Authority (MPTA) has confirmed to Africa Geographic that Hukumuri was shot by staff of the Manyeleti Game Reserve with the full authority of the MPTA. Most importantly, this was a ‘last resort’ decision. The staff of the Manyeleti made multiple attempts to catch the leopard under challenging circumstances. If further details become available, we will share them.
He was shot in a village a few kilometres north of the Sabi Sands Game Reserve, some 200 metres west of the Manyeleti fenceline.
Hukumuri killed several goats, pigs and at least one dog, causing a potentially devastating loss for more than one family.
Ms Mathonsi, who has seven children, including young toddlers and lives in abject poverty, lost all of her female livestock and one of her dogs when it tried to chase Hukumuri from her home. The animals had been placed in a ‘kraal’ for the night, and she cried when relating the story to us. When the leopard was tracked down, he was lying beneath a buffalo thorn just 100 metres from her homestead.
Despite the obvious frustration they felt, the community did not take matters into their own hands but called the relevant conservation authorities.
Many of the people living around the game reserves in the area are resentful about the lack of benefit (employment) and the perceived lack of help with compensation when livestock is lost to wild predators. The process of applying for compensation requires a certain level of literacy from the applicants, yet few of the villagers have had any formal education.
The potential for conflict in the area where Hukumuri died is very high. There is no buffer zone between the fence and the villages – there is no soft boundary, and people live virtually up against the fence.
We know, as a hugely experienced guiding friend reminded me, that Hukumuri had become a potential danger to human life. It is often small children who look after livestock in the villages and a non-territorial, possibly injured or sick leopard is not only a threat to livestock but also villagers – especially young children herding livestock. Both Mr and Ms Mathonsi told us that they were terrified for the lives of the village children.
We know that Hukumuri was being pressurised by other males in his area and had probably lost his territory – maybe even more than once. This comes from guides who work in the area and have spent extensive periods with him.
We know that darting and then relocating leopards back to reserves they have left, because they’ve been excluded from territories, seldom works. The costs of relocation are also very high. Despite this, the Manyeleti did make multiple attempts to catch Hukumuri.
Sadly, we also know that this will not be the last time something like this happens despite many people’s best efforts.

One of Romina Mathonsi’s remaining goats in the kraal. Hukumuri jumped in and killed two animals before dragging the carcass of one into her yard.

When a leopard such as Hukumuri dies, many of us who knew him, feel devastated. It feels like we have lost a close friend, or even, dare we say it, a beloved pet. Hukumuri, of course, would not have mourned our passing because he did not seek out the company of the countless humans he met in the way that a pet might have. But that doesn’t make it any easier for those of us who mourn the loss of a favourite leopard.

We knew Hukumuri for many years – we watched him forge his first territory – full of youthful exuberance and powerful, uncompromising energy. We watched him hunt warthogs to the delight of a live, international, television audience. We noted with trepidation the conflict that left him blinded in one eye – we wondered if he’d manage to hold onto his territory. He became a figure of admiration as he overcame this disability, and then we delighted when he fathered cubs. Sadly, we also noted that despite his relative youth, he seemed to be feeling the pressure from several other male leopards in his area, and his future became uncertain.

It is this sort of rollercoaster drama that makes the lives of animals like Hukumuri so compelling. There will be those who argue we should watch in a detached ‘scientific’ manner. Then again, there are plenty of scientists who have shed tears at the loss of a favourite animal.

When the death of a beloved animal like Hukumuri comes brutally, the pain is that much worse. (We must remember that, in the wild, death very seldom comes peacefully). When the death is brutal and at human hands, the pain we feel often spills over to rage. Anger and pain create mists through which it is very difficult to evaluate situations objectively.

None of this will help the feeling of loss that many of us feel – be it a sense of loss because we knew him, or because we simply love these mystical, spotted cats and can’t bear the thought of them being destroyed in a time of such wanton environmental carnage. But these are the realities of conservation in Africa.

Romina Mathonsi has seven children to support. The two goats and two pigs represented most of her life’s savings. She is cynical about her chances of compensation.

Human-wildlife conflict is one of, if not the greatest challenge facing African nature conservation. There are some very complicated situations at play where people and parks meet. In a simplistic nutshell, the people living on the borders of conservation areas are usually impoverished. They have often been removed from the land or excluded from benefiting directly from it. This has created a situation where conflict with wildlife and wildlife authorities is all but inevitable. If disputes are not quickly and timeously resolved, poor people who bear the brunt of the conflict with wildlife, take matters into their own hands.

In this case, the villagers concerned, while frustrated, further impoverished and also fearful, did not do so and they are to be commended for their patience. Remember that this is a village where the unemployment rate probably exceeds 70 percent. Those who do have jobs are frequently employed in ecotourism. The positive attitude that many community members show to conservation and game reserves is partly a function of this employment.

Top: behind the pigsty, in the treeline, is the fence between the village and the Manyeleti Game Reserve – Hukumuri’s final hiding spot is visible in this picture, to the right of the marula tree. Bottom: Hukumuri was found hidden in a thicket near a waterhole. It was an extremely inaccessible area.

The loss of Hukumuri is a tragedy; there are no two ways about it. He was only around nine-years-old when he died. In a perfect world, he would have sired more cubs, established himself in another area and continued to delight us with his one-eyed belligerence. But this is nowhere close to a perfect world, and because of the realities of nature conservation in Africa, we have lost a leopard – to many almost a friend.

However, we do not believe that the sadness of this tragedy should overshadow the realities of the situation or override an objective perspective. Hukumuri was pressurised in his territory; he left the protection of the reserve; he killed livestock and posed a genuine threat to human life; the Manyeleti staff did what they could to mitigate the situation; they took the last-resort decision to destroy Hukumuri because they did not see another option.

Were mistakes made? Possibly – we’re all human. Will this happen again? Almost certainly. We must work tirelessly to inform ourselves – to understand the wildlife, the people who live beside it and the myriad factors at play in the complex arena that is African nature conservation. We need to learn to treat the people most affected by conflict with wildlife with the same compassion we would show the animals concerned. Only then can we hope to avoid further tragedies like this one.

Rest in peace Hukumuri.

Photographer of the Year 2021 Weekly Selection: Week 5

The competition runs from January to June 2021. Get your entries in now and join us in celebrating Africa! Proudly brought to you by Hemmersbach Rhino Force and Natural Selection.

Here are the best submissions for this week

A recently rescued, female white-bellied pangolin – unfortunately this vulnerable individual did not survive. N’Zi Nature Reserve, Ivory Coast. © Alice Paghera

An orca trawls the chilly waters surrounding Marion Island. © Tavis Dalton

An endemic leaf-tailed gecko. Réserve spéciale d’Analamazaotra, Madagascar. © Andreas Just

Pensive scanning of the Kalahari from a perfect perch. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, Botswana. © Aron Frankental

Where on earth did my friends go? Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. © Artur Stankiewicz

Safety at sunset. Kruger National Park, South Africa. © Mattheuns Pretorius

Prehensile coil of colour belonging to a flap-necked chameleon. Motswari Private Game Reserve, South Africa. © Char Cornwallis

An alpha suricate leads its mob to their next location. Makgadikgadi Pan, Botswana. © Jaroslaw Klej

Gridlock on the Mara River. Mara Triangle, Kenya. © Corlette Wessels

A young mountain gorilla climbs effortlessly while communicating with its troop below. Bwindi Impenetrable Forest, Uganda. © Darcy Shelanskey

Playing in the dust – face planting and wrestling while the adults have a serious bath. Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa. © Darren Donovan

Shadowing their mother, three lion cubs remain close as she leads them to the remains of a wildebeest kill. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. © Diinesh Kumble

A monumental shake gives a shower to anything close by. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. © Guillaume Niger

A kudu bull kicks the beta female while the rest of the pack hasten the thrashing antelope’s final moments. Karingani Game Reserve, Mozambique. © Jo Taylor

A female chinspot batis feeds its demanding chicks in their perfect little nest. Kolwezi Lualaba Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo. © Kirkamon Cabello

Cat on cat, size does matter. A caracal drags its African wild cat supper to a concealed location. Mabuashehube, Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, Botswana. © Louise Victor

Juvenile African palm civet – a small, muscular viverrid that lives in the forests of central and west Africa. N’Zi Nature Reserve, Ivory Coast. © Alice Paghera

As fragile as porcelain – a porcelain crab extends its fans, readying them to catch drifting food particles. Situ Island, Northern Mozambique. © Peet J van Eeden

A yellow-billed oxpecker – star of the show. Kruger National Park, South Africa. © Quinn Kloppers

A colour-conscious, red-cheeked Cordon bleu picks a matching perch. Kidepo Valley National Park, Uganda. © Ricardo Ferreira

A good morning for a pale chanting goshawk…the worst one for a little murid. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa. © Tania Cholwich

An Antarctic fur seal hunts and kills a king penguin. Kildakey Bay, Marion Island. © Tavis Dalton

A rufous beaked snake suffocates a rodent and sucks on its tail before feasting. Manyara Ranch, Tanzania. © Tom Nicholson

Eyeball to eyeball – territorial sparring. Kruger National Park, South Africa. © Tristan Masterton

A pair of greater flamingo do a synchronized dance in Lake Magadi. Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. © Alison Mees

An inquisitive Palmato gecko – Namib Naukluft National Park, Namibia. © Werner Hoetzel

Meet the world’s smallest chameleon

Scientists have discovered a new contender for the title of world’s smallest reptile: a minute Madagascan chameleon species that can balance comfortably on the tip of a finger. The newly described Brookesia nana male has a body length of just 13.5mm and overall length of 22mm (including the tail). It is the smallest known adult male reptile species. Astonishingly the male’s genitals make up 18.5% of its body length.

The tiny chameleon was discovered by a joint team of German and Malagasy scientists on an expedition to northern Madagascar in 2012. Extreme miniaturisation is relatively common in Madagascar, home to some of the smallest primates, frogs, and chameleons.

The B. nana specimens were collected in a degraded montane rainforest where they spend their days hunting for mites and springtails on the forest floor. At night, the chameleon hides on grass blades. Despite the scientists’ extensive efforts, the team could only find two specimens – a female and a male. The female is slightly larger, usually the case with smaller chameleon species.

Micro-CT scans reveal the internal structure of the chameleons, including the reduced tail length.

One of the most critical tasks was to confirm whether the specimens were mature adults or juveniles. Micro-CT scans of the female revealed two developing eggs, confirming her maturity, but the process for the male was somewhat more complicated. As male chameleons mature, their reproductive structures, termed ‘hemipenes’, change, becoming more intricate. In this case, the male’s hemipenes were sufficiently well-developed for scientists to conclude that he had reached maturity.

The explanation behind the extraordinary size of male genitals most likely lies with the reversed sexual size dimorphism in smaller chameleons. The outsized hemipenes ensure a better mechanical fit during mating.

Of further interest to scientists is just how small complex vertebrates can get, as many of the tiny frog, gecko and chameleon species seem to converge around a similar size. The Brookesia genus (the Madagascan dwarf or leaf chameleons) all demonstrate similar reduction of particular body parts and a lack of head ornaments such as crests or cones. Though there are several theories, the reason the miniature chameleons of Brookesia are as small as they are remains a mystery.

Equally unknown at this point is just how many of the newly discovered B. nana chameleons exist in the wild and whether or not their populations are sustainable. Other members of the genus have a limited distribution, and all are threatened to some extent by habitat loss. While Madagascar is home to around half the world’s chameleon species, it is estimated that less than 10% of island’s forests remain. Of the Madagascan chameleons, 52% are threatened, and 70% are considered threatened or near-threatened. Fortunately, the tiny, new chameleons live in a newly proclaimed protected area ‘Resérve de Ressources Naturelles du Corridor Marojejy-Anjanaharibe Sud-Tsaratanàna partie Nord’, thankfully abbreviated to COMATSA Nord. However, the report recommends that B. nana be classified as ‘Critically Endangered’ on the IUCN Red List.

“Unfortunately, the habitat of the nano-chameleon is under heavy pressure from deforestation, but the area has recently been designated as a protected area, and hopefully that will enable this tiny new chameleon to survive,” says Oliver Hawlitschek from the Centrum für Naturkunde in Hamburg.

Until now, the *Brookesia micra* was considered the smallest chameleon in the world.

Read the full report here: “Extreme miniaturisation of a new amniote vertebrate and insights into the evolution of genital size in chameleons“, Glaw, F., et al. (2021), Scientific Reports

Aardwolf

The word carnivore in Africa instantly conjures images of long canines and sharp claws – powerful predators like lions or leopards, capable of rending flesh from bone or enthusiastic painted wolves coursing after their equally speedy prey or perhaps even the sinuous athleticism of Madagascar’s fossa. Yet one of the most highly specialized carnivores on the planet wanders the grasslands, deserts, and savannas of the African continent, largely unnoticed and unrecognized. This is the Aardwolf.

Africa’s aardwolf is one of the continent’s most underappreciated yet charming characters. Unlike their larger, spotted cousins, aardwolves are, for the most part, extremely shy and often elusive – few visitors are fortunate enough to spend any time with them and even fewer genuinely appreciate just how lucky they are to do so. For out of all the hyena species, the aardwolf is unique: the last of the dog-like hyenas to survive an evolutionary purge by virtue of its somewhat unusual diet.

The black sheep of the family

The aardwolf (Proteles cristata) is a member of the Hyaenidae family, along with the spotted hyena (Crocuta Crocuta), the brown hyena (Parahyaena brunnea) and the striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena). Of all the hyena species, the aardwolf looks most like a striped hyena, though this is where the similarities end.

The ancestral origins of all four species can be traced back to a civet-like hyena species known as Plioviverrops that thrived throughout Eurasia around 20-22 million years ago. Devoid of canine competition at the time, the early hyenas provided a particularly neat example of convergent evolution – steadily developing longer legs and pointed jaws like those of the canid species in North America. From there, evolution began to follow two different specializations, producing a dog-like hyena lineage that chased down smaller prey and a bone-crushing lineage of hyenas capable of capitalizing on the kills of the large felid species. By 15 million years ago, 30 different species of hyenas roamed early Earth, most of which were dog-like hyenas not dissimilar to jackals.

Then, for the hyenas at least, catastrophe stuck sometime between the 5 to 7-million-year mark. Climate changes resulted in a gradual decline in dog-like hyenas and canid species began to cross the Bering land bridge (between present-day Russia and Alaska) into Eurasia. What followed, presumably, was an evolutionary war of competition, with the canids emerging victorious. One by one, the dog-like hyenas vanished, barring a scattered few: the ancestors of the aardwolf, now the sole survivor of an evolutionary dead-end.

Fussy eating is not always a bad thing

Most evolutionary biologists point to one particular trait responsible for the aardwolf’s survival – the ability to digest the toxic terpene excretions of termites. Myrmecophagy (eating termites or ants) is surprisingly rare in the mammal kingdom and it is a trait typically associated with more ‘primitive’ species such as the pangolin or aardvark. (For the sake of clarity, it is important to note that while many mammals feed on termites or ants on occasion, myrmecophagous mammals are entirely dependent upon them.) What makes the aardwolf so fascinating is that its origin is considered to be relatively recent, with the oldest member of its family tracing back to around between 10 and 20 million years ago (unlike pangolins or aardvarks, whose ancestors have been around for some 60 million years).

Speculative biologists suggest that perhaps it was the aardwolf’s ancestor’s exceptional capacity to digest decaying food that imparted at least a partial tolerance to the otherwise toxic excretions of the termites. This in turn allowed these ancestors to slide into an ecological niche with significantly reduced levels of competition by changing their dietary approach. Unlike the previously evolved termite specialists, aardwolves lack the powerful claws and digging equipment necessary to break open termite mounts to unearth their prey. As a result, aardwolves have come to rely on termite species that forage in large numbers on the soil surface. They feed mainly on nasute harvester termites of the Trinervitermes genus, though the specific species differs according to specific regions. During the cold winter months, they may shift to the more heavily pigmented (and therefore, more diurnally active) Hodotermes species.

Whatever the origins of this unusual dietary preference, the fate of the aardwolf’s success was irrevocably linked to the presence of these specific termites. As a result, in areas such as Zambia, Central and West Africa where these termite species are uncommon or do not congregate on the surface of the soil, the aardwolf is conspicuous by its absolute absence.

The long, dog-like muzzle and reduced molars of an aardwolf (left) compared to the blunt-nosed skull structure and robust molars of a spotted hyena (right).

The price of reduced competition

This reliance on specific dietary requirements may have allowed the aardwolf to survive the extinction that awaited all other dog-like hyenas, but every adaptation comes with its own cost. Unlike their bone-crushing cousins whose bite-force is renowned, the slim-jawed aardwolf lacks this characteristic entirely and their molars are greatly reduced in size. Their tongues and palates have broadened, and massive salivary glands secrete a constant stream of sticky saliva that coats the tongue, which in turn is covered with hardened papillae, allowing the aardwolf to lap up over 200,000 termites every night. There are patchy records of aardwolves consuming small mammals and birds, but these instances are rare and likely highly opportunistic as the peg-like molars would struggle to process harder food sources.

Given the available numbers of termites, this specialization might seem ideal, but researchers have also shown that seasonal abundance has a profound impact on an aardwolf’s physical condition and survival chances. Termites are temperature sensitive and may be entirely inactive during the cold winter months. Research shows that during this time, the aardwolf’s termite intake reduces to just a fifth of the normal amount and body mass losses of up to 20% have been recorded. These winter months have also been shown to be the period of highest mortality for cubs.

This has interesting ethical implications for guides and visitors looking to view one of Africa’s more unusual offerings. The best chance of seeing an aardwolf is during the winter months when, similar to aardvarks, their behaviour becomes more diurnal to conserve heat. However, great care should be taken to avoid frightening or chasing them during this period, as this unnecessary burst of energy will just add a metabolic drain to their already stressed bodies.

aarewolf — Unlike aardvarks, aardwolves usually leave the termite mounds intact, preferring to lick termites off the surface of the soil.

Familial familiarity

While their diets are diametrically opposed, the aardwolf does bear some similarities to its larger bone-crushing congeners, particularly in terms of behaviour. Like the striped hyena, aardwolves generally form monogamous pairs and like all other members of the family, they have highly developed anal glands that produce a pungent paste used to mark territorial boundaries.

They occupy burrow systems, and both the males and females accept responsibility for caring for their young, with the male guarding the den while the lactating female is foraging. As is the case with most monogamous pairings in nature, monogamy does not always equate to fidelity. Typically, this takes the form of male promiscuity but in aardwolves, both the males and females have been observed mating with neighbouring or intruding individuals. In many cases, a more dominant male neighbour will begin regular incursions onto a rival’s territory prior to the onset of the female’s oestrus, sometimes adding their own scent marks inside the territory itself. The female, if allowed the opportunity, will readily mate with the more dominant intruding male. This overt cuckoldry is rare in the animal kingdom and may result in the male deserting the female, a behaviour that has been observed in aardwolves. However, research suggests that this desertion is rare and that the male will usually continue to raise the cubs as his own. Fights between rival males, while unusual, can be ferocious, accompanied by an extraordinary range of vocalizations including a roar-like sound.

The cubs themselves are born with their eyes open, like other hyena species, but remain inside the den for at least six weeks. The litters usually consist of around two to three cubs (though up to five have been recorded) and they begin to venture out on brief foraging excursions at around three months old. Though they reach independence at a young age (between four and six months old), they usually remain with their parents until their mother comes back into oestrus.

Grass flies everywhere as an aardwolf has a vigorous shake after emerging from the grass while foraging at sunset

A consummate survivor

Despite the fact that their retiring natures mean that they are seldom seen, aardwolf numbers appear to be relatively stable, at least for now, earning them a conservation status of “Least Concern” on the IUCN Red List. In the past, their association with the hyena family caused significant levels of persecution at the hands of farmers under the mistaken impression that they were preying on their livestock. Fortunately, this misconception has been rectified for the most part through educational campaigns and aardwolf populations have been observed to be flourishing in some agriculture areas.

As a specialized forager, conservation organizations recognize that future environmental changes such as global warming may have a significant impact on aardwolves as has already been demonstrated in aardvarks. However, the extent of this impact is still unclear.

Conclusion

Expectations around safari experiences are changing and there is a growing realization that not everything revolves around spotting the ‘Big 5’, as wonderful and iconic as they may be. Many visitors to Africa are now equally enthralled by the prospect of viewing some of her more unusual offerings – from slinking servals to powerful-bodied aardvarks and endangered pangolins. Yet somehow the aardwolf seems to have remained cloaked in obscurity, despite their fascinating lives and intriguing evolutionary oddities.

CEO note: Those dead elephants + hyena shenanigans + best pics

CEO NOTE: 05 February 2021

This is a copy of our weekly email newsletter. Subscribe here to receive the newsletter.

It is time to rally together and kill the enemy that is IGNORANCE. Because ignorance fuels the ideological differences that cause us to bicker while Rome burns and results in environmental enthusiasts in the western world lambasting African people for a perceived lack of commitment to wildlife conservation – amongst other consequences. At the root of most behaviour that is destructive to biodiversity and ecosystems lies ignorance.

SO THIS IS A CALL-OUT: Please help us destroy ignorance. The more people we can recruit into our tribe, the more we can spread fact and considered opinion to counter the mountains of misinformation that now dominate our lives. You can help us destroy ignorance by sending this link to those of your family and friends that you know care for Africa as much as you do. Let’s build this tribe and kick some ignorant butts.

Our first story below illustrates my call-out fairly well. No single factor killed those elephants in Botswana last year, nor is there a SILVER BULLET solution. Despite what the needy campaigners will tell you, as they draw a straight line between these deaths and their personal feelings. Now, respected scientists have suggested additional factors that contributed to the elephants’ demise. No, it’s not 5G or Covid-19 or any of the other silly suggestions from the armchair experts. This is an important read to understand how complex these situations often are.

Then, some intriguing details about the sexual DALLIANCES of those remarkable creatures – hyenas. And our third story below is the next instalment of our ever-popular Photographer of the Year – week four. Kick back, scroll, enjoy.

