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From our CEO – Simon Espley
NOW IS THE TIME: Shape up or ship out
Now that the CITES CoP20 in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, has slammed the door on Southern Africa’s doomed strategy to monetise ivory and rhino horn, it’s surely time for the sustainable wildlife industries to take a good, hard look at themselves.
The world no longer accepts the blunt ‘use it or lose it’ mantra, the fake claims of scientific methods and community benefits and the bullying of those of us who challenge their claims with probing questions. Decision-makers have made it clear that the primary focus on money does not cut it in wildlife conservation. That glossing over illegal and immoral practices has to stop if this once-proud industry is to rise from its self-imposed exile. They see through the thin veneer to the systemic flaws and credibility failures of a conservation model that is failing us all.
Where are the principled leaders who will step up in an industry so critical to protecting our biodiversity? Who will exorcise the morally bankrupt operators in their midst? Who will win back those, like me, who truly believe in sustainable wildlife use when conducted legally, ethically, and with science as the cornerstone? Will the respected farmers and landowners take their industry by the throat and turn it around, or is the rot so deep that the industry will never meet its potential? Time will tell. This Daily Maverick article makes for an excellent read on the matter.
On the same tack, thanks to all who provided feedback on my previous editorial and on our recent article about the Botswana elephant-hunting industry. One respected doyen of the tourism industry dropped me this message:
“We never had enough big old gentleman elephant bulls to satisfy this quota. And the impact of the over-extraction is now evident when one travels around Botswana. Sure, there are the occasional older bulls that have survived by keeping away from the hunting areas, and there are plenty of 30-something bulls around, but we are missing those grand old gents who are no longer around at scale to guide and mentor the greater herd.“ Enough said.
Leopards of the Western Cape are famously difficult to study. But new camera-trap findings from the Cape Leopard Trust show these predators are holding their ground in the Boland mountains. Over five months, camera trap images confirmed at least 38 individual leopards in the Boland, including breeding females.
Leopard detections at 72% of the 90 paired camera stations point to a stable, wide-ranging population in a landscape where the species has long persisted under pressure. The data will now be used to calculate density and compare trends with the region’s earlier surveys. So far, the positive trend shows that landowner co-operation and addressing illegal activity that threatens biodiversity in the Boland are paying off. And while researchers crunch the data, the leopards keep charting their own maps across the mountains, leaving a few glimpses in their path.
This week, we also unpack the latest data on Africa’s forest elephants – the most accurate representation of actual populations yet. We also revisit the enduring allure of South Luangwa and Nsefu with a comprehensive guide to visiting this incredible safari destination that has inspired the BBC’s Kingdom series.
Yours in wild adventure,
Did you know? Your African safari choice makes a difference
We donate a portion of the revenue from every safari sold to carefully selected conservation projects that make a significant difference at ground level. YOUR African safari choice does make a difference – thank you!
Our stories this week
SOUTH LUANGWA
Your guide to South Luangwa and Nsefu, Zambia: walking safaris, game drives, predators, top camps, and Luangwa River magicbulls
FOREST ELEPHANTS
Clearer numbers, urgent threats: what the latest data reveal about Africa’s forest elephants, and their Critically Endangered status
The Big 5, leopards galore and iconic landscapes: this safari focuses on two of Africa’s premier leopard locations, renowned for their relaxed spotted cats. From iconic elephants to giant baobab trees on wide, sandy riverbeds and cable-car river crossings to epic scenic flights, this safari has it all for those who seek an exclusive journey of discovery and adventure.
Discover the untamed beauty of South Luangwa National Park, Zambia – a renowned leopard stronghold and the birthplace of walking safaris. Embark on expertly guided bush walks and game drives, spend a night under the stars in a secluded sleepout, and refine your photographic skills in one of Africa’s finest hides. An authentic safari experience that reconnects you with the wild at its most raw and real.
Thank you for making a difference.
Your safari booking has directly supported the Ingwe Research Program’s Road Ecology Project – with a US$13,620 donation. Ingwe identifies leopard roadkill hotspots and safe wildlife crossings to protect vulnerable wildlife.