Finally, I leave you with this quote, emailed to me by tribe member Mark Winsloe from the US. “The rarer they get, the fewer meanings animals can have. Eventually, rarity is all they are made of.” – Helen MacDonald

Story 1
https://africageographic.com/stories/did-fences-cause-the-elephant-deaths-in-botswana/
THOSE DEAD ELEPHANTS
New study examines whether fences could have impacted the elephant deaths in the Seronga region of Botswana in mid-2020

Story 2
https://africageographic.com/stories/unravelling-the-elaborate-sex-lives-of-spotted-hyenas/
SEX AND THE BUSHVELD
High-ranked male spotted hyenas are more reproductively successful than their low-ranked rivals – based on hormone and behaviour analysis

Story 3
https://africageographic.com/stories/photographer-of-the-year-2021-weekly-selection-week-4/
BEST PHOTOS
Week four of our 2021 Photographer of the Year

Did you know: Giraffes hum to each other at night – according to research

WATCH: BABY HIPPO CUTENESS. Watch a tiny new-born hippo take its first wobbly steps as mom chases off a nearby crocodile.

Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic

Photographer of the Year 2021 Weekly Selection: Week 4

The competition runs from January to June 2021. Get your entries in now and join us in celebrating Africa! Proudly brought to you by Hemmersbach Rhino Force and Natural Selection.

Here are the best submissions for this week

An *Amegilla* bee hovers, seeking nectar from a lavender flower. Rural North West, South Africa. © Robby Holmwood

A young male lion – symbol of burgeoning power and strength. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. © Amish Chhagan

An elegant portrait of an endangered grey-crowned crane. South Luangwa National Park, Zambia. © Joschka Voss

Absolute focus from hungry lioness; absolute terror from warthog quarry. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe. © Ana Zinger

A curious, young mountain gorilla peers out from its mother’s protective embrace. Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda. © Mihir Bhatt

An aye-aye, the world’s largest nocturnal primate, feeding on a coconut placed to attract night visitors. Akanin’ny Nofy, Madagascar. © Andreas Just

Storied eye of a Burchell’s zebra. Rietvlei Nature Reserve, South Africa. © Andries Roux

A hungry genet forages in the shadows. Leopard Hills Private Game Reserve, South Africa © Cal Butler

A conflagration of Msasa worms. Gurungwe Gap Guruve, Zimbabwe. © Chris Sheppard

An elephant bull in musth gives himself a dramatic dust bath. Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa. © Darren Donovan

Around 300,000 wildebeest take 90 minutes to plunge across the Mara River at Main Crossing. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya. © Dennis Stogsdill

A cheetah cub learning the rudiments of grooming from its mother. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa. © Gonnie Myburgh

An Ethiopian Orthodox priest sits in front of Abuna Yemeta Guh, a church hewn from the caves some 800-1000 years ago. It’s a perilous climb of 2580 metres to the church – one section requires ropes to scale a vertical rock face. Hawzen woreda, Tigray region, Ethiopia. © Greg Metro

An Afar man clings to his camel loaded with a cargo of salt in a blistering desert wind. Danakil, Ethiopia. © Hesté de Beer

A striped banana reed frog seeks shelter in a leaf. South Coast, KwaZulu Natal, South Africa. © Jean Goldstone

A pearl-spotted owlet peers out of its nest. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa. © Joschka Voss

A saddle-billed stork performs his courtship display on the Timbavati River. Kruger National Park, South Africa. © Karolina Norée

A Cape sugarbird perches in a sea of orange and yellow proteas. North of Knysna, South Africa. © Kerstin Frodig

An Ethiopian warrior rests with his ancient rifle. Omo Valley, Ethiopia. © Kevin Dooley

A striped kingfisher selects a gecko from the menu. Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda. © Greg Metro

Stolen by a baboon – a tragic end for this newborn leopard cub. Kruger National Park, South Africa. © Lauren Pretorius

A clump of euphoric southern foam-nest tree frogs. Kruger National Park, South Africa. © Leon Marais

A white rhino cow in the golden South African dust. South Africa. © Darren Donovan

A young mountain gorilla considers its mother’s large foot. Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda. © Mihir Bhatt

A preening greater flamingo. Wildevoelvlei, Imhoffs gift, Cape Town, South Africa. © Philip Henry Jackson

A jumping spider – sparkling shades of gold, copper and bronze in stunning, precise detail. Algeria © Ridha Hamadou

A flamboyance of lesser flamingo stride through the waters of Lake Natron. Tanzania. © Sara Jenner

An exhausted black-backed jackal pauses to allow her five tiny pups to suckle. Etosha National Park, Namibia. © Sharlene Cathro

A lioness eats her cub after it succumbs to injuries inflicted by a crocodile. Khwai River, Botswana. © Shaun Malan

The traditional method of preparing croplands for planting using a plough and oxen is still widely used in parts of rural Zimbabwe. Chiredzi, Zimbabwe. © Werner Hoetzel

A southern masked weaver cools down at a birdbath at Lower Sabie rest camp. Kruger National Park, South Africa. © Karolina Norée

Did fences cause the elephant deaths in Botswana?

Did fences in northern Botswana cause the mysterious death of hundreds of elephants in 2020? News media have been quick on the draw to blame fences, after the release of a recent report suggests a strong link. But, as is often the case, the situation is nuanced and requires pragmatic analysis rather than finding simple solutions to complex problems.

Between March and June 2020, a mysterious illness claimed the lives of 330 elephants in the Seronga district of Botswana’s Okavango Delta. Now, a new study has shed light on the broader ecological implications of these elephant deaths and how a complex interplay of natural and anthropogenic factors (including fences) all played a role.

Scientists have used previous research on elephant movements in the area to interpret the wider conservation implications of these deaths. In particular, their conclusions highlight three main aspects significant for the management of elephant populations, not just in Botswana but throughout Africa:

The impact of fences on conservation – data from collared elephants indicates that the combination of the Okavango River and fences have prevented the elephant population in Seronga from dispersing under unfavourable conditions;
The overlap between natural and unnatural factors – the elephants were likely more susceptible to natural diseases/toxins due to anthropogenic restrictions and, potentially, stress due to human-wildlife conflict;
Land-sharing between people and elephants becomes superficial when the elephants’ access to resource is restricted, and they are prevented from dispersing naturally.

Their recommendation to mitigate future mass die-offs is to remove or realign certain fences around the Seronga district of Botswana.

The background

As would be expected, the deaths of such large numbers of elephants fuelled considerable concern and significant media speculation, though investigating authorities ruled out poisoning, poaching, and anthrax. Samples were sent for testing in Zimbabwe, the United States and South Africa’s Faculty of Veterinary Science at the University of Pretoria, though COVID-19 restrictions delayed the process significantly. In September, Botswanan officials announced that the deaths had resulted from poisoning by cyanobacterial toxins caused by a bloom of cyanobacteria in the available waterholes. These bacteria are naturally occurring, and ‘blooms’ happen when conditions are suitable.

The recently published (11 January 2021) report was written in October 2020, just after the Botswana government’s announcement regarding the cause of death. However, the authors note that other carcasses, including domestic animals, would have been expected had the pans been contaminated by cyanobacteria. They state that the “restriction of freshwater supplies that force elephants to use pans as a water source possibly polluted by blue-green algae blooms is a possible cause, but as yet not supported by evidence.”

Most of the elephant carcasses were found within an area administratively known as NG11, along the Panhandle region of the Delta – a region where human-wildlife conflict is rife. Neither NG11 nor neighbouring NG12 have protected status and are designated for subsistence agriculture. These regions neighbour the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area that extends over five countries and is home to the largest population of African bush (savanna) elephant in Africa.

The research

The study was authored by members of the Conservation Ecology Research Unit in the Department of Zoology and Entomology at the University of Pretoria and the Nicholas School of Duke University Environment. Their previous research included a long-running research programme in the region, tracking the movements of ten collared elephants within NG11 for several years and those of elephants in neighbouring blocks. Their research indicates that the elephants within NG11 are restricted by the Okavango River to the west and international border and veterinary fences to the north, east and south. As a result, the elephants cannot disperse when numbers are too high or when environmental conditions are harmful. The population growth rate for the Seronga area since 1995 is exceptionally high, and elephant numbers in NG11 and NG12 are significantly higher than those in neighbouring blocks, though densities are comparable.

The report concludes that while a disease is a likely explanation for the mass die-off, this would have been caused by several forces acting in concert, exacerbated by both natural and artificial factors. The restricted movements have resulted in high densities of elephants and, at the same time, confined the death-causing agent to one specific region. It is also possible that poaching, conflict with people and restricted access to the Okavango Region forced elephants to rely on stagnant water. Increased stress levels may also have increased their susceptibility to disease. Thus, the article suggests that “such a complex chain of events consisting of multiple causes makes communication complex and policy actions intricate.”

The pathways of five elephants in the Seronga area (NG11, NG12, and NG13) from October 2003 to November 2006 and eight elephants roaming beyond Seronga that we tracked from November 2004 to March 2010. The elephants in Seronga did not cross the veterinary fence (dashed lines) or the Okavango Panhandle. Neither did the elephants beyond the boundaries separating Seronga and the adjacent areas in Botswana, Namibia, Angola, and Zambia. Basemap Source: ESRI, MAXAR.

The implications

These complexities highlight several aspects for deeper consideration. The first is the impact of fences on the broader African conservation landscapes and how, historically, veterinary fences have contributed to the declines of antelope species such as sable and tsessebe, and zebra and wildebeest numbers. According to the authors, the restriction of elephant movement and dispersal in Seronga adds more evidence of the potential hazards of fencing. However, they acknowledge that this is area-specific and there are areas, like South Africa, for instance, where fencing may benefit conservation.

The second is what kind of management response is required, given that the causes were likely a combination of natural and anthropogenic ones. Diseases are not unnatural, and mass die-off events are not without precedent. However, the barriers that prevent dispersal and access to the permanent river are unnatural.

The third aspect centres around the discussion of the human-wildlife coexistence (or lack thereof). Essentially, the question of land-sharing, as opposed to land-sparing in the case of national parks, becomes superficial when access to resources is restricted, and artificial barriers prevent dispersal, allowing for the spread of contagious disease. The land is not “shared” with them. Here, the authors recommend a discussion around realigning to veterinary fences.

In essence, the deaths of 330 elephants will have little impact on the region’s overall population and represent just 2% of the total estimated 15,000 elephants in the Seronga region. The event that caused their death, whether contagious disease or poisoning by cyanobacterial toxins, is almost certainly natural. However, the circumstances that made it more likely to occur are due to human restrictions on both movement and access to fresh water.

The authors conclude that “we must not allow our predilections for simple answers to interfere with reasoned analysis and discussing the broader significance.”

The full study can be accessed here: “The 2020 elephant die-off in Botswana”, van Aarde RJ., Pimm SL., Guldemond R., Huang R., Maré C., (2021), PeerJ

Unravelling the elaborate sex lives of spotted hyenas

For animals, reproduction is a biological imperative, an instinct to pass their genetics onto the next generation. This translates into a complex dance of competition, dominance, and courtship for the males of the species. The process is even more fascinating in spotted hyena clans, with their hierarchies and intricate systems of power-plays and alliances. Long-term behavioural research and hormone analysis by the Hyena Project in Tanzania reveal further insight into the complicated romantic lives of spotted hyenas.

As is the case with the females, every individual male hyena in a clan has a particular rank, with immigrant males finding themselves at the bottom of the clan hierarchy. Status and dominance equate to better access to both food and females. The researchers’ questions set out to answer related to how this social rank influences an individual’s reproductive success. Were high ranked males more successful because they are stronger and fitter and, therefore, a more attractive mate choice likely to produce sturdy offspring? Or, given the intricacies of hyena society, was the reason more complex? The results of the research indicate the latter.

Due to the clan hierarchy and their unique genital structure, female spotted hyenas control the process of mate selection entirely. Extended courtships are the order of the day for hopeful males, and they will nurture their relationships with certain females, sometimes for years at a time. The supplicant male will do everything in his power to convey his intentions to a receptive female, bowing and scraping in a comic display of humility. If he is successful, she may just allow him to mate with her. According to the study results, high-ranked females are more in demand than those of a lower rank, which is to be expected given the benefits conferred on offspring of higher-ranked females (“the silver spoon effect”).

Naturally, this intensive courtship requires both time and energy, things that the study indicates are in shorter supply for lower-ranked males. In collecting over 400 samples of fresh hyena scat, the researchers analysed levels of faecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations – cortisol, a stress hormone – to estimate the psychological effects of social interactions between clan individuals. The results indicate that male-male interactions are more stressful for the low-ranking males than for high-ranking ones. These interactions are an inevitable part of everyday life for spotted hyenas. The males are obliged to maintain relationships with clan-mates but low-ranked males, understandably, spend more time on their own, avoiding stressful situations. In essence, low ranked individuals invest less time in sexual activities, social activities and spend more time away from clan mates.

Researchers at the Hyena Project in the Ngorongoro Crater in northern Tanzania have recorded behavioural data of spotted hyenas for over 20 years. In recognising each clan member and understanding their histories and dynamics, the authors of the study were able to use the biological information imparted by hormone analysis to interpret observed behavioural trends.

In conclusion, the researchers note that fortunately, for the low-ranking hyena males, chances are their time will come. ‘Social queuing’ means that a male hyena’s status and rank will increase when a higher-ranking individual dies or disperses. Rather than using physical strength and violence to increase their chances of reproducing, it is simply a matter of patience for most.

The full study can be accessed here: “The interplay between social rank, physiological constraints and investment in courtship in male spotted hyenas“, Davidian, E., et al, (2020), Functional Ecology
A Plain Language Summary written by the authors can be accessed here: Why do top dogs usually get the prettiest ladies?

Read more about Hyenas here

CEO note: Kruger rhinos crash + best pics

CEO NOTE: 29 January 2021

This is a copy of our weekly email newsletter. Subscribe here to receive the newsletter.

Before I unload another rant on you, a quick SHOUT-OUT to the Thulamela Royal Family for emailing such a wonderful note to thank my team for last week’s story about that ancient Kruger walled kingdom known as Thulamela. Respect.

OK, stand by for a rant of note.

I am battling to find the words to explain my frustration and confusion about our wild rhinos’ situation. We are plagued by humans from the east who think that horn provides all sorts of medical benefits, others who gift horn to boost their status and some who stash horn in the vault as a speculative investment. Supplying horn to these misinformed people are sophisticated networks of illegal operators who also trade in drugs, humans and weapons. So our rhinos have become properly COMMODITISED – often trafficked by the evil ones alongside legal goods. And here in South Africa, where we host the vast majority of the remaining wild populations of these gentle giants, they are being butchered by locals desperate for money. Those in charge of these massive operations have inculcated themselves into our society at every level. They live amongst us, and some even walk the corridors of power.

The rhino population in Kruger National Park is crashing – our first story below refers – and my sources tell me that the true numbers are worse than the official stats we managed to dig up (the stats are well-hidden). Kruger ground crews are stretched, worked to the bone – under massive emotional and physical pressure. And yet our Minister of these things says that the situation is sustainable. In fact, she wants to reduce the CITES protection status of our rhinos. What is going on?

Rant over. I feel better now. Not really. Breath deeply Simon. Remember to celebrate.

On a more positive note, thank goodness that in the current state of global chaos, some caretakers of our wild areas are still DELIVERING the goods – see our second story below.

And finally, check out the awesome gallery below. Our Photographer of the Year celebration is already smoking hot – and it’s only the third week! Entrants are competing for a US$10,000 cash prize and a Botswana safari of note!

Story 1
https://africageographic.com/stories/kruger-rhino-populations-plummet-latest-official-stats/
DISASTER
LATEST rhino population stats: Rhino numbers in the Kruger National Park have plummeted in recent years, according to official sources

Story 2
https://africageographic.com/stories/largest-collaring-initiative-to-protect-wildlife-in-pendjari-and-w-national-parks-benin/
HOPE
A successful large-scale collaring of elephants and antelopes aids in the restoration and protection of Pendjari and W National Parks, Benin

Story 3
https://africageographic.com/stories/photographer-of-the-year-2021-weekly-selection-week-3/
BEST PHOTOS
Week three of our 2021 Photographer of the Year

Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic

Photographer of the Year 2021 Weekly Selection: Week 3

The competition runs from January to June 2021. Get your entries in now and join us in celebrating Africa! Proudly brought to you by Hemmersbach Rhino Force and Natural Selection.

Here are the best submissions for this week

Legendary elephant Boswell leads the way through the magic light of Mana Pools National Park. Zimbabwe © Ana Zinger

A tiny Thomson’s gazelle lamb struggles in vain against the powerful jaws of a lioness. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Ahmed Abi Ganem

A herd of elephants stride along the stark shores of Lake Kariba. Matusadona National Park, Zimbabwe © Caroline Landrey

A caracal gazes haughtily over its shoulder at its admiring spectators. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa © Dawie Jacobs

A dancing white lady spider (*Leucorchestris arenicola*) taps its way across the sand. Swakopmund, Namibia © Derek Howes

A Cape crow (also known as a black crow) spears a fledgeling finch for its next meal. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, Botswana © Gonnie Myburgh

Led by their herder, a caravan of camels travels across the vast barren landscape. Danakil, Ethiopia © Hesté de Beer

The muddy paws of a lion cub dangle as its mother relocates it to a safer, drier hiding spot. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Yarin Klein

A Suri boy is comforted by an older warrior after a ceremonial bath and body painting. Omo Valley, Ethiopia © Hesté de Beer

An aerial shot of a chaotic fish market in Ganvie, Benin © Inger Vandyke

Who gets the head? A pack of African painted wolves (wild dogs) rapidly devour an impala. Kruger National Park, South Africa © John Mullineux

A muddle of hyenas – a trio of youngsters greet one of the clan adults. Liuwa Plain National park, Zambia © Andrew Macdonald

That quintessential moment on an African safari. Mara North Conservancy, Kenya © John Piper

A Werner’s catfish is on the menu for this hungry crocodile. Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania © Kyle Smith

A cheetah uses a termite mound as a vantage point during a downpour. Chobe National Park, Botswana © Dawie Jacobs

A baboon rises to greet the first rays of the sunrise. Nsefu Sector, South Luangwa National Park, Zambia © Marc Mol

A male Jameson’s firefinch quenches its thirst at a photographic hide in Karongwe Private Game Reserve near Hoedspruit, South Africa © Monique Adams

A female wildebeest and calf brave the frenzy of currents and crocodiles to cross the Mara River. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Ana Zinger

Hyena cubs nestled safely against their exhausted mother. Liuwa Plain National park, Zambia © Andrew Macdonald

A skinner and cook in Kejetia bushmeat market takes a break from the heat coming off an old Bedford engine block as the day’s catch is cauterized and cleansed by flame. Kumasi, Ghana © Robin Bruyns

A spotted eagle owl is perfectly camouflaged in its resting spot on the knot of a tree trunk. Noordhoek Common, Cape Town, South Africa © Rob Mousley

A giraffe calf receives a tender bath from its mother shortly after birth. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Thorsten Hanewald

A highly venomous Southern twig snake inflates its neck in a defensive threat display. Outside Hoedspruit, South Africa © Tim Baynham

Wildebeest dotted across the plain, silhouetted against an artistic sky. Liuwa Plain National park, Zambia © Andrew Macdonald

A water lily frog sits against a windowpane in the early hours of the morning. Photographed from inside the house using a low aperture creates a blacked-out background and shuts out any excessive light. St Lucia, KZN, South Africa © Tyrone Ping

A copper eye reveals the presence of a sidewinder snake buried in the sand. Namib Naukluft National Park, Namibia © Werner Hoetzel

A yellow-billed kite dips into focus as it flies in front of the looming form of an elephant. Chobe National Park, Botswana © Dawie Jacobs

An olive baboon pulls her baby close for warmth and shelter during a downpour. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Yaron Schmid

Staff in hand, an Ethiopian elder rests outside his home at sunset. Omo Valley, Ethiopia © Kevin Dooley

Kruger rhino populations plummet – latest official stats

After years of silence about Kruger National Park rhino populations from South Africa’s Ministry of Forestry and Fisheries and Environmental Affairs, we can now confirm that populations in the Kruger National Park have plummeted to an estimated 3,549 white rhinos and 268 black rhinos.

This represents a population reduction of 67% for white rhinos – from 10,621 in 2011 and 35% for black rhinos – from 415 in 2013.

Note that the Minister’s regular rhino poaching updates over the last years focussed on volumes of rhinos poached and other related statistics such as arrests and park incursions – but did not include population details. Recent updates claimed progress in the war against poaching on the grounds that the volume of rhinos being poached per year has reduced recently. This population update suggests that the population reduction is a significant factor contributing towards lower poaching volumes, although refined tactics and back-breaking work by a dedicated and passionate SANParks’ team and various service providers are arguably also contributory factors.

PUBLICLY-AVAILABLE RESOURCES:

1. These latest stats (2019) are available on page 96 of the 2019/2020 SANParks Annual Report: download.

2. 2018 stats are available on page 101 of the 2018/2019 SANParks Annual Report: download.

3. Prior year stats are available here: white rhinos and black rhinos.

LISTEN: Cape Talk interviews Jamie Paterson (AG scientific editor) about this story

Largest collaring initiative to protect wildlife in Pendjari and W National Parks, Benin

By African Parks

Pendjari National Park and W National Park in Benin have completed a major collaring exercise, the largest of its kind in the region, fitting satellite collars on 25 elephants and 14 antelopes to increase the surveillance and protection of these species in this transboundary landscape. Both parks are managed by conservation non-profit African Parks through a partnership with the Ministry of Living Environment and Sustainable Development, the National Agency for Heritage Promotion and Tourism Development (ANPT), and the National Centre for the Management of Wildlife Reserves (CENAGREF). They have worked together since 2017 to ensure the sustainability of these vital, connected West African ecosystems for the benefit of people and biodiversity in the region.

His Excellency the Minister of Living Environment and Sustainable Development, Mr José Tonato said, “We are taking decisive steps and utilising the most innovative tools in biodiversity conservation to ensure the effective management of our parks, enhancing their natural resources for the development of eco-tourism and the promotion of livelihoods in local communities”.

W National Park Ranger assisting with getting the collar under the elephant’s head.

Pendjari and W in Benin form an anchoring part of the W-Arly-Pendjari (WAP) Complex – a UNESCO World Heritage Site straddling Benin, Burkina Faso and Niger. The WAP Complex is home to the largest elephant population in West Africa, in addition to the only viable populations of West African lion, cheetah and Korrigum antelope. However, its elephant population has declined over several decades due to the persistent threat of poaching, with recent surveys estimating that just over 3,250 remain in the entire WAP Complex, of which more than half are protected within Pendjari and W in Benin. Therefore, an effective monitoring system is crucial to supply accurate information on the species’ population dynamics and their threats to bolster efforts to conserve them.

On December 12th specialist veterinarians and park teams concluded an almost three-week operation. They successfully collared 20 elephants and four antelopes in W National Park-Benin; and five elephants and ten antelopes in Pendjari National Park. The satellite collars will enable teams to closely monitor the animals’ movements, thereby providing valuable insights to improve their protection and reduce human-wildlife conflict.

The collaring exercises were attended by the Minister of Living Environment and Sustainable Development, the Prefects of Alibori, Atacora and Donga, the Director-General of CENAGREF, the Executive Director of the West African Savanah Foundation (FSOA), Forest Administration officials, Mayors and representatives of communities neighbouring the two parks.

“This operation is an important milestone for ecological monitoring in the park. It will ultimately help to improve our ability to provide long-term security for people and wildlife, ensuring that both can prosper in this profoundly valuable landscape” said the Director of Pendjari National Park, Mr Jean-Yves Koumpogue.

“Having concluded a management agreement for W National Park with the Government of Benin in July, this large collaring project is a significant development for the park” added the Director of W National Park-Benin, Mr Christophe Lemee. “It is a true testament to the commitment of every partner involved – including the Ministry of Living Environment and Sustainable Development, CENAGREF, ANPT and local communities – to preserving this natural treasure, giving it a chance to evolve into one of Benin’s greatest national assets’.

The Benin Government prioritised the revitalisation of its protected areas as a core project of its national investment programme, “Revealing Benin, ” launched in 2016. With a vision of building ecological and economic sustainability, they initiated a partnership with African Parks to manage Pendjari National Park in 2017 and manage the contiguous W National Park in 2020.

The collaring initiative was made possible thanks to the Norwegian Government’s financial support through UNESCO and the Elephant Crisis Fund for W National Park-Benin; and the support of The Wyss Foundation, Elephant Crisis Fund, The Wildcat Foundation, FSOA, National Geographic Society for Pendjari National Park. This is the largest operation of its kind implemented by African Parks in the WAP Complex.

CEO note: Gold rush + sordid past + ancient walled kingdom

CEO NOTE: 22 January 2021

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It was always going to be a matter of time before the evil ones in neighbouring countries were attracted by the stench of filthy lucre. Now, opportunists in Botswana supply the festering South African captive lion breeding industry with lion parts and live lions. How long before their Namibian counterparts join the feast, I wonder? Our first story below refers.

On to more pleasant matters. Last year, I had the honour of accompanying a small band of special people to a sacred place to pay respect to their forefathers, who had built a magnificent walled kingdom in what was to become the Kruger National Park. This was an ancient civilisation of goldsmiths, traders and farmers – sophisticated for their time. Every Kruger fan should spend time at this ancient site to truly understand the soul of the far north of the park. Story two is about Thulamela – my top travel experience of 2020.

Our third story shows how long humankind has been treating Africa’s riches like a limitless treasure chest. The shameless plunder by our forefathers was as morally bankrupt and repugnant as it is now.

And finally, our Photographer of the Year is picking up speed, and we showcase week two below. Selecting the best of every week is a highlight for my team – thanks so much for your submissions and for sharing our galleries far and wide!

Story 1
https://africageographic.com/stories/gold-rush-as-botswana-meets-appetite-for-lion-parts/
GOLD RUSH
Lion bones from Botswana: Investigation reveals Botswana is exporting live lions and lion parts to South Africa – possible links to canned hunting

Story 2
https://africageographic.com/stories/thulamela/
RESPECT
Thulamela is an ancient and sacred walled kingdom in Kruger National Park that unlocks some of the fascinating history of southern Africa

Story 3
https://africageographic.com/stories/of-ivory-elephants-shipwrecks-and-slaughter/
SORDID
Ivory recovered from a 500-year-old shipwreck reveals details of the ivory trade and how it has devastated forest elephant populations

Story 4
https://africageographic.com/stories/photographer-of-the-year-2021-weekly-selection-week-2/
BEST PHOTOS
Week two of our 2021 Photographer of the Year has produced some stunners

Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic

Photographer of the Year 2021 Weekly Selection: Week 2

The competition runs from January to June 2021. Get your entries in now and join us in celebrating Africa! Proudly brought to you by Hemmersbach Rhino Force and Natural Selection.

Here are the best submissions for this week

An extraordinary close-up of a rain spider (*Palystes sp.*) in Ruira, Kenya © Robin James Backhouse

Thousands of wildebeest brave the currents and crocodiles of the Mara River. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Ana Zinger

While storm clouds gather, a lioness shifts into stalk mode. Liuwa Plain National park, Zambia © Andrew Macdonald

A portrait of a Mundari cattle herder standing guard amongst his cattle in the South Sudan © Joe Buergi

An African jacana takes flight. Chobe River, Botswana © Bruce Staples

The fossa – the largest carnivorous mammal on the island of Madagascar. Kirindy Forest, Madagascar © Callum Lootsma

African barred owlets at Ingwelala Private Nature Reserve, South Africa © Charlie Lynam

A luckless scrub hare lies stunned and frozen in the clutches of a hungry leopard at Goas waterhole. Etosha National Park, Namibia © Dora Vecsey

A group of elephant orphans at the Sheldrick Wildlife Trust enjoy a dust bath. Umani Springs, Kenya © Ana Zinger

A lucky sighting of the world’s largest nocturnal primate, the aye-aye. This animal was feeding on a coconut left out to attract night visitors. Madagascar © Dr Sougata Halder

Four giraffe dwarfed by an impressive baobab tree. Tarangire National Park, Tanzania © Fabian Fridholm

A young male leopard cradled in the cavity of a massive Mashatu (nyala) tree. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Garry Mills

Morning reflection – lionesses guard a buffalo carcass while hyenas lurk hopefully in the background. Sabi Sands Game Reserve, South Africa © Garry Mills

Hidden Vlei – a beautiful scenic area found on the road towards the renowned Sossusvlei, Namibia. © Hesté de Beer

A Maasai giraffe tenderly cleans her minute calf. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Ana Zinger

Local Beninese women use the beach to spread lake grasses into fan-like shapes, drying them out for mat weaving. Here, guide Assou Cosme Segla lays on the mats as a size reference. Grand-Popo, Benin © Inger Vandyke

A portrait of a young boy from the Turkana tribe in Kenya © Joe Buergi

A close-up shot of a vibrant Southern tree agama. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Joschka Voss

A young male lion hidden in the lush green shade of one of Liuwa Plain’s few woodlands. Liuwa Plain National park, Zambia © Andrew Macdonald

How many tails can you count? Six lions quench their thirst while a black-backed jackal observes from a safe distance. Etosha National Park, Namibia © Dora Vecsey

A young Temminck’s ground pangolin (a “pangopup”) emerges with its mother late one summer evening to relocate burrows for safety and better foraging. South Africa © Kevan Dobbie

A gaping Nile crocodile lays basking in the sun. Victoria Falls National Park, Zimbabwe © Mitchell Riley

A once-in-a-lifetime sighting of a Southern African python suffocating an impala before swallowing it. Londolozi Private Game Reserve, South Africa © Mrisho Luge

A fascinating armoured lily weevil (Brachycerus sp.) photographed in Ruira, Kenya. © Robin James Backhouse

A flurry of horns emerge from the dust cloud created by thousands of migrating wildebeest. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Ana Zinger

The golden sunset highlights every wrinkle on a dust bathing elephant. Khwai Community Area, Botswana © Eben Van Heerden

Playful leopard siblings. Londolozi Private Game Reserve, South Africa © Rod Watson

One of the Tano Bora cheetah males attempts to take down a young zebra on his own. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Suhaib Alvi

A journey of Maasai giraffe on high alert at the water’s edge. Komboy, Tsavo West National Park, Kenya © Tim Nicklin

‘Gold rush’ as Botswana meets appetite for lion parts

Investigation by Calistus Bosaletswe, originally published in Oxpeckers Investigative Environmental Journalism

Data shows that over a 10-year period South Africa received most of the live lions and lion products exported from Botswana – including 16 live lions in 2019.

Botswana is deeply involved in the controversial export of live lions and lion products to satisfy growing international demand.

Experts fear that the legal trade in lion commodities, including bones, claws, teeth and skins, could be used as a front for illegally obtained products.

There are also concerns that the export of live animals may be linked to “canned” lion hunting in South Africa, the subject of international condemnation.

In the past, Botswana has been at the centre of uproars about the illegal exportation of lion bones to South Africa, and has controversially exported live lions to South Africa for canned hunting.

Lion products are growing in importance as a replacement for tiger derivatives in some traditional medicines in Asia as tigers become rarer and more difficult to hunt.

The products are claimed to be the result of trophy hunting, natural mortality and “problem” lions that farmers have killed in retaliation for attacks on their livestock.

Botswana continued to take part in the trade even after the previous president of the country, Ian Khama, imposed a moratorium on the hunting of the big cats in 2014. The government also banned canned hunting of carnivores, in response to an exposé by Oxpeckers Investigative Environmental Journalism that showed the then minister of agriculture, Christian de Graaff, had exported a large shipment of lions to a canned hunting outfit in South Africa. (Botswana bans canned hunts).

About 20,000 African lions are thought to remain in the wild. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Red List now classifies them as “vulnerable”, and some experts believe that at the current rate of decimation, the big cats may be extinct by 2050.

CITES data

A trove of data from the CITES Trade Database, which is managed by the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre on behalf of the CITES secretariat, highlights the depth of the country’s involvement.

The data shows that over a 10-year period South Africa received most of the live lions and their products from Botswana, while lion derivatives went to China – the second-largest consumer – Hong Kong, India and the United States.

The data shows that in 2019 Botswana exported 16 live lions to South Africa, as well as derivatives such as bodies and skins.

The exports are listed as being for personal and commercial use. It is not clear whether “commercial” indicates they went to South Africa’s canned hunting industry.

In response to questions about who exported the live lions, Botswana’s director at the Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Kabelo Senyatso, said he could not divulge the name of the farmer behind the exports, or of the South African buyers.

“The lions belonged to the farmer who exported them. We are not in a position to divulge who the lions were sold to,” said Senyatso.

Asked whether the trade could damage Botswana’s reputation for wildlife conservation, he said the exported lions would be governed by South African laws.

“Botswana cannot impose on South Africa how to manage resources within their jurisdiction,” he said.

Senyatso said the moratorium on the hunting of lions in Botswana was still in force, but denied that the exporting of live lions defeats its purpose, saying that the traded animals were bred in captivity and not hunted.

“The moratorium is on lion trophy hunting, not the export of live animals as in this case, or products from problem animal control,” he added.

He said the Wildlife Conservation and National Parks act of 1992 allows for the killing of any animal that has damaged and or is likely to damage property.

The Act requires farmers to report the circumstances of a killing and deliver trophies of the killed animal to the department or a police station. The department then carries out auctions of the dead animals and their products across the country.

Senyatso said the export of lions to South Africa was meant to address the carrying capacity of wildlife ranches and improve the gene pool.

Lion products

The CITES trade data base shows that the largest sale of lion products between 2010 and 2015 took place in 2013 when 126 claws were exported to China, from “problem” lions killed by farmers, natural deaths and trophy hunting – before the hunting moratorium came into place. Senyatso would not divulge the names of the three people involved in the claw exports.

The data also shows that China is not reporting the imports from Botswana, as required by the UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. India and Hong Kong have also failed to report lion imports from Botswana such as claws, skins and bones from 2015 to the present.

China only reported importing a rug in 2017 but failed to report nine claws imported in 2015 and two skins in 2017. Hong Kong failed to report the importation of a lion body, while India did not report the importation of two claws in 2018 and a skin in 2019

A former CITES desk officer at the department, Abednico Macheme, said that dealers could choose to utilise a commercial trade quota that is available to Botswana on lion parts and derivatives. “The claws you refer to were sourced in this manner and legally traded,” he said.

He said illegal trading takes place when criminal syndicates exploit loopholes in the legal system. “This becomes dangerous when there is institutionalised corruption, either at ports of entry or source points,” he said.

“Lion derivatives became a cheaper replacement for tiger products because the overheads associated with running a captive facility are eliminated. But illegal activity from smuggling is possible based on counterfeit documents from the legal trade,” added Macheme.

“Lions are listed in the CITES Appendix II which allows for legal trade in live lions and lion products,” said Macheme.

He would not comment on the export of the 16 live lions to South Africa in 2019, because he was not aware of the circumstances.

The government banned canned hunting of big cats after an Oxpeckers exposé showed the then minister of agriculture, Christian de Graaff, had exported a large shipment of lions to Makhulu game farm in South Africa.

This data-driven investigation was a collaboration between Oxpeckers Investigative Environmental Journalims, INK Centre for Investigative Journalism and IJ Hub

[Editorial note: The featured image included at the start of this article is for illustrative purposes only and does not feature lions exported from Botswana.]

THULAMELA

There is an ancient and sacred site on the Luvuvhu River in the northern reaches of the Kruger National Park that unlocks some of the fascinating history of southern Africa. The people of the walled kingdom of Thulamela first lived here about 400 years before Europeans first settled in South Africa. This was a sophisticated society of farmers, goldsmiths and traders who thrived by selling their manufactured jewellery and other goods to people from across the globe, using the river system to transport their goods to the east coast. I spent time at Thulamela with direct descendants of the Thulamela royal family as they paid their respects at the burial sites of a king and queen from way back when.

There are about 300 identified archaeological sites in Kruger National Park, ranging from early Stone and Iron Age settlements to more recent historical buildings. The 9-hectare Thulamela site is the largest and most dramatic of several ancient stone-walled sites in the area. This stone fortress was inhabited by an estimated 2,000 people from AD 1250 to AD 1700, rediscovered in 1983 by a park ranger and painstakingly restored in the 1990s. The stone walls have been beautifully reconstructed by masons who worked for 14 months and packed more than 2,000 tons of the original stones to rebuild the ancient circular kraals – without cement or mortar, just as they were several hundred years ago.

The meaning of the name Thulamela is not clear, with some sources suggesting it to mean ‘growing mound’, in reference to the tall anthills in the area and others suggesting “the place of giving birth” or alternatively ‘seed of stillness’.

The spectacular Thulumela walled kingdom is perched on a rocky hill overlooking the Luvuvhu River and shares its spectacular view with massive baobab trees, some dating back thousands of years – certainly far earlier than human settlement in the area. The kingdom was built by the Makahane subtribe – members of the Vhalembethu clan of the Karanga tribe (Shona ethnic group) from Zimbabwe. These are the forefathers of the Venda people.

SACRED LEADERSHIP

This was a hierarchical society, and the royal family ruled from their stone-walled fortress on the hill, while the commoners lived below where they farmed and mined iron ore from about 200 sites. These civilisations were amongst the first in Africa to show the characteristics of sacred leadership and social classes.

According to oral histories, the people of Thulamela believed that there was a mystical relationship between their leader (the Khosi) and the land and that the ancestors of the Khosi would intercede on behalf of the nation. The Khosi was an elusive figure who lived a secluded life in a hilltop palace and could only be seen by specific individuals. If a commoner wished to meet the Khosi, he would go to a special chamber that was divided probably by a central wall separating the visitor from the Khosi. The concept of sacred leadership transcends that of today’s king and queen.

GRAVES

During the 1996 archaeological excavations, 2 graves were found beneath hut floors.

The first skeleton discovered was that of a female, dated to around AD 1600. Anatomists believe she was somewhere between 45 and 60 years old and measurements of her bones indicate that she was over 1.73m tall. Her body had been laid on its side with her hands folded under her cheeks – the losha position, indicating respect. As a result, archaeologists named her Queen Losha. She was buried along with 291 gold beads, a gold bracelet on her left arm and copper wire on her legs. Queen Losha was later reburied on the site, with 800 people attending the ceremony.

The second skeleton, a male, was dated to around AD 1450 and it is possible that he never lived at Thulamela. The skeleton was broken and packed in a square shape, implying that the person did not die on the site. He had injuries to the lumbar vertebrae consistent with a sharp object and was buried with 73 gold beads and 990 ostrich egg beads. The archaeologists named him King Ingwe (leopard) because, on the day that his grave was found, a leopard was waiting as the excavating team returned to their vehicle.

TRADE

As we strolled the ancient fortress, we were shown various artefacts and tiny remnants collected from the site that reflect the extensive trade links of these people. Glass beads, Chinese porcelain, imported textiles, ivory bracelets, gold, bronze, and other jewellery have all been found. Skilled artisans forged gold and iron which were traded as currency in exchange for ivory, glass beads and grain from merchants closer to the east coast. There were likely also trade links with West Africa. Goods were ferried along the Luvuvhu and Limpopo Rivers to Mozambique for onward distribution via Arab traders to markets in the Middle East, India, South East Asia, and China.

FARMING

The fertile Luvuvhu River flood plain was cultivated to yield sorghum and millet to make porridge and beer. Clay spindle wheels found in the area suggest that cotton was also cultivated for making cloth. Numerous potshards found on the site are the remains of discarded clay pots made by the women at Thulamela for cooking, eating, and drinking. The pots were of various shapes and sizes and often decorated.

WHY DID THEY LEAVE?

The Thulamela civilisation lasted about 450 years, and the area continued to be occupied for another 120 years – presumably by the same people. Subsequently, the Makuleke people moved into the area and assumed control (which has lasted till current times).

The reasons for the demise of the Thulamela kingdom are not known because there is no written history from the inhabitants of the kingdom, and oral history seems to have disappeared when the city was abandoned. Archaeologists and social anthropologists have presented many theories that range from traditions surrounding the death of a ruler, an environmental disaster or war over the control of land and resources. The influence of Portuguese colonialists in Mozambique and civil war in Zimbabwe have also been mooted as reasons.

THREE WALLED KINGDOMS

Many stone-walled sites around southern Africa reflect the presence and migration of these walled-kingdom-living people in southern Africa. The three best known, and the largest, are Mapungubwe, Great Zimbabwe and Thulamela. Another example is the Khami Ruins near Bulawayo – the second-largest stone ruin site in Zimbabwe.

It is believed that there was a migration of people between these three kingdoms, in that order – from Mapungubwe to Great Zimbabwe and finally to Thulamela. The exact dates of living and departing from each site are estimates, and there are overlapping periods when more than one location was inhabited.

During the Middle Iron Age – about AD 900 – Bantu people moved from the north into the Limpopo valley and initially established themselves at Mapungubwe (circa AD 1075-1220) where they built a walled kingdom. Before this, Bantu people were mostly nomadic in the region. From there they established Great Zimbabwe (circa AD 1200-1400) and then to Thulamela (circa AD 1250-1700).

Gold found at both Thulamela and Mapungubwe was found to have the same ‘chemical fingerprint’. “The conclusion could therefore be drawn that both the Mapungubwe and Thulamela gold artefacts originated from the same gold source,” wrote a team of researchers in a paper published in 1998 in the journal Gold Bulletin.

WHO CAME BEFORE?

Of course, the Mapungubwe/Great Zimbabwe/Thulamela era is but a snapshot in time. Before these civilisations, the area was inhabited as far back as 100,000 years ago by San people (‘Bushmen’), as evidenced by Middle and Late Stone Age artefacts such as stone tools and rock paintings. The San people disappeared during the Late Iron Age after the arrival of the Bantu-speaking people from further north in Africa who were looking for more grazing land for their cattle. Arab slave traders were raiding the area circa AD 800, using the ports in Mozambique to ferry slaves to destination markets.

YOUR VISIT TO THULAMELA

Thulamela is a site of immense cultural importance. Although the site is in the Kruger National Park, no visitors are permitted unaccompanied by a SANParks guide, and booking is essential.

To visit Thulamela with a SANParks guide, please contact SANParks via this informative website page. If you are staying at a nearby lodge, ask them beforehand if they can arrange a guided visit to the site.

We stayed at Pafuri Luxury Tented Camp during our time in northern Kruger, an excellent base from which to explore the Makuleke Contractual Park and to visit Thulamela. For more about this camp and about the other RETURNAfrica camps, also read more about the Makuleke Contractual Park in the northern reaches of the Kruger National Park.

Want to go on a safari to Thulamela? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.

FINAL WORD

The experience at Thulamela deeply moved me and my long-time friend and occasional travel companion, Sharon Haussmann. There is no question that this sacred site has a deep spiritual ambience – we both felt the presence of the ancestors who still preside over this wild part of the Kruger National Park from their hilltop fortress.

We had the immense privilege of attending a ceremony conducted by Khosi Wilson Matodzi Magulasavha Makahane and Makhadzi (aunt) Lucy Lufuno Makahane. Also in attendance were community member Gilbert Munyai and SANParks guides Carel Nkuna and Daniel Shibambu.

I would also like to thank Isaac Phaala of SANParks, and his colleagues, for making this immensely spiritual sojourn possible.

Our Thulamela sojourn was made possible by Isaac Phaala of SANParks, and his colleagues, and made thoroughly spiritual by Khosi Wilson Matodzi Magulasavha Makahane and Makhadzi (aunt) Lucy Lufuno Makahane.