Your contribution will help fund the project’s final data-collection phase, scheduled for January–April 2026. This crucial field survey will provide the data needed to implement long-term mitigation measures and reduce wildlife-vehicle collisions. Support from Africa Geographic guests has arrived at the perfect moment, giving the project the stability it needs to move into its next phase.
You can make an even greater impact by joining and donating via our Spots on the Line campaign, which funds fieldwork, camera traps, and data analysis that save leopards.
When you travel with us, you’re not just exploring Africa’s wild places – you’re helping protect them. Check out some of our safari ideas here.
WATCH – AFRICAN SAFARI INSPIRATION:
A wild dog hunt, a pregnant hyena caught in the chaos, and a lion waiting to steal the moment. South Luangwa’s Nsefu delivers raw, gripping drama in the BBC’s Kingdom. (03:06) Click here to watch
South Luangwa is Zambia’s classic safari destination, shaped by a dynamic river system. It delivers intimate camps, strong guiding, and consistently rewarding wildlife viewing.
Nsefu is South Luangwa’s quieter, more remote sector, built for immersion. Predator viewing is exceptional here, and leopard encounters feel impressively reliable throughout.
The Luangwa River shapes floodplains and lagoons, concentrating wildlife through dry months. Plan June–October for classic viewing; green season is lush, quieter, and bird-rich too.
Game drives are central here, led by expert guides reading tracks and signs of the bush daily. Combine game drives with walking safaris, hides, and night drives where permitted.
Choose stays from easy Mfuwe comfort to ultra-immersive Nsefu camps across styles. Highlights include Puku Ridge views, Tafika adventure, Mwamba’s hide, and remote Olimba too.
For years, South Luangwa belonged to the safari insiders: a remote Zambian valley spoken about in lowered voices, prized for its raw wilderness and exceptional sightings. Now the secret is out. Travellers are arriving for a safari that feels close and unfiltered – a predator-rich landscape where leopard viewing is famously reliable, and where days are shaped by the Luangwa River’s floodplains, thickets and shifting channels. But where does one start when heading to this piece of African paradise? One of South Luangwa’s most wild and compelling areas is Nsefu. Nsefu is a destination built around classic, high-quality safari experiences, with a particularly strong reputation for epic game drives and walking safaris, excellent predator viewing, and small, seasonal camps that keep the focus on wilderness rather than crowds.
Here are all the practical tips you need for visiting South Luangwa. We’ve put this guide together to help you plan your journey, choose the right style of camp, and make the most of your time in South Luangwa – with a special focus on the Nsefu sector, one of the park’s most compelling corners.
At a glance
South Luangwa National Park lies in Zambia’s Luangwa Valley. There are two main areas of South Luangwa accessible to visitors: the Mfuwe and Nsefu sectors. The Nsefu sector is a standout safari area within the greater park.
In fact, the predators of Nsefu have recently risen to prominence, as the star characters in the BBC series, Kingdom – with its now famous lion pride, wild dog pack, hyena clan and leopard family all competing to make Nsefu their home. Yet, for those in the know, Nsefu has long been the park’s most addictive corner: a quieter, more remote stretch of South Luangwa where the river draws wildlife in. Here, game drives offer with long, clean viewing opportunities along the river edge and floodplain system, with few other vehicles present. Walking safaris are a core activity led by highly trained guides, and the chances of extraordinary sightings are high from the moment you arrive.
Battling it out in the heart of South Luangwa
South Luangwa covers roughly 9,050km², giving visitors a sense of scale that still feels properly wild. Most travellers access the area via Mfuwe Airport, with flights from Lusaka and other centres, making logistics more straightforward than many people expect.
For the best all-round game viewing, plan for the dry season (June to October) – with September and October often the hottest months and frequently the most intense for sightings. The green season (mid-November to April) brings flooding and a shift in emphasis: fewer vehicles, lusher scenery, and conditions that can favour slower safari days and a stronger birding focus, with many camps closing depending on location and access.