About the author

I am a proud African and honoured to be CEO of Africa Geographic. My travels in Africa are in search of wilderness, elusive birds and real people with interesting stories. I live in South Africa with my wife, Lizz, and 2 Jack Russells. When not travelling or working, I am usually on my mountain bike somewhere out there. I qualified as a chartered accountant, but found my calling sharing Africa’s incredibleness with you. My motto is “Live for now, have fun, be good, tread lightly and respect others. And embrace change”. Connect with me on LinkedIn. ”
Picture: Simon Espley with long-time friend Sharon Haussmann on assignment at Thulamela

MAKULEKE

The Kruger National Park’s northern reaches offer arguably the most scenic, biodiverse, and historically fascinating experience of the Greater Kruger area. Consider that this slice of wildland is sandwiched between two great rivers, three countries and millennia of geological and social upheaval – and you begin to get the picture. This is the 24,000 ha Makuleke Contractual Park, previously known as the Pafuri Triangle.

Since the Early Stone Age, humans have been drawn to this land of legends, and their impact is there for all to see – from rock art and cave paintings to stone fortresses perched on hilltops and ancient baobab trees etched by passers-by. The deep canyons and riverine forests whisper with the tales of tribal skirmishes, explorers, poachers, gun-runners, slavers and great white hunters. Civilizations have come and gone and left their mark, and the current custodians – the Makuleke people – have committed the land to conservation.

makuleke — A bull elephant ambles amidst huge fever trees on the banks of the Luvhuvu River

TWO GREAT RIVERS MERGE

The ‘Pafuri Triangle’ refers to the triangular wedge of land at the Limpopo and Luvuvhu Rivers’ confluence, where forests of massive nyala trees and bright yellow fever trees thrive on the wide alluvial river floodplains. This wedge of land pulsates with biodiversity and is arguably Kruger’s best birding hotspot. Twitchers arrive to pursue Pel’s fishing owl, racket-tailed roller, grey-headed parrot and African finfoot – amongst other avian jewels.

In 1950, a Zambezi shark was caught at the two rivers’ confluence, having worked its way upstream from the Mozambique coastline. Wrap your mind around that nugget of amazingness!

The Big-5 are certainly present, although if this is your key pursuit, you are best served further south in the Kruger. That said, the concentration of huge elephant bulls and the presence of large herds of buffalo on the banks of the Luvuvhu River in the dry season make walking an exciting experience!

On its journey to meet up with the Limpopo, the powerful Luvuvhu River has carved its way through sandstone to create the breath-taking Lanner Gorge with its towering cliffs and steep-sided valleys – another biodiversity hotspot.

The two rivers meet at Crooks’ Corner, where the triangle’s tip marks the meeting of South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. This unique bottleneck offers a crossing point between these countries for both wildlife and people.

CROOKS’ CORNER

Legendary tales abound about this celebrated region – a hub of wildlife and human activity. During the 1900s Crooks’ Corner was a safe-haven for gun-runners, poachers and other fugitives who would hop over the border when the long arm of the law threatened to catch up with them in either country.

Another nefarious activity that flourished in this wildland was ‘blackbirding’ – recruiting local tribesmen to work under appalling conditions on the South African mines.

The infamous elephant poacher and blackbirder Cecil Barnard was said to have hidden on an island in the middle of the Limpopo River to avoid arrest and confiscation of his ill-gotten ivory. Barnard, nicknamed ‘Bvekenya’, or ‘he who swaggers while he walks’, was the main character in TV Bulpin’s book The Ivory Trail. Notwithstanding the Colonial-era perspective of criminals like Barnard as adventurers and respected characters, he and his kind were as destructive for Africa’s wildlife as modern-day poachers and wildlife traffickers. There were warrants of arrest issued against Barnard from all three countries, and it is believed that Crooks’ Corner was so named primarily because of his presence and activities in the area.

Barnard plundered the area for 19 years and killed more than 300 large-tusked elephants during that time. The Ivory Trail describes how Barnard hung up his rifle in November 1929 after determinedly tracking down the giant elephant known as ‘Dhlulamithi’ (‘taller than the trees’). With the giant elephant is his rifle sites, Barnard decided that “enough was enough” and let Dhlulamithi live.

Today it is perhaps difficult for tourists to fully appreciate the legend that is Crooks Corner, particularly for those reaching this point via the Kruger National Park. Gazing at Zimbabwe and Mozambique on the opposite bank of the wide Limpopo River, you can usually hear cattle and people going about their business. There are no fences and elephants, lions and other dangerous species move between the three countries as a matter of course, so human-wildlife conflict is rife. Poaching is an ongoing problem for conservation authorities. Fireside discussions tell of unscrupulous human traffickers who provide transport to the big South African cities for illegal immigrants that walk across the wide Limpopo riverbed border. So perhaps Crooks’ Corner retains some of its reputation as a safe-haven for unlawful activity.

The lookout at Crooks’ Corner, where two rivers and three countries meet left) and the walled kingdom of Thulamela.

LAND OF TRANSITION

This land has attracted human migrants and occupiers since the Early Stone Age, and the human story continues today. After the Stone Ages (including the San era), the mid-Iron Ages saw the great Bantu migration from the Great Lakes region of East Africa into Southern Africa and the Limpopo Valley in search of grazing for their cattle. The Thulamela period was followed by the ‘Mfecane’ (meaning ‘crushing, scattering, forced dispersal, forced migration’), a period of widespread warfare amongst ethnic communities in southern Africa. It was during this time of upheaval that the forefathers of the Makuleke people arrived in the region.

The Makuleke people lived in scattered villages and practised various forms of subsistence farming and hunting. Crops such as tobacco, millet, sorghum, maize, potatoes, groundnuts, beans, watermelons and pumpkins were grown. Wild harvest included fish, meat, honey, mopane caterpillars, termites and various fruit and berries.

Following a significant Foot and Mouth disease outbreak in the region in 1938-39, the Makuleke were banned from keeping cattle, sheep, or goats. All livestock not secreted into Zimbabwe and Mozambique were killed by the authorities (without compensation).

The land south of the Luvhuvu River was declared as the Shingwedzi Game Reserve in 1903, and in 1933 the Makuleke area was proclaimed as the Pafuri Game Reserve – a provincial reserve under the control of the Kruger National Park. (Read The Kruger History & Future for a better understanding of how the Kruger came about.)

A fence was erected on the north side of the Luvhuvu River in 1961, effectively cutting off the Makuleke people’s access to their natural food sources. However, gaps in the fence permitted access to the river for water.

Then, in 1969, South Africa’s ‘apartheid’ government enforced the removal of the 3,000 followers of Chief Makuleke from the land that the tribe had occupied for more than 150 years. They were moved to Ntlavani – an arid area of equal size outside the Punda Maria gate. Their new homeland was previously part of the Kruger National Park.

This decision was reversed in December 1998 by the post-Apartheid South Africa government, with the first successful land claim. Having won their land back, the Makuleke people agreed to remain in Ntlavani homes and commit their land to conservation objectives. And so was born the Makuleke Contractual Park in the Greater Kruger.

THANKS, SEE YOU AGAIN

“I found the Makuleke area to be vibrant and diverse – a fantastic addition to what Kruger offers further south. The diversity of habitats and species will keep any experienced safari enthusiast buzzing with expectation, and the dramatic human history adds to the romance and nostalgia of this place. The feeling at the camp is one of friendship and family – the staff are clearly proud of their ancestral land and lodge. The game drives through giant fever tree forests, sandy river floodplains and rocky valleys were super-stimulating, and those huge baobab trees that lurk all over the place seemed to beckon to me with whispers of a bygone era. I could have stayed on my private deck all day – with a constant procession of elephant bulls and dagga boys below me harvesting the fallen anna tree seed pods and crunching them like pork crackling. But of course, I didn’t. Next time, for sure.” – Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic

Also read Simon’s account of a special experience at the nearby walled kingdom of Thulamela.

Huge baobab trees dot the Makuleke landscape, elephants parade along the Luvhuvu River and lovers walk in the fever tree forest

YOUR VISIT TO THULAMELA

During his research for this story Simon was hosted by RETURNAfrica at Pafuri Luxury Tented Camp. This exquisite camp stretches along the Luvuvhu River under the shade of huge trees, with each of the 19 privately positioned tented units accessed via a raised wooden walkway.

The other RETURNAfrica camps in the Makuleke Contractual Park:

Baobab Hill Bush House is an exclusive-use homestead perched on a ridge overlooking the Luvhuvu River – for private groups of up to 8 people on a catered or self-catering basis.

Pafuri Walking Safaris is a seasonal bush camp that acts as a base for walking safaris in this iconic landscape.

Check out our preferred camps & lodges for the best prices, browse our famous packages for experience-based safaris and search for our current special offers.

Of ivory, elephants, shipwrecks and slaughter

On Friday the 7^th of March 1533, a Portuguese trading ship called the Bom Jesus set sail for India, loaded with gold and silver coins, ivory, and copper. At some point along its ill-fated journey, the ship foundered, and the notoriously treacherous Namibian coast claimed another victim. The wreckage was found in 2008 near Oranjemund and made international headlines as one of the oldest and most valuable wrecks ever discovered. For biologists and geneticists, the treasure of the discovery lay not in its precious metals but in the history stored in the ivory. Their analysis offers an unparalleled insight into the elephants of 500 years ago, and the effects of the trade that exploited them.

As archaeologists worked their way through the Bom Jesus cargo, they uncovered a collection of over 100 elephant tusks, the most extensive such collection ever discovered. Had the ship not fallen foul of the dangers of the sea, these tusks would have been made into anything from jewellery and combs to decorative and religious items. The tusks ranged in size and length and had been well-preserved courtesy of the chill created by the Benguela current that runs along the Namibian coast. As a result, scientists were able to extract DNA from 44 of the recovered tusks.

DNA analysis showed that the tusks came from forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) rather than savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) and, interestingly, all of these forest elephants came from West Africa. This was somewhat unexpected, as extensive ivory trade routes through Central Africa were well-established by that point in history. The scientists expected to find samples from a variety of locations. Isotopic analysis of carbon and nitrogen also revealed that, rather than living in the tropical forests similar to today’s forest elephants, these forest elephants lived in scrubby woodland savanna.

This discovery alone has practical ramifications for modern conservation efforts: understanding the historic habitat use of forest elephants can help policymakers and conservationists protect the few that remain today.

Of particular interest to the researchers was the mitochondrial DNA recovered from the tusks. The DNA in mitochondria of cells is separate to DNA inherited from both parents during the normal fertilisation process. Instead, mitochondrial DNA is inherited from the maternal line only. Given the female-led herd structure of elephants, this is a useful way of investigating elephants’ genetic codes.

Distressingly, the study results indicate that the tusks analysed came from 17 different herds of forest elephants from West Africa. Today, there are records of just four of these lineages in the surviving West African forest elephant populations. The researchers believe that this reflects the profound impact of the ivory trade on elephant numbers and genetic diversity.

“The other lineages disappeared because West Africa has lost more than 95% of its elephants in subsequent centuries due to hunting and habitat destruction,” said Professor Alfred Roca, one of the authors of the study.

Once scientists studying forest elephants were faced with a limited amount of genetic data; the genetic information gathered from these “lost herds” has added a considerable amount of information to the database. The hope is that this information can be used and supplemented to inform anti-poaching and conservation efforts, particularly in analysing confiscated illegal ivory. Equally importantly, this collaborative effort across different scientific disciplines has resulted in new techniques and methodologies to examine historical and archaeological ivory.

Dr Ashley Coutu, Research Fellow of the Pitt Rivers Museum at the University of Oxford, said, “There is tremendous potential to analyse historic ivory from other shipwrecks, as well as museum collections. These scientific techniques are vital for understanding the histories of elephant populations, people who hunted and traded the ivory, as well as the global history of the ancient ivory trade, which increasingly drew Europe, Africa, and Asia together via the Atlantic Ocean”.

Illustration of sailing ship from the period.

The full study can be accessed here: “Sourcing Elephant Ivory from Sixteenth-Century Portuguese Shipwreck“, de Flamingh, A., et al., (2020), Current Biology

CEO note: Best pics + Africa’s rarest parrot + jumbos from space

CEO NOTE: 15 January 2021

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I had a brief discussion on Facebook with a guy who felt that his ‘2 minutes of research’ (his words) trumps my 30 years of experience in the topic at hand. I don’t often get involved in social media discussions any more, but because he was using factual inaccuracies to challenge an AG post, I engaged with him. It was like talking a cat out of a tree, and a good reminder for me to continue avoiding social media discussion.

Yay, it’s time to celebrate again! Submissions for our 2021 Photographer of the Year have started trickling in, and we have some stunners! Entrants are competing for prestige, US$10,000 cash and a Botswana safari – we expect the pace to pick up as the word gets out. Check out our first story below for a celebration of Africa at her finest.

Our second story is about Africa’s rarest parrot. I wonder how many people even know that Cape parrots cling to existence in the few remaining patches of mistbelt forest in South Africa. Centuries of logging of the old yellowwood trees on which they depend, disease and the caged bird industry are significant threats. And then along came climate change and Asian borer beetles …

And finally, our third story below is exciting – the possibility that we can monitor wildlife populations from space.

Story 1
https://africageographic.com/stories/photographer-year-2021-weekly-selection-week-1/
BEST PHOTOS
Week one of our 2021 Photographer of the Year has produced some stunners.

Story 2
https://africageographic.com/stories/cape-parrot/
AFRICA’S RAREST PARROT
The Cape parrot is found only in small fragmented patches of the remaining mistbelt forests in South Africa

Story 3
https://africageographic.com/stories/spotting-elephants-from-space/
JUMBOS FROM SPACE
Artificial intelligence and satellite images can help conservationists count elephants from space, says new research.

Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic

Photographer of the Year 2021 Weekly Selection: Week 1

Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions!

There are cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.

The competition runs from January to June 2021. Get your entries in now and join us in celebrating Africa!

Proudly brought to you by Hemmersbach Rhino Force and Natural Selection.

Here are the best submissions for this week:

A trio of zebras strike an accidental pose while waiting for the chance to drink. Tsavo West National Park, Kenya ©Tim Nicklin

An uncomfortably hot and agitated white rhino bull interrupts his mud wallow to assert his dominance as a rhino cow and her calf approach. South Africa ©Darren Donovan

A black-winged kite (*Elanus caeruleus*) decapitates a rodent and prepares to swallow it whole. Nairobi National Park, Kenya ©Robin Backhouse

A territorial fight breaks out between rival male ground agamas. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa ©Hesté de Beer

A vigilant female leopard tenderly carries her young cub to the next suitable hiding place. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya ©Derek Howes

A vibrantly coloured brown-headed parrot. Kruger National Park, South Africa ©Joschka Voss

A leopard cleans the face of her cub after feeding on an impala lamb. Kruger National Park, South Africa ©Rian Boshoff

Every ridge and scale of a leopard tortoise is highlighted as it quenches its thirst. Klaserie Private Nature Reserve, South Africa ©Nathan Kinnear

A squirrel snatches the opportunity to scurry past a lazing leopard. Sabi Sands Game Reserve, South Africa ©Michael Raddall

A leopard is dwarfed by the tree it is using as a vantage point to survey its surroundings. Serengeti National Park, Tanzania ©Kaido Haagen

A bright-eyed baby vervet has to learn to adapt to life in a troop. Kruger National Park, South Africa ©Joschka Voss

This ancient desert survivor, a giant *Welwitschia mirabilis* plant, is adapted to soak in the dew on these misty mornings. Messum Crater, Namibia ©Heste de Beer

A female leopard and her cub camouflaged against the beautifully textured rock face of a koppie. Kruger National Park, South Africa ©Gary Mills

A black-headed heron selects a small bird for a meal at Leeuwdril waterhole. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa ©Antionette Morkel

A confusion of wildebeest look on with detached curiosity as a leopard locks its jaws around the throat of one of their own. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya ©Derek Howes

The eye of an elephant bull stands out as he playfully enjoys a refreshing dip. Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa ©Darren Donovan

A dead kokerboom (quiver tree) is lit up by sunlight while in the background a storm approaches, bringing much-needed rain after a long drought in the Richtersveld. Springblokvlakte, South Africa ©Hesté de Beer

A silverback mountain gorilla known as Rugendo glances curiously at a group of tourists as he walks by. Near Rumangabo and Mt. Mikeno, Democratic Republic of the Congo ©Dale Davis

A southern masked weaver hides its face. Dinokeng Game Reserve, South Africa ©Christian Passeri

A bee collects pollen from the inflorescence of a grass stalk. Sabi Sands Game Reserve, South Africa ©Cal Butler

A fly-ridden lioness gently relocates her tiny cub to a safer hiding spot after hearing unfamiliar lion calls nearby. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya ©Ayala Fishaimer

A young elephant calf surrounded by a protective forest of legs and trunks. Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa ©Antionette Morkel

An unusual daytime encounter with a four-toed hedgehog (*Atelerix albiventris*). Ruiru, Kenya ©Robin Backhouse

An imposing desert elephant bull stretches to reach the fruit and leaves of an Ana-tree (*Faidherbia albida*) near the Hoanib River in northern Namibia. ©Hesté de Beer

Mealtime for a pride of lions is always a tumultuous and aggressive affair. Manyeleti Game Reserve, South Africa © Darren Donovan

Cape Parrot

South Africa’s remaining Mistbelt forests make up less than 0.15% of the country’s total land area, and less than 5% of these forests are under formal protection. They are small and fragmented, increasingly divided by the steady and persistent advance of human progress. Small though they may be, these forests are biodiversity hotspots in South Africa, home to some of the country’s most unique and unusual plant and animal life. One such creature is the Cape parrot. It is South Africa’s only endemic parrot species, and there are believed to be fewer than 2,000 left.

Introduction

Like all members of the Psittaciformes (the parrot family), Cape parrots are charismatic little characters; brightly coloured and intelligent. Similar in size to the African grey parrot (but with a larger beak), they measure between 251-349mm in length and weigh between 260-329g. While they are predominantly green in colour, the outer edges of their wings and shoulders are highlighted in vivid orange. They are occasionally mistaken for the more common and widely distributed grey-headed parrot (more on that later) due to the brownish feathers around the head and neck, though this colour can vary from olive-yellow to a golden brown. The juveniles and females have a bright orange patch of their foreheads, which the males typically lose upon reaching adulthood.

The parrot and the yellowwoods

While they occasionally do frequent other habitats, the lives of Cape parrots centre around the Mistbelt forests which are dominated by yellowwood trees and, as a result, the future of these parrots is intricately linked with that of South Africa’s national tree. Yellowwoods are large evergreen trees which may reach over 30m in height and, while lightweight, the wood is hard and durable. These characteristics meant that yellowwoods played a significant role in South Africa’s version of the industrial revolution, with millions of trees historically harvested for railway sleepers, mining, floors, wagons, and furniture. Today yellowwoods are officially protected, but the wood is prized for its quality and colour, making it one of the country’s highest-valued timber trees.

Cape parrots have the most specialized diet of any of their family members and show a distinct preference for yellowwood fruit kernels, though they will also feed on the kernels of other fruiting trees in the forests. They are pre-dispersal seed predators, and their powerful beaks crack open unripe kernels at a stage when their avian and mammal competition would find these unpalatable and inedible.

The fruiting of yellowwoods and other tree species varies and, as a result, Cape parrots are “food nomads”, sometimes flying up to 90km per day to find food. When other fruit resources are scarce, they have been known to feed on exotic species such as the seringa, jacaranda, and the black wattle, and will feed on protea flowerheads at certain times of the year. They have also been observed foraging in coastal forests and opportunistically feed on crop species like pecan nuts, which naturally puts them at risk of conflict with farmers.

The specialist dietary and breeding requirements of the Cape parrots means that their range is restricted to the mosaic of remaining Mistbelt forests in Eastern Cape and KwaZulu Natal, with a small population in the forests of Magoebaskloof in Limpopo. Research has shown that there are three genetically distinct subpopulations: one in the Amatole mountains in the Eastern Cape, another which ranges from Engcobo and Mthatha in the Eastern Cape to the midlands of KwaZulu Natal and the isolated population in Magoebaskloof.

Birds of a feather

Cape parrots have been recorded to live for over 30 years in captivity and breed for the first time between 4 and 5 years old. Though they may gather in large flocks of up to 70 or more individuals around suitable roosting sites on the higher ridges of the forest, Cape parrots are solitary nesters with peak breeding occurring between August and February. The eggs are incubated for between 26-30 days, and both parents play a role in caring for the chicks. Once the young parrots have fledged (between 55-79 days after hatching), the young remain with their parents, and they often move around in family groups before joining large juvenile flocks. Vocal communication between family members and other parrots is almost continuous throughout the day, particularly in flight.

Cementing their reliance on yellowwoods even further, Cape parrots also prefer to nest in yellowwood trees, utilizing cavities or holes made by other bird species and in dead portions of mature trees and often returning to the same nest in subsequent years. Research also indicates that their chicks are fed on a diet consisting almost exclusively of yellowwood kernels.

The Innominate Parrot

Of all the parrot genus divisions, the genus Poicephalus is the most species-rich and widely distributed in Africa. The classification of the Cape parrot (Poicephalus robustus) has historically been the cause of significant contention within the scientific community, and it was only recognized as an individual species on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in 2017 based on a decision by BirdLife International. Before that, the species P. robustus was considered to have two subspecies: the grey-headed parrot (now P. fuscicollis suahelicus), the brown-necked parrot (now P. f. fuscicollis).

The taxonomic revision was based on an examination of differences in habitat usage, body size and morphology and behaviour. Although the revision was not based on genetic data, a genetic study by South African scientists which suggested the two taxa had diverged more than 2 million years ago did prompt BirdLife to take a second look. As in any situation where a species/subspecies division is under consideration, the classification of the Cape parrot as a separate species allows policymakers and conservationists to shape management strategies to protect them better.

Conservation consequences

The change from subspecies to species on the Red List required the allocation of a conservation status, and the Cape Parrot is now considered to be ‘Vulnerable’ based on the fact that while the total population is small, the numbers seem to be relatively stable. However, within South Africa, the 2015 Eskom Red Data Book of Birds allocates the Cape parrot a local classification of ‘Endangered’, with the authors suggesting that in the next two generations, the population will have decreased by at least 20%.