A classic South Luangwa photo – elephants stretching to indulge in the sweetest of foliage
What makes South Luangwa unique
Game drives: In South Luangwa, game drives are the core of most safaris. Early starts, late afternoons, and long stretches spent working productive loops along the river, lagoons and floodplains. The park’s guiding culture shines in the way drives are approached: unhurried, detail-focused, and built around reading habitat, light and movement rather than racing between sightings.
Walking safaris: Here, walking is not a once-off novelty. It is central to the valley’s safari identity. The park is widely described as the birthplace of the walking safari, and that heritage shows in the way experiences are designed: slower, more interpretive, and focused on tracking. For walking safaris, Nsefu’s quieter feel and excellent guides make it ideal for proper, interpretive walks: reading signs, and understanding the landscape at ground level rather than simply driving through it.
Combine walks with day and night drives, and (at certain camps) also spend time in hides for extended periods to let the bush come to you. This will ensure the most all-encompassing experience of Nsefu and South Luangwa.
Eventful game drives – with few other vehicles to share sightings – are the name of the game in Nsefu
The Luangwa River: Just as defining is the Luangwa River itself. Its seasonal rise and fall shapes everything – carving floodplains, forming oxbow lagoons, and constantly shifting channels and sandbanks. That river-built landscape concentrates wildlife at different times of year, influences movement and behaviour, and keeps each game drive or walk feeling distinct rather than repetitive.
Nsefu sits right on the Luangwa River system. The Nsefu sector is on the eastern side of the Luangwa River, and much of its best habitat and game viewing is tied to the riverbank, riverine woodland, and the floodplain/lagoon network created by the river’s seasonal rise and fall.
Sundowners overlooking the river
Predators: Nsefu adds another layer of appeal: consistently strong predator viewing on game drives, that holds its reputation across the season. This is one of the most reliable places in the region for leopard encounters, and many travellers choose Nsefu specifically because the odds of excellent sightings are so high. And with BBC’s Kingdom bringing the ongoing drama of predator life in this part of South Luangwa to a global audience, new travellers have been inspired to look beyond the usual safari names and experience Nsefu’s wild intensity for themselves.
Epic predator moments seem to be around every corner in South Luangwa
When to go
Dry season (June–October): best for classic safari
This is the most dependable time for a first-time visit, with dry conditions that make game viewing easier and more consistent across the park. Walking safaris are typically excellent in this period, with clear visibility and wildlife spending more time around reliable water sources. September and October can be particularly hot, but they often deliver intensely rewarding sightings as animals concentrate and the safari tempo sharpens.
The dry season is the best time for walking safaris
Green season (mid-November–April): different rewards
The green season changes the feel of South Luangwa completely, with flooded areas, lush scenery and a strong emphasis on birding. It can be a quieter time to travel, and some camps remain open, but conditions are more variable – access in certain areas may be affected by flooding. Itineraries can shift depending on where you stay and what the river is doing.
Buffaloes indulging in lush green-season grasses
What to expect (the practical reality)
A more intimate safari style: Many South Luangwa safaris feel notably intimate because so much of the accommodation is small, seasonal and designed to blend into the bush rather than dominate it. The best camps don’t try to impress with noise or novelty – they let the wilderness do the work.
Nsefu is more remote and quieter than the main Mfuwe side of South Luangwa. Being on the far side of the Luangwa River generally means fewer passing vehicles, fewer day visitors, and less “traffic” at sightings.
A wild dog – collared by researchers to provide data to support wild dog conservation – is spotted in an intimate sighting
A rhythm built around mornings, late afternoons and nights: Days settle into a classic safari rhythm: early starts, a pause through the heat of midday, and a return to the bush in the late afternoon, often stretching into the evening. Game drives and walking safaris form the backbone, and where camps offer hides, you can add unhurried hours simply waiting for the action to come to you.