The Cape Parrot Big Birding Day

The Cape Parrot Big Birding Day, an initiative of the Cape Parrot Working Group, began in 1998 and has been held on one day every year in April and May. Every year, volunteers gather at various appropriate sites to count birds and aid researchers in counting parrots, making this one of the longest-running citizen science projects in South Africa. As its popularity grew, more and more observers joined the process, and the first few population estimates increased dramatically from around 500 to over 1000 individuals before stabilizing at approximately 1,600 or so individual parrots. In 2019, the Cape Parrot Big Birding Day yielded the most extensive ever population estimate of 1,804 across the entire range. The 2021 count yielded 1,477 parrots.

The remaining patches of Mistbelt forests in South Africa provide the last refuge for Cape parrots

The threats

Habitat loss and fragmentation are the primary threats to remaining Cape parrot populations, though much of this damage was done before 1940 at the height of the logging of forest hardwoods. However, in some parts of the Cape parrots’ range, logging continues, especially of dead yellowwoods, which are their preferred nesting sites. An increase of non-indigenous trees (mainly pine) has also played a role in threatening Cape parrot populations. The knock-on effect of this logging and the degradation of natural habitats is a shortage of food. As mentioned earlier, fruiting in these forests tends to occur in “patches”. In the past, the forests would probably have been large enough that the parrots would simply move from place to place, but there are now times during the year when they are forced to seek food elsewhere, occasionally in orchards and farms.

While a robust breeding industry supplies the legal trade, Cape parrots are valued in the illegal wildlife trade, as is the case with all parrot species. The extent of this particular threat has yet to be quantified, but there are reports of birds being lured using bird calls and nestlings being harvested to supply the illegal trade.

Another major threat affecting both wild and captive Cape parrots is Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD), caused by a Circovirus which is believed to have originated in Australia. The disease may cause abnormal feather growth and the loss of normal feathers, as well as painful sores around the bill, and in acute cases, there is only a slim chance of recovery. The birds have been observed to be particularly susceptible to the disease during times of drought when food resources are limited, and severe outbreaks have the potential to cause serious harm to the remaining populations.

Emerging threats

As if the Cape parrots did not have enough to contend with, researchers have also identified two major emerging threats to their future stability. The first is climate change, which is likely to impact almost every fauna and flora species on the planet but particularly specialist species with a small population and restricted distribution. The second comes in the form of a threat to Mistbelt forests and, in particular, the tree species utilized by the parrots. The polyphagous shot hole borer (Euwallacea fornicates), native to south-east Asia, infects host trees with a fungus which spreads through the tree’s internal transport system, eventually blocking it and resulting in the death of the tree. The borer has spread rapidly through South Africa, and 43% of the tree species affected by it are feed on by Cape parrots.

A Plan of Action

In September 2019, the country’s foremost experts in Cape parrots and their conservation held a workshop to develop an Action Plan to guide future and ongoing conservation efforts of the Cape parrot, incorporating new research and information and building on previous action plans. Amongst others, representatives from the World Parrot Trust, the Cape Parrot Working Group, BirdLife and the Endangered Wildlife Trust were in attendance to share their expertise and experience. The report from the workshop details extensive assessments of the threats facing the parrots both now and in the future, and details what actions will be taken and how responsibility will be delegated.

The Action Plan links the conservation of the Cape parrots to the protection of their vital habitat. It includes everything from continued research, the development of a vaccine against PBFD, the early detection of borer beetles, the management of captive populations, the assessment of logging quotas, as well as the extensive rehabilitation of critical forests.

Conclusion

The vision statement of the aforementioned Action Plan is described as working collectively towards a “thriving population of Cape Parrots acting as a flagship for the protection and recovery of indigenous forests in South Africa, for the shared benefit of people and nature”.

These enigmatic and characterful birds, as South Africa’s only endemic parrot species, are undoubtedly deserving of protection in their own right. However, in reality, the knock-on benefits of protecting the Cape parrot are also of paramount importance, not least of which is the preservation of the country’s few remaining Mistbelt forests and the many species that rely upon them in turn.

Also read:

Counting the Cape Parrot

Finding Africa’s rarest parrots – Cape parrots in Magoebaskloof

Rehabilitated Cape parrot thriving

Spotting elephants from space

An accurate estimate of a species population is an essential starting point for conservation efforts and shapes everything from on-the-ground activities to policy decisions and legal protection measures. Nevertheless, attaining and updating these population estimates can be complicated, and scientists are always working on new ways to improve the process. Researchers from the University of Oxford Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (WildCRU) and Machine Learning Research Group have found a new way to use technology to count elephants – using satellites to spot elephants from space.

Monitoring elephant numbers in Africa is vital, especially since their numbers have been decimated over the past century due to poaching, habitat fragmentation and uncontrolled trophy hunting of large-tusked individuals. Researchers use several different techniques to count elephants depending on the size and logistical realities of an area, including dung and track counts, camera trap grids and aerial surveys. However, all of the current methods are usually time-consuming, labour-intensive, and prohibitively expensive, where large scale aerial surveys are concerned. All of the traditional techniques are also subject to considerable human bias and, potentially, fatigue.

Satellite remote sensing is one of the newest approaches to emerge as a viable monitoring technique in detecting wildlife and has been used in previous research to detect animals in homogenous landscapes and seascapes. It offers several advantages, including the capacity to cover a large area in a short space of time, allowing for regular reassessments. This also reduces the risk of double-counting animals that may move during a count. Furthermore, it removes the risk of human disturbance of the animal entirely.

Both practically and politically, satellite remote sensing can also render previously inaccessible areas accessible and avoids the complex and time-consuming process of applying for permits. It is, however, influenced by the size of the animal and the type of habitat.

The satellites generate enormous quantities of imagery that require processing. If this were to be done manually, it would take researchers months to work through the data and pick out individual elephants. However, through automating the detection process, the process can be completed in a matter of hours.

Biologists have been using machine learning to detect wildlife in several different images, including camera trap images, aerial survey images and unmanned aerial vehicle images. However, before this study, only three species had been detected by satellite using deep learning (an artificial intelligence function that mimics the human brain): albatross, whales, and pack-ice seals.

The study was conducted in Addo Elephant National Park in South Africa and to test the technology, the research team used a training image dataset of 1125 elephants. These images were sourced from the highest resolution satellite imagery currently available – Worldview 3 from Maxar Technologies – and fed into a Convolutional Neural Network (a type of deep learning algorithm). The results were compared to human analysis and confirmed that elephants could be detected in satellite imagery with an accuracy equal to human detection capabilities.

While previous studies have primarily focussed on marine species due to their inaccessibility, the results of this research indicate that it is possible to teach a machine to automatically detect elephants in satellite imagery, in both homogenous and complex heterogeneous habitats. The authors of the study believe that these conservation technologies will open a new world of possibilities. This power, say the scientists, should be embraced as a matter of urgency as we barrel through the sixth mass extinction event in our planet’s history.

The technology was able to distinguish elephants in both woodland and open habitats

The full report can be accessed here: “Using very-high-resolution satellite imagery and deep learning to detect and count African elephants in heterogeneous landscapes”, Duporge, I., et al., (2020), Remote Sensing in Ecology and Conservation

CEO note: A story about perspective

CEO NOTE: 8 January 2021

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Let me tell you a story. One of personal perspective and priorities. Two years ago my wife and I moved from Cape Town to the bushveld town of Hoedspruit. Our home is within a large residential wildlife estate bordering Kruger National Park – where dangerous wildlife species such as lion and elephant are EXCLUDED by a fence. There are leopards and hyena aplenty moving around the estate at night (fences mean nothing to them), and we keep our dogs indoors after dark. We fenced off the immediate area behind our house, to keep our dogs in and the warthogs out. It’s wonderful to share our lives with giraffe, zebra, waterbuck and many other species. And kudu. I thought it would be great to have these handsome antelope in the garden now and then. I was wrong.

You see during the peak of the dry bushveld months the grass and leaves have all but disappeared, and the desperate animals will eat just about anything. Kudus would hop easily over our fence and feast on our newly-planted indigenous trees and shrubs. In fact, they would annihilate our planted garden – nibbling huge aloes down to a withered stalk and even breaking a 4-meter sausage tree in half to get at the leaves (which they discarded).

Obviously, we would not knowingly harm any wildlife, but we also wanted a shady garden for our own enjoyment. Something had to be done. And so we increased the height of the fence by adding more wire strands (no electrification). It worked, and the kudus now cannot get to our precious plants, which are flourishing after excellent early summer rains.

I now have a different PERSPECTIVE of kudus from when I lived in Cape Town (which has no kudus).

Now imagine if I did not have the resources to keep wild animals out of my home. Imagine if the intruders were elephants or lions destroying my subsistence farming livelihood and threatening my family’s lives. That’s perspective for you …

Our first story below angers and saddens me – the state-sponsored rape of Namibia’s woodlands. How does the one-off annihilation of entire blocks of hardwood trees contribute to the country’s sustainable future? Note that the beneficiaries seem to be SHADY foreigners and local power brokers.

Then we celebrate Madikwe – a huge conservation success story where indigenous landowners invested in the future and are reaping the REWARDS. Good news indeed.

And finally, a DWARF GIRAFFE ?!?

Story 1
https://africageographic.com/stories/they-are-finishing-the-trees-chinese-companies-and-namibian-elites-make-millions-illegally-logging-rosewoods/
PLUNDER
Illegal logging is decimating Namibia’s remaining rosewood trees, earning millions for Chinese companies and political elites

Story 2
https://africageographic.com/stories/madikwe-game-reserve/
SAFARI SUCCESS STORY
Madikwe Game Reserve is a malaria-free safari haven and conservation success story that benefits people, wildlife and the ecosystem

Story 3
https://africageographic.com/stories/dwarf-giraffe-seen-in-namibia-and-uganda/
DWARF GIRAFFE!
Yes indeed, researchers have recently published a paper describing two dwarf giraffe in separate populations in Namibia and Uganda.

Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic

Madikwe Game Reserve

Just over three decades ago, a tract of land stretched across the corner of the North-West province of South Africa – a brown, dusty mosaic of degraded cattle farms, devoid of almost all life. The transformation of this landscape to today’s thriving Madikwe Game Reserve, though not without its challenges, is one of South Africa’s conservation success stories.

The story of Madikwe Game Reserve runs counter to that of most protected wild spaces, in that its beauty and biodiversity potential were realised only after the fact. The decision to proclaim the reserve was made for socioeconomic reasons – a conscious conclusion that ecotourism would bring more value to the community than farming. And so conservationists faced a vastly different task. Rather than protecting what was already there, they had to restore what once was.

The result is a thriving conservation model that has benefited not only wildlife but also local communities, while providing one of the premier safari destinations in South Africa.

The Reserve

Madikwe Game Reserve lies just south of South Africa’s border with Botswana, only 40km from Gaborone, and extends across 750km2 (75,000 hectares), including recently incorporated private land, making it the fifth-largest game reserve in South Africa. The reserve occupies a transition zone between Kalahari thornveld and savanna bushveld and is topographically varied and fascinating. Volcanic inselbergs break the region’s woodlands and plains. At the same time, the Groot Marico River (also known as the Madikwe River) provides riverine habitat along the eastern portion of the reserve, and the Dwarsberg Mountains dominate the southern skyline.

By the latter part of the 20th century, it became clear that poor farming practices combined with an arid climate and degraded soils had made the area almost entirely unsuitable for either crop or livestock farming. Faced with decisions about what to do with the land, the Settlement Planning Services of the Government of South Africa commissioned and conducted a comprehensive study of the most efficient land use and how it could benefit the area’s communities. They concluded that wildlife-based ecotourism would be the most economically sound use of the land.

In many ways, this practical and financial conclusion came to underlie the fundamental tenet that has made the Madikwe model so unique (and successful): people first.

Painted wolves (African wild dogs) keep visitors returning to Madikwe year after year.

The people-first approach

There is no doubt that the colonial “snatch-and-grab” approach has played a significant role in the history of many protected areas throughout Africa, and, as a result, the needs and opinions of local communities surrounding them have been sorely neglected or ignored. In many cases, wildlife reserves and national parks have prospered without their immediate neighbours benefiting. As a general rule, the mere presence of these people near or among wild animals has been viewed as working against the overall goals of conservation, to the extent that keeping local people and wildlife separated was seen as essential to ensuring the survival of biodiversity. A gradual shift in mindset has led to growing awareness that the fortunes of protected areas and their human populations are irrevocably linked. In the case of Madikwe, somewhat unusually, this value system was inculcated from the start.

Upon its inception, Madikwe Game Reserve was described as a partnership between three main stakeholders: North West Parks and Tourism Board (initially the Bophuthatswana Parks Board), the private sector, and local communities. The underlying strategy is that local communities should benefit through employment, business opportunities, and a share of the game reserve’s profits, which should be directed toward community development projects.

Operation Phoenix

While the foundations of Madikwe were built on a people-first approach, the success of tourism-based land use depended on transforming barren farmland into a game reserve. This process began with the gradual restoration of soil and plant life, but also required the reintroduction of almost every large mammal species currently seen in the reserve. The translocation of wildlife to the reserve began in 1991 in an undertaking known colloquially as ‘Operation Phoenix’. Over the next seven years, nearly 10,000 animals, ranging from antelope to predators and rhinos to elephants, were relocated to Madikwe in what was, at the time, the largest wildlife relocation project of its kind.

Risen from the dust

The success of Operation Phoenix is seen in Madikwe’s thriving wildlife population: the reserve now supports the second-largest elephant population in the country. The magic of Madikwe lies in its diverse ecosystems and its prime position between the Kalahari and Lowveld habitats. For visitors to the reserve, the safari is about more than merely seeing the Big 5 – painted wolves (African wild dogs), cheetahs, brown hyenas and sable and tsessebe antelopes are all significant drawcards that keep visitors returning year after year. Despite a series of natural challenges, including a rabies outbreak, Madikwe’s painted wolf population has thrived since their introduction in 1994, and the region is renowned for spoiling excited tourists with spectacular sightings of these energetic and endangered predators.

The inevitable consequence of the elephant population’s growth is the question of what to do next. While historically the region may well have been home to just as many elephants, they would have been free to move and migrate with the seasons, rainfall, and available vegetation. For many years, the state, management teams, and conservationists have been working to create a corridor system that would follow ancient migratory routes between Madikwe and Pilanesberg National Park – a distance of just 75km in a straight line. If this goal is ever realised, it would create an enormous, connected wilderness area of 3,000km2 (300,000 hectares) and form part of the proposed Segarona Heritage Experience.

The experience

Want to plan your Madikwe safari? Scroll down to the end of this story to research and get in touch with our travel team to start the discussion.

The creation of this corridor is likely to take many years, and for now, Madikwe remains a wilderness oasis offering some of the best safari experiences in the country. Unlike South Africa’s national parks, day visitors are not allowed into Madikwe, making the entire experience genuinely exclusive. From the back of a vehicle to the back of a horse, this exclusivity translates to a far more personal safari experience. There is a range of camps and lodges to choose from, from high-end luxury to family- or budget-friendly options, and, importantly, community-owned and run lodges that see profits go directly to community members.

Unlike many of the South African Big 5 safari options, Madikwe is malaria-free, making it a suitable alternative for families travelling with young children. It is also easily accessible from Johannesburg. The game viewing is at its best during the winter months – the dry season – as the animal life congregates around the available water (often at lodges). For birders looking to spot a few of Madikwe’s 350 recorded species, the reverse is accurate, and the summer months offer the best birding and exquisite verdant scenery to accompany the experience. It is worth remembering that the reserve lies on the fringes of the Kalahari, and winter nights can be somewhat chilly.

Dwarf giraffe seen in Namibia and Uganda

By Giraffe Conservation Foundation

Researchers from the Giraffe Conservation Foundation (GCF) have recently published a paper in BMC Research Notes describing two dwarf giraffe in separate populations in Namibia and Uganda. This study represents the first known accounts of dwarf giraffe in the scientific literature. These giraffe were documented in Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda, and on a private farm in central Namibia during photographic surveys routinely conducted by GCF to determine numbers, population dynamics, and giraffe distribution throughout Africa. Using digital photogrammetry techniques, the researchers measured limb dimensions of the two dwarf giraffe and compared them to other giraffe in the populations, finding that these dwarf giraffe had shorter legs; more specifically, they had shorter radius and metacarpal bones compared to other giraffe of similar age. Click here to see a video of the dwarf giraffe in Murchison Falls, filmed by Dr Michael Brown.

“Instances of wild animals with these types of skeletal dysplasias are extraordinarily rare”, said lead author Dr Michael Brown. “It’s another interesting wrinkle in the unique story of giraffe in these diverse ecosystems.”

Gimli the dwarf giraffe in Uganda photographed in 2017

The study notes that Uganda’s giraffe population experienced a significant bottleneck in the late 1980s due to civil unrest and associated bushmeat poaching. However, it is unlikely (and unclear) if this particular giraffe – named ‘Gimli’ by the researchers in honour of Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings character – is related to a decrease in genetic diversity. It is unknown what effect, if any, these conditions might have on giraffe survival or reproduction, but fortunately the population is rebounding. In Namibia, ‘Nigel’ the dwarf giraffe, was born in 2014 and his unique body shape was first observed when he was about four years old; an age when male giraffe are close to maturity and fully gown. The GCF researchers will continue to monitor these two male giraffe to see if any observable variances in their behaviour and social status occur.

“While the Namibian farmer had spotted Nigel regularly over the years, it was only after our observations that he realised that Nigel was not a juvenile but a fully grown male giraffe”, said Emma Wells. “It is mainly in comparison to other giraffe that his difference in stature becomes obvious.”

Across Africa, giraffe have experienced significant population declines over the past 30 years, leading to a silent extinction crisis. Population monitoring efforts like those conducted by GCF and its partners in Namibia, Uganda and elsewhere are providing critical information to inform conservation efforts and ensure a future for wild giraffe throughout Africa. GCF estimates that only about 111,000 giraffe are remaining in the wild in all of Africa today. Read more about giraffes here: Giraffes – The Silent Extinction

Dwarf giraffe photographed in Namibia in 2018

“Giraffe are undergoing a silent extinction in Africa. The fact that this is the first description of dwarf giraffe is just another example of how little we know about these charismatic animals”, said Dr Julian Fennessy, Director and Co-Founder of GCF. “It is only recently that our research has shown that there are four distinct species of giraffe. There is just so much more to learn about giraffe in Africa, and we need to stand tall now to save them before it is too late.”

About the Giraffe Conservation Foundation

The Giraffe Conservation Foundation (GCF) is the only organisation in the world that concentrates solely on the conservation and management of giraffe in the wild throughout Africa. GCF currently implements and supports giraffe conservation efforts in 16 African countries. As an international science-based conservation organisation, GCF that provides innovative approaches to saving giraffe. GCF is dedicated to a sustainable future for all giraffe populations in the wild. For more information, visit our website: https://giraffeconservation.org/

The full report can be accessed here: “Skeletal dysplasia-like syndromes in wild giraffe“, Brown, M. B., Wells, E., (2020), BMC Research Notes

Lateral photographs of giraffe. A) A typical subadult male giraffe in Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda B) A subadult male exhibiting skeletal dysplasia-like syndrome in Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda. C) A subadult male exhibiting skeletal dysplasia like syndrome on a private farm in Namibia. (Figure from Brown & Wells, 2020.)

CEO note: Boycott Africa + elephants vs villagers

CEO NOTE: 1 January 2021

This is a copy of our weekly email newsletter. Subscribe here to receive the newsletter.

It’s DAY ONE of the rest of your life. 2020 was a shocker, and 2021 will get worse before it gets better – certainly here in Africa – so let’s pause to reboot our expectations and come up with a personal winning strategy for the year. My winning strategy to counter the Covid blues is to celebrate Africa every day of my life.

Today also heralds the first day of entries for our 2021 Photographer of the Year – Africa Geographic’s greatest annual celebration! This year we decided to shake the tree and offer a substantial CASH PRIZE in addition to a safari for the winning trio of photographers and their partners. After a record number of entries last year, our thinking for 2021 is that we all need extra incentive to refocus on the joy of life. Expect 6 months of eye-watering epicness as we share our weekly selection of the best entries, before selecting the winners in June.

Again, our judging will be based on whether the image evokes an emotion, tells a story and reflects the true diversity and amazingness of Africa. Of course, there are technical issues to consider, and these are important. But most important for us is that the photograph breaks through the clutter of everyday life and makes you FEEL Africa’s pulse. Check out this video for details.

Our three stories below reflect the variety that Africa brings to us all. Elephants are congregating in areas that they deem to be safe from the evil ones, which in turn creates real issues for humans living in those areas. This is a CONUNDRUM that requires astute management – of elephants and humans. We then delve into the fascinating world of how the NIGHT SKY has affected human thinking for millennia. And our last story below is from one of our tribe, who expresses her frustration that some activists call for BOYCOTTS of certain African tourism industries based on the wildlife policies adopted by those countries. What are your thoughts about this?

Story 1
https://africageographic.com/stories/key-questions-for-human-elephant-conflict-research/
THE PRICE OF SUCCESS
Managing elephants amongst rural villages is challenging where elephant populations are increasing due to successful conservation practices

Story 2
https://africageographic.com/stories/stories-in-the-night-sky/
STARRY STARRY NIGHT
For centuries, African myths and legends have been recorded in the positions of the celestial bodies in the night sky. Starry starry night …

Story 3
https://africageographic.com/stories/boycott-africa-good-intentions-with-unfortunate-consequences/
BOYCOTT AFRICA!
One of our tribe asks if a boycott of African countries based on their wildlife policies is bad for conservation. What do you think?

Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic

Boycott Africa – good intentions with unfortunate consequences?

Written by Kate Hughes (see brief bio below)

Recently, an article by Africa Geographic arrived in my inbox on why Hwange National Park should be on everyone’s list of places to visit. Having worked in the park for the better part of ten years, I was naturally drawn to it and, as always, drifted to the comments below. To my dismay, one of the first responses to the story stated that she would boycott travel to Zimbabwe on principle, however much she would love to go there. Her comment was made in protest against the country’s policies on wildlife sales to other countries.

I have seen many similar comments in the past and my response to it is always the same – do your homework.

There are many misguided opinions on how those living outside of countries such as Zimbabwe can help wildlife in these areas. However, few people truly consider the reality of how their actions (or inactions) can affect conservation in these countries. We are all familiar with the aphorism “the road to hell is paved with good intentions”, and it rings particularly true in this instance. The protection and conservation of wildlife and wild areas is a community effort: many businesses, people and operations are involved in maintaining these protected areas, even where the connection might not be immediately apparent to the casual observer.

Many lodges in wildlife areas have established their own conservation programmes or throw their weight behind supporting existing ones, often donating a portion of their earnings to support local projects. These lodges rely on tourists to generate income, and without this income, they cannot support these valuable initiatives. Not only do these lodges employ numerous people from local communities, but the materials and services necessary to keep a lodge running are sourced from a large number of local businesses.

Without the employment and revenue generated by the hospitality and tourism industry, countless people would be unable to support their families in an already impoverished country, worsening their suffering. The inevitable outcome is that some will turn to illegal activities to survive, and poaching will increase. At the same time, the conservation initiatives that supply water to the wildlife, conduct research or run community development programmes will find themselves severely underfunded.

Yet in all this, the government has little concern for the views of armchair activists on the other side of the world. Few countries do.

Rather than making sweeping declarations and passive protests, perhaps one’s time might be better spent researching how you could actively help conservation. Donations to conservation programmes and community upliftment projects are always welcomed, as are contributions of equipment and supplies.

At the very least, generating awareness in your own community and friendship circles about these projects and how best to support them would go a lot further towards actually making a difference.

Kate Hughes has worked in Hwange National Park for Wilderness Safaris and The Hide where she was also involved in their in-house conservation projects. She continues to support Friends of Hwange and Conservation & Wildlife Fund in their efforts to keep Hwange safe.

Editorial note:

It has become commonplace to see comments from people, particularly on social media, threatening to boycott travel to certain countries based on their disagreement with that country’s conservation and wildlife policies. They often encourage others to do the same. Our concern is that these sweeping statements, while generally well-intentioned and based on admirable principles, are made without thorough consideration of their impact. In choosing to boycott a country and encouraging others to do the same, you will certainly do more harm than good.

We would respectfully suggest that this underlying passion and energy might be more effectively applied to directly benefit conservation. As Kate has written, there are numerous underfunded projects throughout Africa involved in everything from removing snares to supporting and empowering surrounding communities. Aside from donations, there are multiple other ways to help. You could, for example, lend your skills to conservation projects – from fund-raising to legal/financial advice, marketing and website/technology/social media assistance. And yes, tourism revenue plays an enormous part in keeping Africa’s remaining wild spaces safe, so travelling to these areas is an excellent way to help.

The sentiments behind calls to boycott are almost always laudable. Unfortunately, it is worth bearing in mind that these statements will have little impact on the governments of the country concerned. Instead, the wildlife and the people on the ground – who may well share the same feelings directed at their policy-makers – are the ones who will pay the bitter price.

Stories in the night sky

By Ben Coley

Since the dawn of mankind, the human race has recorded its stories, myths, and legends in the tapestry of their starlit night sky. Regardless of geographical location and culture, the celestial realm has long been the ultimate storyboard upon which humanity has logged its thoughts, beliefs, and experiences. Their observations not only were not purely aesthetic in nature, however, and it did not take the early settlers long to begin to understand the world by watching the passage of the stars night after night.

People quickly began to notice the cyclical nature of the heavens, and with that came the concept of time. Of course, modern-day timekeeping was a long way off. Still, by recognising the positions of various celestial phenomena, it soon became apparent that recurring weather conditions and temperatures could be predicted with a reasonable amount of accuracy. This knowledge could then be used to anticipate vital information on animal movements based on rainfall, as well as fruiting times of the local flora. By the age of the pastoralists, this knowledge would prove invaluable for farming activities.

These early observations paved the way to modern society, and it is fascinating to realise just how much of today’s world is linked to our ancestors’ observations of the darkness. Did you know that the days of the week are all named after planets, or that our 12-month calendar is based on the phases of the Moon?? Perhaps this is why so many people are drawn to the stars and why just staring heavenwards at night is such a therapeutic and powerfully emotive experience.

Let us now delve back into history and investigate some of these stories.

The Milky Way

The ethereal, spiral arms of our galaxy can be seen arcing across the sky, particularly during the winter months when it passes almost directly overhead. Even from suburban areas, the glow of countless stars is evident, but imagine what the sky must have looked like before the advent of electricity and industry and the pollution that they now cause!

The early Bushman told that this celestial beacon was created when a young girl threw the ashes of her campfire high into the sky to guide her father home from his hunting trip. To some tribes, the diffuse white streak of the Milky Way represented the bellies of a vast herd of celestial springbok, while to others it traced a prodigious footpath upon which the spirits of our ancestors still tread. In Zulu culture, the opalescent band was created by the hooves of the gods’ great herd of cattle as they marched to and from their feeding grounds, slowly wearing through the boundary between the perpetually lit celestial realm and the Earth below.

The Moon

According to the Bushmen, the Moon is the sandal of a trickster god named !Kaggen that had been frozen in a local waterhole before being tossed into the sky to light up the night. However, the Sun was extremely unhappy about sharing the sky with another luminous object and, to this day, chases it through the night, cutting strips from the Moon until it is almost extinguished. At the last moment, the Moon begs for forgiveness and Sun relents its attack, allowing the Moon to recover until it becomes full again. At this point, the Sun recommences its onslaught once more.

Due to the repetitive phases of the Moon and its seemingly regular regeneration, much African folklore found it synonymous with reincarnation and recovery. This belief was honoured by the Bushmen during their hunting trips, trusting that if one looked at the Moon after shooting their quarry with a poison arrow, it would allow the prey to recover and escape.

As it takes approximately 29 days for the Moon to go through a full cycle and return to the same phase, these phases have also been used for millennia to mark the passage of time. The ‘Ishango Bone’, found in the former Belgian Congo, is a baboon fibula decorated with various etchings that indicate its use as an ancient lunar calendar. Scientists estimate that it is over 35,000 years old!

The Southern Cross

The Southern Cross, or Crux, is the smallest of the recognised 88 constellations but is probably the most famous in the southern sky. Not only does it point towards the south, an invaluable navigation tool, but there are also many recognised animal associations.

The most common interpretation in southern Africa is that the four brightest stars of Crux are a herd, or ‘journey’, of female giraffe and the two Pointer Stars (Alpha and Beta Centauri) represent a pair of giraffe bulls in hot pursuit. Another version of the story sees the cross as symbolising the head of a giant giraffe (due to the diamond shape), with the Pointers as its neck. Some Bushmen tribes believed that the stars of the cross are a pride of lionesses, along with their young cub (Epsilon Crucis) and the Pointers embodying their two pride males following close behind as they prowl towards the horizon.

Orion

Orion as a constellation does not have any specific African mythology associated with it, but aspects of the constellation are well documented. Many cultures have seen the famous Belt of Orion as various animals, including both tortoises and warthogs. One legend identifies them as three zebras. Mintaka, the first belt-star to rise was seen as the stallion, with Alnilam and Alnitak, his two mares following behind.

One version of Bushman starlore tells the story of the great god of East who set out hunting and climbed up to the Large Magellanic Cloud where he aimed his bow at the three zebras of Orion’s belt. According to beliefs at the time, zebras were restricted to the heavens and were not found in Earth. However, the god missed, his arrow falling short (symbolised by Orion’s ‘sword’ and the Great Orion Nebula). The arrow could not be retrieved due to the presence of a great lion represented by the giant red star, Betelgeuse. To honour the zebras’ escape, the god of the East sent them to Earth to live out their lives in peace.

The Magellanic Clouds

When looking directly south on a clear night, two imperfections stand out against the clarity of the darkness. The Large and Small Magellanic Clouds are sister galaxies of the Milky Way, locked in a gravitational war with us, and each other. They are named after the great Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan who documented the ever-present clouds during his circumnavigation of the globe in the early 1500s.

However, these two smudges in the sky have been known since ancient times, and early settlers considered them to be indicators of summer and wet weather when visible at night. The Large Magellanic Cloud was often portrayed as the shield of ‘Naka’, the Horn Star (Canopus, the second brightest star in the sky), as it slowly emerged from the eastern horizon, dragging in the start of the new year.

The bushmen saw the clouds as a pair of celestial steenboks, perhaps due to their diffuse nature rendering them hard to see under less than perfect conditions, in the same way that the diminutive steenbok prefers to remain hidden. Others saw the testicles of a great lion! As strange as this may sound, one must remember that the bushmen had massive respect for the apex predator with whom they shared the land, and there are multiple of accounts of celestial lions in their history.

Conclusion

These examples are just a tiny percentage of ancient beliefs and stories associated with the heavens. Sadly, many records having been lost through the years, and much of history has been bastardised by centuries of oral tradition. Regardless of the specifics, it is plain to see that since mankind’s earliest origins, we have looked to the stars for guidance and a way to record our history.

This history is emblazoned in our genetics, and it is no surprise that we still gaze in awe at the glistening, inky expanse above, night after night after night. Space may or may not be infinite, but it contains the hopes and dreams of every man, woman and child that has ever trodden the Earth and will continue to be the ultimate blackboard upon which to etch our memories.

About the author: Ben Coley is a 15-year veteran of the guiding industry in South Africa and has always harboured a great fascination with the stars, the wonders of the cosmos and their influences on the natural world. This has culminated in his authoring a brand-new Astronomy qualification for field guides, as well founding his Astro-Tourism company, Celestial Events SA. Ben specialises in ‘Night Sky Safaris’ for the tourism industry, that offer a unique insight into the cultural history of the heavens, as well as out of this world views of distant worlds and other celestial phenomena.

For more information have a look at his website, www.celestialeventssa.com or follow him on social media on Facebook and Instagram.

Key Questions for Human-Elephant Conflict Research

By Gail Thomson, originally published in Conservation Namibia

I am indebted to three elephant experts for their input into this article.

Human-elephant conflict: Managing elephants in a landscape that includes rural human communities is a major challenge in countries where elephant populations are increasing as a result of successful conservation measures. Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe, in particular, must find ways to help their citizens living in rural areas to coexist with these great grey beasts that can be enchanting or terrifying, depending on your point of view.

In a previous article on the topic of elephants, hunting and coexistence with human communities, I pointed out that research findings on elephants must be balanced with the perspectives and needs of rural communities to make reasonable policies. Although the problems associated with human-elephant conflict were considered, we did not focus on addressing the conflict itself. In this article, we go a bit deeper into the role that research can play in managing human-elephant conflict. Namibia would benefit greatly from targeted research in this area that answers key questions for wildlife managers. If you are a student or researcher thinking about topics that can have real-world conservation outcomes, listen up.

First, let’s establish the difference between hunting elephants in order to reduce conflict with local communities and hunting to generate revenue and meat (the latter is called conservation hunting in Namibia, and trophy or sport hunting elsewhere). The conservation hunting concept is based on the principle that people living with elephants and other wildlife should benefit materially from their presence. Generating revenue and meat from elephants increases tolerance for the species and thus indirectly promotes human-elephant coexistence. Conservancies in Namibia use the income from conservation hunting to employ over 600 community game guards that assist with reporting conflict incidents and wildlife monitoring. At the national and conservancy level, conservation hunting income also contributes to the Human-Wildlife Conflict Self-Reliance Scheme, thus playing an important general role in addressing conflict. Conservation hunting is not, however, the primary topic discussed here.

The main issue I want to address is how hunting directly affects human-elephant relations in the areas where it occurs. Elephant hunting includes what is known in Namibia as problem animal control hunts, whereby specific individuals that frequently cause damages are killed. In terms of elephant behaviour, population numbers and demographics, all forms of hunting are likely to affect human-elephant interactions in some way. Figuring out what that effect might be and how hunting can be managed to improve human-elephant relations in the long term is a promising area of research. It is my hope that some of the questions below may spark the interest of Namibian researchers to delve deeper into these issues.

Human-elephant coexistence may be an unrealistic goal in areas where farm infrastructure was built when no elephants were present and the farmers living there see no direct or indirect benefits from elephant presence. Where coexistence is not possible in the short- or medium-term, options other than the ones presented here may have to be explored – like translocation or, as a last resort, culling. The research questions presented here are specifically for areas where elephant presence generates enough benefits such that reducing the costs associated with them can lead to human-elephant coexistence.

1) What effect does hunting have on long-term elephant damage?

Problem animal hunts, particularly, are meant to reduce human-elephant conflict. Research from Kenya reveals that male elephants cause more conflict (either in groups or as singletons) than females, and that some males can be classed as habitual crop raiders, while others only raid occasionally. Furthermore, habitual raiders may teach younger males their same bad habits. Removing habitual raiders from the population therefore appears to be a sound course of action for reducing conflict, at least in the short term.

With a long-term view, however, removing habitual raiders may just make space for other males to fill their shoes, thus not addressing the problem. Additionally, identifying habitual raiders is difficult, as many incidents happen at night and tracking a conflict-causing animal requires an extremely swift response to reports of damage that is not always possible. The question remains: if all else is equal (i.e. elephant and human density, habitat and agricultural practices), how does removing individual problem-causing elephants affect the long-term trend in human-elephant conflict? Conflict incidents and problem animal hunts are recorded in Event Books and through the hunting permit system, so this information can be used as a starting point for research in Namibia.

2) How does hunting influence elephant behaviour around people?

We already know that the total absence of older males leads to younger males becoming unusually aggressive to humans and other species. It is also possible that elephants that witness a hunt could become aggressive due to increased stress levels, but solid evidence for this is lacking. On the other side of the coin, there is increasing research on using a landscape of fear to reduce conflict with humans by using the animals’ instinctive desire to avoid risk.

An animal’s landscape of fear is based on their life experience and lessons from their parents (or others in their social groups) that tell them which parts of their environment or times of day are more or less risky. This is very similar to the way we decide how to move around our cities based on crime levels that we have experienced or heard about through our social circles. Theoretically, at least, one could manipulate the elephants’ landscape of fear to reduce the number of individuals willing to approach a village or enter a crop field (risky spaces), while encouraging their use of wildlife corridors and protected areas as safe spaces in the landscape.

The research challenge is to figure out how hunting contributes to either exacerbating the problem through increased elephant aggression or reducing the problem by creating a landscape of fear. Detailed records of all elephant hunts (for any purpose), followed by behavioural studies of affected elephant groups and supported by Event Book data would help us to understand the link between hunting and elephant behaviour. This understanding can be used in turn to create hunting guidelines that will limit human-elephant conflict.

3) Can non-lethal methods ultimately replace problem animal control?

The two questions above reveal that there are some uncertainties regarding how hunting can be used to reduce human-elephant conflict in the long term. When these questions are answered, lethal control must be considered alongside the non-lethal options for reducing conflict. Protecting crops and water installations at conflict hotspots should reduce the need for lethal control over time. Non-lethal elephant deterrents (e.g. burning chilli bombs or applying chilli oil to fences) could be used alongside occasional hunts to maintain and reinforce the landscape of fear around villages and crops.

One of the key drawbacks of implementing long-term non-lethal control methods is the cost. Some options can be installed using external funds, while others come at a cost to individual farmers (e.g. paying for diesel to pump water that elephants drink). In some cases, an external party makes the initial investment, but on-going maintenance is left to the farmer. By contrast, the meat of a hunted elephant is distributed among the affected people and the hunting fee may be used to offset losses incurred. Lethal control may therefore be a more attractive option for those who suffer the direct consequences of elephant damage and are expected to implement non-lethal methods (at least partially) at their own cost.

The effectiveness of non-lethal methods should be subjected to the same level of scrutiny as lethal methods, particularly to determine its long-term effectiveness, cost and practicality in the field. A method that relies solely on investment of the farmer’s time and money is unlikely to win more support than bringing in a hunter to deal with a problem animal. For any given non-lethal control method introduced into a community, we need to know how well it worked over what period of time and whether or not the farmers feel that they could integrate the method into their day-to-day lives.

Understanding the researcher’s role

Experts in human-wildlife conflict know that this particular field of science is even more influenced by human factors (e.g. relationships) than other areas of science. Coexistence with elephants is like a giant puzzle that involves turning over many important pieces through research and experience. The pieces we focused on here include the direct links between hunting and human-elephant conflict, yet the indirect links can be just as important. These include political willpower, historical context, local culture and benefits derived from elephants. While research can provide some important puzzle pieces, it takes people from a diverse array of stakeholders to solve the puzzle itself.

Solving the puzzle of human-wildlife conflict requires trust, communication and a willingness to listen and learn. If research results are used to try and force people to adopt certain ideas or methods (even if they work), they are almost guaranteed to fail. Alternatively, research can be part of a collaborative learning process whereby everyone is involved in identifying the right questions, developing sound methods to test possible solutions and discussing the results. If you have been inspired by these research questions, remember to include others in your search for answers.

CEO note: Extinction business + 2 success stories

CEO NOTE: 25 December 2020

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OK, it’s Christmas Day so I will keep this brief.

Firstly, thanks for the many responses regarding the Okavango oil prospecting story we ran last week. We will keep our eyes on that situation and keep you apprised. For now, we expect plenty of posturing and bluster while the EVIL ONES determine whether there is sufficient oil to ruin yet another African ecosystem, bank the proceeds offshore and leave Africa’s people to pay the cost.

The video below is special for its rarity but also deeply disturbing to me. Does that make me a speciesist? That emaciated baby rhino carcass with no PROTECTIVE mom nearby probably tells another story …

Our first story below is a carbon copy of what has happened to so many species. Add passionate collectors and the pet trade to insatiable Far East demand for wild species as food, medicine and status – and you have an industry where legal and illegal traders operate side by side and often HAND-IN-GLOVE. Interesting that a few reptile collectors (they use a fancier term) tried to distract from the message on our social media shares of this story with claims of incorrect facts. When challenged, they disappeared back into the shadows.

Our two other stories, though, are good news. Both involve restocking of former ranges, and both projects were driven by organised, professional conservation entities, ably supported by their partners – including governmental. These successes give me HOPE that we can restock Africa’s wild areas and regain some of what has been lost – once we tame the illegal stuff.

Festive season greetings to you all. We will publish a newsletter on New Year’s Day – so please keep an eye on your emails.

Story 1
https://africageographic.com/stories/the-extinction-business-south-africas-cold-blooded-reptile-trade/
THE EXTINCTION BUSINESS
South Africa’s trade in reptiles is a growing industry that is unregulated, unsustainable, and unethical – says report

Story 2
https://africageographic.com/stories/operation-twiga-v/
SUCCESS!
15 critically endangered Nubian giraffe have been translocated from Murchison Falls NP to Pian Upe WR in Uganda

Story 3
https://africageographic.com/stories/cheetahs-return-to-bangweulu-zambia/
MORE SUCCESS!
Three cheetahs have been successfully translocated from South Africa to Bangweulu in Zambia – the first cheetahs there in nearly a century

Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic

Cheetahs return to Bangweulu, Zambia

By African Parks/Endangered Wildlife Trust

Bangweulu Wetlands in Zambia has received a small founding group of cheetahs – the first of their species to return to this unique community-owned, protected wetland in almost a century.

On Thursday, 17th December, the Government of Zambia announced the successful translocation of an initial three cheetahs from South Africa resulting from a collaboration between Zambia’s Department of National Parks and Wildlife (DNPW), African Parks, the Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT), Ashia Cheetah Conservation and National Geographic. Their reintroduction is part of the ongoing process to restore Bangweulu’s biodiversity and aid efforts to secure safe spaces to promote the long-term survival of the species in the region.

“With the reintroduction of cheetahs to this extraordinary wetland, Bangweulu serves as a paragon for community conservation. Our unique partnership with the Community Resource Boards and African Parks has unlocked an opportunity here to help protect this vulnerable species from extinction in the wild while helping to revitalize Bangweulu and enhance nature-based tourism,” said Dr Chuma Simukonda, Director of the Department of National Parks and Wildlife. “We are proud to be working together to preserve biodiversity, securing lasting benefits not just for local communities and for all Zambians – but as a contribution to securing a sustainable legacy for the planet”.

The translocation initiative arises from a longstanding partnership between Zambia’s Department of National Parks and Wildlife (DNPW), six Community Resource Boards (CRBs) and conservation non-profit African Parks, which has managed Bangweulu Wetlands since 2008. The partnership worked with the EWT’s Cheetah Range Expansion Project to source three healthy males from reserves in South Africa, flown to Bangweulu, in north-eastern Zambia, on December 15th.

Translocated cheetah being carefully off-loaded from a plane in Bangweulu Wetlands, Zambia.

The cheetahs were safely released into temporary enclosures specially designed to support their acclimation and will be fitted with tracking collars to enable their long-term monitoring. The founder population is genetically unrelated, and the individuals were sourced from three reserves, namely Mountain Zebra National Park (Eastern Cape), Rogge Cloof (Northern Cape) and Welgevonden (Waterberg, Limpopo).

“In many parts of the continent, cheetahs face an uncertain future, but today the Zambian Government and Bangweulu’s communities are providing a chance for their recovery,” said James Milanzi, African Parks’ Zambia Director. “Thanks to our 12-year partnership with the DNPW and six CRBs, Bangweulu has seen a dramatic transformation. The reintroduction of cheetahs marks a new ecological milestone and an exciting new chapter for eco-tourism to this region”.

At 6,570 km², Bangweulu is of suitable size and habitat to support a viable cheetah population. Its connectivity to other protected areas provides the potential to establish a healthy metapopulation to promote the long-term persistence of the species in the region.

With fewer than 7,000 cheetahs remaining in only a fraction of their historical range, safe, protected areas are essential to the species’ survival in Africa’s wild landscapes. “We’ve managed to double wild Cheetah numbers in the fenced protected areas in Africa over the past decade. Thanks to community work initiated by African Parks, reintroductions into unfenced systems are now possible. This will be our first attempt,” said Vincent van der Merwe, EWT’s Cheetah Range Expansion Project Coordinator. “We are especially grateful to Ashia Cheetah Conservation which sponsored flights, collars and vet services, and National Geographic for making this reintroduction possible. We also want to thank the Ford Wildlife Foundation, PWC, and Paul King for logistical and financial support for the Cheetah Range Expansion Programme”.

Bangweulu — ‘where the water meets the sky’— is designated as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International and as a RAMSAR Wetland of International Importance. This unique community-owned, protected wetland is not only a life source for a wide variety of wildlife but supports 50,000 people who rely on the landscape’s rich resources. Progress in restoring Bangweulu has seen poaching decline dramatically; wildlife populations steadily climb, and tourism and other enterprise projects contribute revenue to the area and its communities.

Stichting Natura Africae, WWF-The Netherlands and WWF-Zambia have provided key multi-year support for the overall management of Bangweulu Wetlands, helping to build its ecological, economic, and social sustainability.

“Witnessing the loss of a species is heartbreaking,” said James Milanzi, “but there is nothing quite as hopeful as seeing its return.”

For further reading on Bangweulu: Bangweulu – where the water meets the sky

Operation Twiga V

This year proved to be unprecedented on a great many levels. Covid-19 has made all of us adapt to an ever-changing and unpredictable schedule, from working from home, surviving varying levels of lock-down and social isolation, to coping with the realisation that we will likely take a while before we return to “normal” as we knew it – if ever. With all this in mind, we at the Giraffe Conservation Foundation (GCF) are happy to continue providing positive conservation stories. While so much has changed, there is still great work being done in support of giraffe conservation throughout Africa!

Operation Twiga V (twiga is Swahili for giraffe) is the sixth consecutive giraffe conservation translocation that took place in Uganda. The ‘Pearl of Africa’ is home to over 60% of the Critically Endangered Nubian giraffe, one of three subspecies of the northern giraffe. Previous years have seen giraffe re-introduced to Lake Mburo National Park (NP) and the southern bank of Murchison Falls NP, as well as supplementing the small giraffe population in Kidepo Valley NP.

Last year, Operation Twiga IV saw the re-introduction of giraffe to Pian Upe Wildlife Reserve (WR), an area where giraffe had been locally extinct since the late 1990s. This undertaking was part one of a two-phased initiative to re-establish giraffe in Pian Upe WR. Earlier in 2020, it was unclear if this translocation would be possible but the stars aligned to allow the Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA), with direct support from GCF, to proceed with this exciting initiative. Special considerations had to be made due to Covid-19; however, the slightly smaller but well sanitised and masked team took to the field in mid-November to capture giraffe and begin the operation. This followed weeks of weather-related delays as roads and bridges had to be rebuilt after heavy rainfalls.

The capture team had to wait until roads damaged by heavy rainfalls had been repaired.

Over three weeks, a total of 15 subadult Nubian giraffe (11 females, four males) were safely caught in the northern section of Murchison Falls NP, housed in a temporary boma, and transported over 480 km to Pian Upe WR – all without a hitch! The UWA, GCF and Uganda Wildlife and Education Centre (UWEC) team worked seamlessly together to make this one of the most successful translocations in Uganda’s history. This is a testament to a great team effort based on six years of joined experience coupled with the ongoing support and training from GCF and additional collaboration from wildlife and zoo professionals from around the world.

Pian Upe WR is the second-largest protected area and the largest wildlife reserve in Uganda. Established in 1965, it was home to the largest population of Nubian giraffe in Uganda until years of civil unrest and armed conflict resulted in the decimation of giraffe and most other wildlife species from this area. The remaining wildlife populations within the reserve have slowly recovered since the cessation of civil unrest in the country, aided by the efforts of UWA (along with support from partners such as Karamoja Overland Safaris) to increase security and management of the reserve. The initial population of giraffe re-introduced last year has been closely monitored, and all are adapting very well to their new habitat. With the additional 15 giraffe translocated during Operation Twiga V in November 2020, Pian Upe WR now has an excellent founder population on which to continue the rehabilitation of the reserve.

As with last year, three individuals were fitted with solar-powered GPS satellite tracking units (ossi-units) by GCF – to assist with post-translocation monitoring as well as to elucidate more on how the giraffe utilise their new space. The data gathered from these units will not only help with continued monitoring of giraffe movements but will also be used as part of GCF’s larger Twiga Tracker Initiative, the most extensive GPS satellite tracking study ever conducted on giraffes. To date, GCF has fitted more than 200 giraffe in ten African countries with such units to help monitor them remotely.

Uganda now boasts five thriving Nubian giraffe populations, and their numbers are steadily increasing. These translocations are a vital conservation tool to secure the future for the Critically Endangered Nubian giraffe, as emphasised in the National Giraffe Conservation Strategy and Action Plan (2020-2030). The largest Nubian giraffe population in Africa occurs in Murchison Falls NP, a park that is under pressure by impending oil exploration and drilling, intense infrastructure development, as well as poaching for bushmeat. It is, therefore, crucial to disperse giraffe back to their former historic ranges throughout Uganda to preserve the integrity of this iconic animal. We at GCF are proud to support all aspects of Uganda’s giraffe recovery, a real modern-day conservation success story.

One of the translocated giraffes gallops off into Pian Upe Wildlife Reserve

Operation Twiga V stands testament to what can be achieved when passionate people come together not only with the team on the ground but also with giraffe conservationists and supporters from around the world. Without funding support from partners and individuals across the globe, this amazing effort would not have been possible. We want to use this opportunity to thank all our supporters for their generosity and for helping us spread the word both on the plight of giraffe and these conservation success stories. It is a genuinely incredible conservation effort all around for the entire team led by UWA, and especially for veterinarians Drs Patrick Atimnedi, Robert Aruho, and Eric Enyel, as well as our GCF team, Drs Sara Ferguson and Patrick Okello.

The Giraffe Conservation Foundation (GCF) is the only organisation in the world that concentrates solely on the conservation and management of giraffe in the wild throughout Africa. GCF is dedicated to a sustainable future for all giraffe populations in the wild. From our base in Windhoek, Namibia, and regional offices in Kenya, Niger and Uganda, GCF’s small and dynamic team supports giraffe conservation efforts in 16 African countries. For more information, visit their website.

For more about giraffes read this story.

The extinction business – South Africa’s cold-blooded reptile trade

Reptile trade: Over the past few years, Ban Animal Trading and the EMS Foundation have been conducting extensive investigation and research into South Africa’s trade in live wild animals, publishing their results in The Extinction Business Investigative Report Series. The third instalment of this series deals with South Africa’s trade in reptiles and amphibians – exposing this growing industry as largely unregulated, unsustainable, and unethical.

As the report indicates at the outset, reptiles, amphibians, and arachnids are less charismatic than mammals or birds and, as a result, are perceived as having a far lower intrinsic value than the more iconic species. For the most part, public perception attaches negative stereotypes to creatures such as snakes, crocodiles, or frogs. Furthermore, ectotherms are considerably less expressive than mammals and birds, meaning that sick, injured, or stressed individuals suffer in silence. Their slow metabolic processes protract this suffering even further. Globally, reptiles are amongst the most inhumanely treated animals in the pet trade, with a mortality rate of some 70% at wholesalers being considered an acceptable industry standard.

The previous two reports in the series (see here and here) examine in-depth how loopholes, corruption, and ineffective control systems in trade permits, including those of CITES, facilitate the laundering and smuggling of wildlife. These systemic failures have allowed the illegal trade to masquerade as legitimate and have been highlighted repeatedly by several different organizations and individual activists. Where reptiles, amphibians, and arachnids are concerned, this is often exacerbated by inadequate or non-existent population estimates or, in some cases, a failure to list entirely.

When compared to mammals or birds, catching these animals in the wild is relatively cheap and easy, spurred on by an ever-growing demand from collectors, hobbyists, and traders. According to the report, at least 50% of the reptiles and amphibians that move through international trade are wild-caught or poached. The remaining 50% are reported to be captive-bred, but little effort is made to investigate the validity of their origins and shipments, especially those containing venomous species, are seldom inspected.

Angulate and leopard tortoises arrive from South Africa

Nile crocodile arrives from South Africa

South African authorities issued the following export permits (both national and CITES) from 2013 to 2020:

2,179 indigenous tortoises – most of which were exported as part of the pet trade
12 Nile crocodiles – the majority were imported by zoos
262 indigenous snakes – most of which were exported into the pet trade
21 indigenous Armadillo girdled lizards
96 indigenous rock monitors
1,456 indigenous amphibians

While international trade is, in theory, governed by CITES regulations, this needs to be implemented, complemented, and bolstered by national law. In South Africa, the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (NEMBA) was enacted in 2004 to regulate CITES-listed species. Under this act, the Threatened and Protected Species (ToPS) regulations govern any activities that could impact the survival of listed species. Any pursuit involving these species (such as capture, breeding or trading in wild specimens) should only be permitted after the South African Scientific Authority has issued a non-detrimental finding (NDF) as per the CITES treaty. For many of the species discussed in the report, such as tortoises, the necessary NDF is non-existent.

According to the report, when wild tortoises are confiscated by the provincial authorities or surrendered by a member of the public to the Johannesburg Zoo or the National Zoological Gardens in Pretoria, they are ‘reclassified’ as captive-bred, regardless of origin. Instead of being rehabilitated and released back into the wild, these are then sold on to wildlife traders and exported with minimal restrictions due to their new captive-bred status.

From the trade in snakes and lizards to frogs and arachnids, Ban Animal Trading and the EMS Foundation highlight several recurring failures. In many instances, the animal species concerned is not listed by CITES, meaning their origin (wild or captive-bred) and purpose for export is irrelevant. Where the animal species is listed, the exporters must declare them as either wild-sourced or captive-bred but do so in the knowledge that this is difficult to confirm and unlikely to be questioned. The report indicates that export permits were issued for “captive-bred” individuals of species not known to breed in captivity, such as Giant girdled lizards or rain frogs.

The report examines South Africa’s trade in endotherms in detail (both in terms of species as well as export destinations of these animals). It exposes just how damaging this trade is to the country’s indigenous wildlife. It highlights the failures of the Department of Forestry and Fisheries to implement existing legislation to ensure the regulation and management of biodiversity. Most importantly, the report stresses that this existing legislation is inadequate and failing the animals it purports to protect.

It concludes, somewhat poignantly, “Reptiles do not fit into our view of the world and its inhabitants, and because they instil a primordial fear in most humans, are not afforded the same protection as other animals. We pay little attention to the value these creatures that have lived on the earth for millions of years bring to biodiversity and their unique role in the ecosystem.”

The above is a summary of the extensive report which should be read in full and can be accessed here: “Plundered: South Africa’s Cold-Blooded International Reptile Trade”

CEO note: Frack the Okavango + arch enemies + Gorongosa

CEO NOTE: 18 December 2020

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RANT WARNING: OK, so if ongoing tests look promising they are going to drill for oil and frack large swathes of land in the northern reaches of the fragile Okavango Delta. The massive Namibian oil concession, owned by a Canadian company, is on the Kavango River and smack bang in the Kavango Basin – a vital feeder to the Delta.

Need I even mention the UNESCO World Heritage Site status, the thriving tourism industry, the artisanal fishing that is the lifeblood for local people – amongst the many vital aspects of this region that are now at risk? Oh, and the oil concession area will cut off the vital migration path for KAZA region elephants moving between Botswana, Namibia and Angola. The same elephants that are causing untold human misery in Botswana because their former migration routes are cut off by human activities such as this. It has been suggested that this particular migration route may be the only sustainable solution to the ‘elephant problem’ in Botswana. The environmental impact assessment was found to fall short of legal requirements – no surprises there. Expect the usual mining industry smoke and mirrors as this issue plays itself out on the world stage and in courtrooms.

At what point do governments stop strangling the goose that lays the golden eggs? Is Namibia so DESPERATE that it is prepared to sell the country from beneath its citizens and slash Botswana’s throat – all for a bit of cash and a handful of jobs? Our first story below refers.

In our second story, we delve into research about that age-old rivalry between two of Africa’s APEX predators. Those lucky enough to witness lions and hyenas slugging it out will understand how fierce and bloody this rivalry is.

Let’s finish off this week with a CELEBRATION! Check out the stunning images in our third story below. My only trip to Gorongosa some years back left me awed at the beauty and biodiversity of this special place.

Festive season greetings to you all. We will publish a newsletter on Christmas Day – so please keep an eye on your emails.

Story 1
https://africageographic.com/stories/paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/
FRACK THE OKAVANGO
A Canadian company has secured massive concessions – oil drilling & fracking loom on the horizon in Namibia and Botswana

Story 2
https://africageographic.com/stories/arch-enemies-new-research-on-lions-vs-hyenas/
ARCH ENEMIES
Lions vs hyenas is the ultimate African drama. New research has shed light on the dynamics between these two apex predators

Story 3
https://africageographic.com/stories/gorongosa-in-images/
GORONGOSA !
We celebrate the vibrant Gorongosa National Park in Mozambique in this epic gallery of images

Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic

Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta

By Andreas Wilson Späth

***This article was provided by the* Conservation Action Trust *and originally published in the Daily Maverick***

For a distance of some 150km, Canadian company ReconAfrica’s oil and gas prospecting concessions border the Kavango River, a crucial source of water in a semi-arid area and the lifeline for one of Africa’s greatest concentrations of wild species in the Okavango Delta into which it discharges.

The fate of one of Africa’s most valuable ecosystems may depend on results from wells being drilled deep into the bedrock beneath the Kalahari of northern Namibia and Botswana in the hunt for a petroleum reservoir.

If the search by Canadian oil and gas company ReconAfrica is successful, the region could be irrevocably transmogrified by networks of access roads, truck traffic and heavy machinery, pipelines, drill rigs and hundreds of oil and gas production wells.

A group of yellow-billed storks and other birds feed on small fishes in the flooded grassland in the Kwedi concession of the Okavango Delta, about 30km north of Mombo, Botswana.

For ReconAfrica it would mean “the largest oil play of the decade” and immense financial profits. For social and environmental justice activists, it spells unmitigated disaster.

The role played by the Namibian government (a 10% shareholder in ReconAfrica’s Namibian exploration concession) is of grave concern. While the petroleum company is vocally proclaiming that they are on the brink of a major discovery, the Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME) is downplaying potential risks and suggesting that the focus is merely on “exploration”.

Does this mixed messaging suggest misinformation on the part of ReconAfrica to lure potential investors? Is the government trying to obfuscate what’s really happening in the region? Is this then a case for the US Securities Exchange Commission to investigate?

ReconAfrica holds exploration licences for an area of more than 25,000km² in north-eastern Namibia and a further 9,900km² across the border in Botswana. Beneath this land lies the Kavango Basin, a geological mega-structure which the company’s experts conservatively estimate to contain 120 billion barrels of oil equivalent.

To put the claimed size of this deposit into context, the largest oil field in history, Saudi Arabia’s Ghawar Field, is believed to have held a total of 88 to 104 billion barrels of oil, while the country estimated to have the biggest proven reserves is Venezuela at about 303 billion barrels.

In a press release, the MME suggests that the “necessary environmental impact permits” are in place, but opponents question the efficacy and thoroughness of the process and argue that ReconAfrica’s environmental impact assessment (EIA) falls short of legal requirements.

One major concern is that the exploitation of oil or gas deposits may require the use of hydraulic fracking technology, which involves injecting pressurised, water-based, chemical-laced fluid into wells to help release hydrocarbons tightly held in so-called unconventional deposits.

The myriad dangerous effects of fracking, from its need for vast amounts of water to the potential for artificial earthquakes, the contamination of ground and surface water and the poisoning of humans as well as the natural food chain, are well documented.

In its extremely optimistic communications with the media, ReconAfrica implies that fracking may well be on the cards. Daniel Jarvie, a petroleum geochemist on the company’s technical team, states that its licences in Namibia and Botswana “offer large-scale plays that are both conventional and unconventional”. Such unconventional “plays” would require fracking.

In a 2019 presentation to investors, ReconAfrica compares the Kavango basin to the huge Eagle Ford Shale oil and gas field in Texas and refers to plans for “modern frac simulations”. In the case of the Eagle Ford Shale, fracking at thousands of wells has been linked to air pollution and an increase in seismic activity “33 times the background rate”.

Dr Annette Hübschle of the Environmental Futures Project of UCT’s Global Risk Governance Programme warns that “we should be very concerned about the long-term impacts of fracking on livelihoods, health, ecosystems, biodiversity conservation and especially climate change.”

A hamerkop rests on the branch of a tree in the Kwedi concession in the Okavango Delta.

The MME insists, however, that neither an onshore production licence nor a licence to develop unconventional resources has been applied for or granted. They declare that “no hydraulic fracking activities are planned in Namibia” and that “Recon will not be conducting any fracking activities in the Okavango Delta.”

While the MME seems to imply that what is going on is merely exploration for possible petroleum reserves, ReconAfrica appears ready to move into oil production as soon as possible, noting that once a commercial-scale discovery is declared, their agreement with the Namibian government entitles them “to obtain a 25-year production licence”.

Ultimately, the debate over fracking may be moot as there is little doubt about the overwhelmingly destructive effects of major petroleum production – with or without fracking – in a dry, ecologically-sensitive region.

And that’s without the occurrence of any disasters – an unrealistic expectation from an industry responsible for some of the biggest environmental catastrophes in history, from the Exxon Valdez and Deepwater Horizon to Canada’s tar sands and the devastation of the Niger Delta.

According to Hübschle, “the EIA fails to address the issue of the high volumes of water required for exploration and how the highly toxic and radioactive drill mud will be cleaned and disposed of.”

A threat to people and cultural heritage

What is indisputable are the risks to which large, industrialised oil production would expose the region.

For a distance of some 150km, ReconAfrica’s concessions border the Kavango River (often referred to as the Okavango River, and called Rio Cubango in Angola), a crucial source of water in a semi-arid area and the lifeline for one of Africa’s greatest concentrations of wild species in the Okavango Delta into which it discharges.

The region as a whole is home to around 200,000 people. The Okavango Delta, which is downstream from the suspected oil field, provides a livelihood for indigenous populations of at least five ethnic groups who rely on the landscape for water, fishing, hunting, wild plant foods, farming and tourism.

Of particular concern are local San communities whose already threatened lifestyle would be deeply impacted by the arrival of the oil industry. What’s more, the area where petroleum production would occur includes Botswana’s Tsodilo Hills — a Unesco World Heritage Site — which is celebrated as the “Louvre of the Desert” and protects over 4,500 San rock paintings, some of which are 1 200 years old.

Hübschle notes that “very few affected parties were consulted by government and the company. While the company is engaging in a winning hearts and minds campaign, there are many affected people who are deeply concerned about their land rights, ability to farm and derive income from community conservancies.”

A threat to wildlife and ecology

A female leopard rests on a termite hill in the Kwedi concession in the Okavango Delta,

A future Kavango Basin oil field not only poses an existential risk to the Okavango Delta, a Unesco World Heritage Site in its own right — Botswana’s most-visited tourist destination and home to a very large and diverse population of animals, including more than 70 species of fish and over 400 species of birds — but it also directly overlaps the world’s largest terrestrial cross-border wildlife sanctuary, the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (Kaza), which straddles the borders of Botswana, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Angola and Zambia.

A source of millions of dollars of income from sustainable ecotourism, the area protects at least four species on the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) list of “critically endangered” animals, including the black rhino and the white-backed vulture, seven “endangered” species, including the grey-crowned crane and the African wild dog, as well as 20 species listed as “vulnerable”, such as the martial eagle and Temminck’s pangolin.

The region is also known for its extensive network of migration routes for the planet’s largest remaining elephant population. Studies have revealed that these animals have huge home ranges of nearly 25,000km² and roam across vast distances between Botswana, Namibia, Angola and Zambia.

The disruption of migration corridors by a massive new oil industry infrastructure would not just endanger the survival of the elephant population but is likely to increase detrimental interactions with local human communities.

“If full-scale drilling goes ahead”, says Hübschle, “the outlook for Kaza would be grim. Tourists won’t come on safari to look at oil rigs.”

From a global perspective, extracting vast amounts of fossil fuels from the region will exacerbate the ongoing human-induced climate crisis which is itself threatening the survival of the Okavango Delta as a result of decreasing annual rainfall in the catchment area.

A hippo bull roars in the Kwedi concession in the Okavango Delta.

In a deeper, geological irony, the rocks suspected of containing the oil and gas reserves of the Kavango Basin were deposited in the Permian Period which came to a cataclysmic end in the most extreme extinction event of the Earth’s history that wiped out 90% to 95% of all marine species and 70% of all land organisms.

Digging up and burning oil from these strata will push us even closer to a new global mass extinction.

In its myopic vision, all ReconAfrica sees in the northern Kalahari is money buried underground.

At a time when the world’s few remaining wild places need all of the protection we can muster when biodiversity is declining rapidly and when global heating is wrecking the world, it’s the kind of vision that undermines the very foundations of our existence.

If we believe in restorative social and environmental justice, we ought to insist that the international fossil fuel industry funds Namibia and Botswana to keep the oil in the ground, to develop renewable energy systems instead and to safeguard their irreplaceable ecosystems.

Andreas Wilson-Späth is a part-time freelance writer and ex-geologist who lives and works in Cape Town.

GORONGOSA IN IMAGES

Central Mozambique is a place in constant flux: fire and rain, conflict and peace, absence, and abundance. But in the middle of it all sits the unmoving fulcrum of Gorongosa National Park, tirelessly protecting one of the most diverse ecosystems on the planet. I was able to spend a few years documenting and living its story.

Taking to the skies to capture Gorongosa from a different perspective

I landed in Gorongosa National Park, fresh out of graduate school in 2016 as a biologist-turned-cinematographer and was immediately thrown right into the middle of things – filming wildlife on safari. My job was to track and film the nature and conservation stories that would endlessly blossom around the park. It was my first time on the continent, my first time living so far from home, and my first experience filming some of the world’s most dangerous animals in such close proximity.

Gorongosa National Park was proclaimed in 1960. The historical section covers an area of 3,719 km² (371,900 hectares), and the buffer zone around the park increases the total size of the protected area to 9,419 km² (941,900 hectares). The Gorongosa Mountain was proclaimed as a protected area in 2010.

Just as soon as the war for independence ended, civil war erupted in 1977 and continued for decades before it finally ended in 1992. In the centre of the country, Gorongosa National Park became embroiled in the heart of the conflict. The park’s wildlife became a resource for the fighters: bushmeat filled bellies and ivory lined pockets and paid for weapons. 90% of the region’s large mammal species vanished.

The wet season brings dramatic thunderstorms and transforms the landscape

The park languished for nearly twelve years until the Gorongosa Restoration Project was formed in a partnership between the Mozambican government and philanthropist Greg Carr – a project intended to breathe life back into the landscape. The goal of restoring the park to its former ecological glory was an ambitious one, but it is one that has seen hard-won progress since the project’s inception.

When I arrived in Gorongosa, the process of recovery had been underway for nearly a decade. My first impression was similar to that of many visitors: the park was an antelope Eden. By then, their numbers had returned to pre-war levels. As the most abundant antelope species, waterbuck numbers had reached over 55,000 (more than 10 times as many as during the war), and they dotted the landscape like a southern Serengeti.

Beyond the vast antelope populations, there’s a kaleidoscope of unique life. Rainforests, savannas, grasslands, and even limestone gorges support a cast of characters from the tiny (like the pygmy chameleons found nowhere else on earth) to the gigantic.

I spent days roaming the park in a specialised open Land Cruiser that had been modified for filming. Each day was a treasure hunt – searching for wildlife and showcasing fascinating behaviour, and chasing the perfect light and composition. One of the more common hazards was the herds of elephants. Being highly intelligent, many individuals carried physical and emotional wounds from the war.

The chaos and dust of capturing large herds of animals

My job entailed more than just filming natural history – it was more about telling the stories of how human and animal lives overlap, documenting the people living and working in and around the park. Stories of scientists, conservationists, veterinarians, rangers, health care workers, and the many communities outside the park.

A hands-on approach to recovery has been guided by the restoration efforts of a team of conservationists and biodiversity scientists. They monitor populations and habitats to strategise ways to build complexity into the web of life while maintaining stability for the park’s ecosystem.

Gorongosa is an entirely different place from the air – a perspective that reveals its true vastness. Watching masses of slithering crocodiles and snorting hippos from an open-door helicopter was one of my favourite moments, as was going on anti-poaching patrols with Alfredo Matavele, the pilot of the park’s Bat Hawk light aircraft.

Paola Bouley holds the GPS collar of a lion killed by a gin-trap

Tensions between humans and wildlife were particularly high when I arrived, and illegal hunting was commonplace. I spent much of my time with the Carnivore Conservation Team. The above image shows tireless conservationist Paola Bouley in front of the funeral pyre of M02 – one of the park’s lions. Paola is holding the GPS collar that had been used for monitoring the lion’s movements. Like many other lions, M02 was killed by a poacher’s gin-trap – an accidental death caused by indiscriminate poaching.

Agriculture is a crucial way of life in rural Mozambique

There have been people living in this area for thousands of years; they are part of the ecosystem, defining it with their actions. There are currently nearly 200,000 people living in the park’s buffer zone – the area between the park and the surrounding communities. As is the case throughout rural Mozambique, poverty levels are extremely high, and bushmeat poaching is tempting because meat is expensive, and protein shortages are common.

Most of Gorongosa’s immediate neighbours live in extreme poverty. This little girl should be in school but instead is preparing for a long day of selling bananas

Women are the most vulnerable to the effects of poverty. They are the backbone of this rural economy, but are disproportionately affected compared to men, especially when young. Child marriage, unwanted pregnancy, illiteracy and HIV are all pressing issues.

Towering high over these lives is Mount Gorongosa – the beating heart of the region, looking out for miles over the southern end of the Great Rift Valley. Lush forests along its slopes capture moisture floating in from the Indian Ocean that then feeds the arterial rivers below. Since 1970, nearly 40% of these forests have been lost to deforestation. It has also been the site of low-level insurgency in recent years.

Seen from above, the well structure forms an ankh – an ancient symbol for life

In the modern home in the developed world, one barely thinks twice of the seemingly endless supply of clean water. In Gorongosa, the community members devote hours of their time to collecting it. Most have no electricity or indoor plumbing, and women and children spend much of the day filling up containers for their family at community wells.

A substantial wet season is critical not just for the park’s habitats but for farmers’ crops in the buffer zone. There have been instances of severe drought through the years, and in 2019, Cyclone Idai hit the area. This was one of the worst weather-related natural disasters that the southern hemisphere has ever experienced: 200,000 people were made homeless, and 2 million acres of crops were destroyed.

Even in an ideal year, with a good harvest and favourable weather, there is the inevitable unpredictability in living next door to a national park. Dona Maria (pictured above) lost her leg to a crocodile while bathing a few years ago and is regularly chased out of her home when elephants raid her crops at night.

Fencing the park boundary is not a feasible solution for an area that covers a million acres. The lives of both humans and animals are balanced on a razor’s edge, and the tenuous line between the park and the buffer zone must be protected for the sake of both.

The park approaches these challenges with a community-based conservation method. On the front lines are the Rangers, the park’s law enforcement unit of Mozambicans tasked with helping maintain coexistence.

Rangers are usually locals, tasked with bridging the gap of understanding between their own communities and the wildlife. In the above image, a local leader (far left) presides over a traditional ceremony to bless the translocation of a brown hyena into the park. The hyena had been killing chickens, goats and even dogs on community land, but the community reached out to the park instead of taking drastic action.

Firecrackers are used to scare elephants away from crops and drive them back into the park. Beehives are also used as a deterrent

To many in Mozambique, the capture of a pangolin is considered to be good luck, though Rangers are working to change these views in the buffer zone. During the first half of 2019, 13 trafficked pangolins were rescued by Gorongosa park rangers and cared for by veterinarians.

The park is working on finding ways to alleviate poverty through creating human development programs that focus on improving the quality of life. Mãe Zerina (pictured above) is a Traditional Birth Attendant. She is 80 years old and spends most of her time accompanying pregnant women from her community to the nearest hospital for health check-ups, family planning and births.

Surrounding the remaining mountain forest with new coffee trees in an innovative answer to the deforestation problem on Mount Gorongosa

Signs of hope are everywhere for those who know where to look. Girls Club is a before-and-after-school programme started by the park to teach essential life skills to empower young girls to stay in school and learn about personal safety, health, nutrition, and family planning. The club also takes the girls into the park, and for many, this is their first opportunity to see wild animals.

There has been a 95% reduction in the snaring of lions – Gorongosa is on its way to becoming a population stronghold in Mozambique

To me, the most tangible sign of the park’s success has been the reduction of snaring. Teams sweep an area to find and remove snares, creating safe zones for the larger animals.

Every painted wolf has its own unique charisma

Lions were the only large carnivore present during the park’s restoration. Now, with the lion population safe, a pack of 14 African painted wolves (wild dogs) have been reintroduced. Filming their reintroduction was my favourite project, and I spent innumerable hours with them, getting to know their unique characteristics: Beira the stoic alpha female, Minimini the young upstart, Ndarassica the trickster…

Children spellbound by a public screening of footage filmed in Gorongosa

My work over the years was focused towards creating long-form documentaries rather than filming wildlife on safari, often specifically for Mozambicans to be broadcast on national television. Even in the buffer zone, cinema finds a way, and small movie-huts play DVDs for an enthralled audience. There is also a community outreach team that organises public screenings of park media. The look of amazement on these faces makes my job worthwhile. It gives these kids a chance to understand and connect with their home in a way they might not otherwise experience – and gives them something to aspire to.

Not many people get lucky enough to live with iconic wildlife and tell the daily stories of the people doing what it takes for conservation to succeed. It was an experience that was sometimes frustrating, at times funny, and always rewarding. Even better, during my last year in Gorongosa, a litter of 18 painted wolf puppies was born, and I was there to watch them grow up.

About Brett

Brett is a filmmaker and photographer who documents global wildlife, science, and conservation stories that inform and inspire action. A recovering biologist from the heartland of the United States, Brett embedded for nearly four years in Mozambique’s flagship conservation area, Gorongosa National Park. In his time there, he helped create multiple award-winning films that can be seen on PBS, National Geographic, and Mozambique television. His photography of the park has been featured in outlets such as The New York Times, The Guardian, The Associated Press, and Nature scientific journal.

Arch-enemies? New research on lions vs hyenas

Lions vs hyenas. The fractious and competitive relationship between lions and spotted hyenas is well-documented and has been observed across Africa wherever the two species are present in the same place. These dynamics are fluid, and the dominant species in any individual scenario is determined mostly by numbers and, in particular, the presence of male lions. While both species are active predators, lions and spotted hyenas will readily steal kills from the other (kleptoparasitism), as well as compete to scavenge on existing carcasses. Now, researchers from the University of Grenada have further unravelled the dynamics at play between these two apex predators in closed-system reserves in South Africa.

As a general rule, previous research into how lions and hyenas share food resources, as well as the mechanisms that reduce the effects of this competition, have been focussed on living prey and kleptoparasitism. Here researchers expanded this to include other shared food resources, providing insight into their dynamics in a true scavenging sense in that either lions or hyenas did not kill the carcass/carrion concerned. As the authors explain, this research is particularly relevant for in small, fenced protected areas where populations of apex predators are growing and competing over restricted resources.

For two years, researchers observed the interactions between lions and spotted hyenas feeding on carcasses in Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park, as well as the feeding behaviours of spotted hyenas in Mkhuze Game Reserve (where, at the time when the research was conducted, lions were not present). Researchers used a range of carcasses of different sizes, including chickens, medium-sized antelope, buffalo, rhino, and elephant and monitored the feeding activity through the use of motion-triggered cameras. (None of the animals concerned apart from the chickens were killed for this study and most of the larger animals were found dead on the reserve).

The results of their research indicate that, as was expected, both spotted hyenas and lions will show high levels of scavenging where carrion is available. However, the lions showed a distinct preference for larger carcasses, ignoring the smaller carcasses almost entirely. Naturally, the larger the carcass, the greater the likelihood that both spotted hyenas and lions would be present, as these larger carcasses last longer and present greater opportunities for exploitation. Small and medium-sized carcasses were almost exclusively eaten by hyenas, which occur at higher numbers and, therefore, are more likely to find and consume the carcasses before the lions.

Interestingly, researchers found clear evidence that spotted hyenas modify their behaviour depending upon the presence of lions in a particular area. Where lions were present, the spotted hyenas showed increased levels of diurnal activity – presumably as a mechanism to reduce competition with the larger cats. Yet where lions were absent, the spotted hyenas became truly nocturnal. Observations around large carcasses indicated that the lions were the dominant of the two species in most cases for two reasons: the hyenas typically did not have sufficient numbers to displace the lions, and there was usually at least one male lion present at large carcasses. Instead, the hyenas would wait until the lions moved away to rest or drink before feeding. Hyenas were also more likely to detect carcasses faster if lions were present.

The study concludes by emphasizing the importance of understanding food resource usage and competitive behaviour between lions and spotted hyenas, particularly in closed reserves with relatively high predator densities. In particular, the presence of megaherbivore carcasses can help to mitigate the effects of lion/hyena conflict and competition and favour their coexistence in restricted areas.

The full study can be accessed through a paywall here: “Hyaenas and lions: how the largest African carnivores interact at carcasses”, Amorós, M., et al (2020), Oikos

CEO note: Crafty strategy + great news + rhino facts

CEO NOTE: 11 December 2020

This is a copy of our weekly email newsletter. Subscribe here to receive the newsletter.

Am I the only one who is OVER the shouting and chaos on social media? They are free because we are the product – we got what we paid for. And it will not change for the better – it is what it is. Time to migrate the conservation conversation to a safer, more productive space?

Again, I want to thank everyone who takes the time to email me on ceo@africageographic.com to share their thoughts and feedback to my random rants. CONVERSATION is not about right or wrong; it is about learning from each other and enjoying the experience. We don’t know what the future looks like exactly. No one does. What we do know is that we ALL have a role to play if we are to maintain biodiversity and ecosystems. We also know that respectful conversation is a good way to find solutions to problems. This truism is one of the main drivers behind what my team will deliver to you early next year. And expect a few delightful surprises and significant incentives to get involved in this journey. Stay tuned.

Our first story below is a change from most rhino coverage in the last years. This is a thoroughly interesting and INFORMATIVE study on rhinos – researched and written by our talented scientific editor Jamie. Did I mention the maps? We love our maps 🙂

Then we celebrate the resilience of elephants as they recolonise old stomping grounds. Image the WISDOM and stored memories going into this amazing journey. And the gentle giants are doing what they should – engineering the landscape to the benefit of other species now also moving back to old feeding grounds.

Our third story below had me smirking, because of the similarity to some humans that I know. You GO girls!

Story 1
https://africageographic.com/stories/africas-rhino/
RHINO FACTS: Africa’s 2 rhino species are the most numerous of the world’s 5 species. Here is everything you need to know about black and white rhinos
Story 2
https://africageographic.com/stories/580-elephants-return-to-virunga-in-dr-congo-and-other-species-follow-in-their-wake/
GREAT NEWS: 580 elephants have been seen moving again between protected areas in Uganda and DR Congo – and other species are following in their wake
Story 3
https://africageographic.com/stories/female-banded-mongooses-incite-violence-for-better-mating-opportunities/
CRAFTY STRATEGY: Female banded mongooses lead their groups into deliberate conflict with rival groups to increase their chances of mating – says research

Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic

RHINO

It started as a relatively innocuous morning spent recording midden positions for a research project, barely 200 metres from our vehicle. I was crouched over a midden examining the freshness of the dung (very) when a soft snort drew our attention to the black rhino cow standing in a thicket some 50m away. She stared myopically at the three guides standing upwind of her for a second or two before wheeling around and trotting off in the opposite direction, tailed curled characteristically over her back. We changed our trajectory to avoid her and set about circling back.

As we stopped to record the coordinates of the next midden, she reappeared suddenly, again only 50m away but this time downwind of us. While we were dawdling, she had circled to get a better measure of the situation and had clearly decided that we were unequivocally not to be trusted. Aided by an exceptional sense of smell and hearing, she was no longer confused, and her head was raised as she stared directly at us. She took one step in our direction, then another. A quick assessment of my immediate surroundings showed a raisin bush to my left and a bushwillow sapling the width of my wrist to my right. Marvellous.

Then suddenly she was charging, closing the gap at an alarming pace. If clichés are to be believed, my life should then have flashed before my eyes, but I felt only an unreasonable bitterness directed at the useless bushwillow. One cliché did hold, however, and time seemed to slow as I become aware of every huff of her breath and the movement of her feet and, at what seemed like the last second, the way she dropped her head…

And then it was over. She whirled around in a cloud of dust less than two metres from us, turning in an impossibly tight circle, and trotting off with a surprising amount of dignity. Certainly, more than I was capable of at that moment. When, eventually, my thoughts had cleared (and my knees had stopped shaking), I was filled with a profound sense of respect for the wild, her creatures and the little black rhino cow, later known as Elizabeth, so determined to assert herself.

The conservation world is almost saturated with the tragic reality that ego and greed have desecrated the populations of one of the world’s most iconic animals. Innocuous lumbering giants made vulnerable by their size and an absurd human obsession with their keratinous horns, the very future of the planet’s rhinos hangs very much in the balance. An unfortunate consequence is that in many ways, the wave of polarized debates, heart-breaking stories and fury-inducing news items inevitably detracts from the fascinating ethology of one of the world’s largest land animals. What follows is a celebration of Africa’s rhinos – their characteristics, peculiarities, and nuances.

The basics

There are five extant (surviving) species of rhino across Africa and Asia: the white rhinoceros (‘Near Threatened’), the black rhinoceros (‘Critically Endangered’), the Indian rhinoceros (‘Vulnerable’), the Javan rhinoceros (‘Critically Endangered’) and the Sumatran rhinoceros (‘Critically Endangered’). Rhinos belong to the order Perissodactyla (or odd-toed ungulates) meaning that their closest relatives, somewhat counterintuitively, are horses, zebras, and tapirs.

The two Africa species: the black rhino (Diceros bicornis) and the white rhino (Ceratotherium simum) are further divided into subspecies depending on their distribution, some of which are now either extinct or survived only by a handful of individuals (such as the northern white rhino or the western black rhino). As is so often the case where subspecies distinctions are concerned, there are different classification approaches and levels of disagreement within the scientific community as to where the distinctions should lie.

Equally contested is the explanation behind the names “white” and “black” describing the two species. For many years, the convenient and widely-accepted explanation was that the name “white” resulted from an Englishman’s misinterpretation of the Afrikaans word “wyd” (in Dutch, “wijde”, meaning wide) used as a description of the white rhinoceros’ characteristic square upper lip. According to this particular theory, the name for the black rhino followed naturally from there. Unfortunately, however, Middle Dutch linguistic experts have disproved this – “wijde” was not used as an adjective to describe body parts of either humans or animals. While there are several other theories, often involving the soil types of the areas where notable biologists were studying these newly observed behemoths, there may never be a definitive answer as to why two grey animals found themselves thus labelled.

The names “square-lipped” (white) and “hook-lipped” (black) are also used to refer to the two species, as the shapes of their upper lips are clear distinguishing characteristics. The wide upper lip of the white rhino is used to crop grass, while the almost prehensile upper lip of the black rhino is used to pull and pluck leaves and branches.

The differences

	Black rhino	White Rhino
Shoulder height	1.4-1.8m	1.6-1.86m
Mass	800-1,400kg	1,700-2,300kg (3,600kg max)
Diet	Browser	Grazer
Upper lip shape	Hooked	Flat
Head position	Raised	Lowered
Ear shape	Round	More elongated
Gestation	15 months	16 months
Number of offspring	1 calf	1 calf
Life expectancy	Up to 40 years	Up to 40 years

White and black rhino have very distinct behavioural reputations. For the most part, white rhinos are seen as more placid while black rhinos are often described as more solitary, unpredictable, and even cantankerous or capricious. There are certain truths to these generalizations, but, as is the case with any wild animal, individuals have unique personalities and variations exist under different circumstances. As the less numerous of the two species, and with a preference for dense habitats, black rhinos are often more skittish due simply to a lack of exposure to people and vehicles.

Social lives

Both black and white rhinos have a relatively flexible social structure that changes throughout their lives and is determined by the sex of the individual. The mature males of both species are usually territorial and generally solitary, spending a large portion of their time patrolling territorial boundaries and refreshing existing scent marks. The females are more social and often form loose aggregations of up to ten or more individuals. These herds (or “crashes”) consist of combinations of females, sub-adults and calves and the individuals therein may or may not be related. Rather than defending territories, cows move through large home ranges depending on seasonal food and resource availability. Mature males occasionally associate with these groups and are mostly tolerant of other young males approaching maturity, provided these sub-adults show the requisite submission and respect.

For an animal with excellent olfactory capabilities, it is only natural that much of their long-distance communication is through scent secured in middens. Any rhino passing through will deposit his or her dung to the pile, using chemical signals to indicate age, sex, and reproductive status. Territorial males will also mark these middens and other landmarks by spraying urine and scraping their feet through the scent. In areas where they overlap, both black and white rhino will readily use the same middens.

For more immediate interactions, rhinos rely on body language cues and a surprising vocal range of squeaks and groans that sound bizarrely similar to whale noises to the human ear. Research has also shown that white rhinos (and likely black rhinos) can communicate through low-frequency rumbles below the range of human hearing, like elephants.

Love and war

While conflicts between mature males are often decided based purely on posturing and intimidation displays, there are times when two evenly matched competitors will come to blows, sometimes battling intermittently for days at a time. When the fight is over a cow in oestrus, these jousting matches can result in serious stab wounds and, on rare occasions, may even prove fatal.

While on average the bulls are larger than the cows, the females are far from defenceless themselves, and they may reject the advances of prospective suitors for days at a time until the cow is satisfied that a better prospect is unlikely. During this protracted courtship, the bull is extremely possessive of the female and may view almost anything as a potential threat to his mating rights, including the cow’s current calf. A calf is usually around 18 months old when its mother comes back into oestrus once again and is typically still suckling, so this process can be exceptionally traumatizing. In some instances, the bull may even injure or kill the calf, despite the mother’s protective efforts.

Rhino calves

After a gestation period of just under a year and a half, the cow moves off on her own to give birth and usually remains alone for several days or weeks before re-joining other rhinos. For those with a current calf, now around 2.5 to 3 years old, this means first breaking the existing bond. One can only imagine the confusion a young rhino experiences when, overnight, its once loving mother becomes completely intolerant and drives it away, impervious to its desperate and indignant squeals. When the cow is comfortable that her new calf is ready, she may once again tolerate the presence of the older calf, though their relationship is never quite the same.

Rhino calves are one of the most beguiling creatures imaginable – all ears and over-sized feet. They are almost puppy-like in their behaviour – scampering, gambolling, and bounding around their indulgent mothers before falling into an exhausted sleep. A protective mother weighing more than a ton is generally sufficient to deter most predators and natural calf mortalities are relatively rare – only lions and spotted hyenas have enough numbers to overwhelm the mother’s defence. Even then, it generally is not worth the effort.

Conclusion

Sadly, the same cannot be said for humans because rhino horn has a perceived value of over $60,000 per kilogram. The extent of the poaching crisis is beyond the scope or purpose of this article but so often hidden under devastating statistics is the profound loss of individual animals, unique in their characters and personalities. Beyond their importance in the ecosystem, those who have spent time with rhinos come to know just how different each rhinoceros can be – from docile, confiding, or curious to grumpy and unpredictable. And while rhinos are not outwardly demonstrative in their affection, their social bonds are both important and extremely touching for those fortunate enough to witness them.

As for Elizabeth, no amount of courage or spirit could have saved her from the poacher’s bullet that claimed her life some three years after she gave me the fright of mine.

About the author

Jamie Paterson – Scientific Editor at Africa Geographic

Jamie was born in Johannesburg and after completing her schooling in South Africa, spent three years at the University of Cambridge studying law. On successfully finishing her honours, she returned to South Africa and decided to head into the wilderness where she has worked as a research guide and television presenter. A desire to tell Africa’s stories as they deserve to be told led her to Africa Geographic, where she now works as the scientific editor.