Spotting a leopard kill while out on a game drive
Low-impact thinking is part of the conversation: Just as importantly, South Luangwa attracts travellers who care about impact. It offers low-footprint operations and responsible choices – from how camps are run to how they connect with nearby communities and contribute to the valley’s long-term health.
In Nsefu, that mindset feels especially tangible: smaller, quieter camps and a more immersive safari style naturally lend themselves to lighter impact, fewer vehicles, and a stronger sense of travelling gently through a wild place.
Red-billed queleas engulf a herd of zebra
Top experiences
Game drives – including night drives where permitted: Game drives form the backbone of South Luangwa’s itineraries, typically focused on early mornings and late afternoons when wildlife activity is highest. Where night drives are offered, they add an extra dimension: the bush feels less predictable, the atmosphere shifts, and the safari experience becomes sharper and more intense. Many lodges in Nsefu offer night drives – excellent for spotting leopards, lions, bush babies, civets, owls and other nocturnal treasures.
Walking safaris – the Luangwa essential: Walking is the signature experience here, and it’s one of the clearest reasons South Luangwa stands apart. On foot with highly trained guides, you move at a slower pace and begin to notice details that vehicle safaris can miss – tracks, clues, plants, and how the ecosystem fits together. It’s immersive, interpretive, and deeply place-based, which is exactly why the Luangwa is so highly regarded for walking.
Most Nsefu-area walking safaris are run as guided bush walks (usually in the cooler parts of the day), typically with small groups and a professional guide, often accompanied by an armed scout as part of standard safety practice in the park. In Nsefu’s camps, walks last around a few hours and cover a few kilometres through a mix of riverine and woodland habitats.
Large swarms of southern carmine bee-eaters are a common sight in South Luangwa
Hides – close-range, unhurried viewing: Hides are a major highlight in Nsefu because they encourage a different kind of safari – one built around patience rather than pursuit. You settle in, keep quiet, and let the wildlife come to you, often with close-range encounters unfolding on their own terms. The hide at Tafika Camp is the perfect example: it’s the sort of place where minutes turn into hours, and you stop chasing sightings altogether.
The hide at Tafika Camp
Culture and community connection (when done well):
A well-considered Luangwa safari can also include community-led cultural experiences that add context to the destination while supporting local livelihoods. Done responsibly, these encounters deepen a traveller’s understanding of the valley beyond wildlife alone, and help ensure tourism benefits extend beyond the park boundary.
Photographic safaris: South Luangwa is a strong photographic destination. It’s a place where you can spend time working a scene properly – whether that means staying longer at an active area, waiting out the light, or returning repeatedly to the same productive stretch. Nsefu’s open river edges, cleaner sightlines in the dry season, and the frequency of high-energy wildlife encounters make it an extra special draw for photographers.
South Luangwa is a photographer’s paradise
Where to stay
Below are five excellent styles of stay, from “easy logistics” to ultra-immersive bush.
Mfuwe Lodge – easy access, comfortable base
The view of wading hippos from Mfuwe Lodge
Best for: First-timers to the Luangwa; travellers who want comfort, amenities, and straightforward logistics close to the park gate.
Mfuwe Lodge is the simplest place to start, and a strong choice for first-timers who want comfort and straightforward logistics. It’s accessible and well-equipped, with modern amenities including a pool and spa, and its location close to the park gate makes transfers and timing easy. It’s also known for those memorable “wildlife-through-the-lodge” moments that have become part of Luangwa safari folklore – with elephants wandering through the reception area when local wild mango trees are fruiting: the kind of encounter that reminds you this valley is still very much wild, even at the heart of camp.
The view from one of the Puku Ridge tent splash pools
Best for: Travellers who want a more elevated, scenic lodge setting without losing the bush feel.
If you want bigger views without losing the bush feeling, Puku Ridge Camp delivers a more elevated perspective. Perched on a ridge overlooking the Kukumbi floodplain, it’s designed for easy scanning and constant sightlines of ongoing action. The semi-tented chalets, each with a private deck, strike a strong balance between comfort and immersion – ideal for travellers who want a touch more luxury while still feeling close to the elements.
Mwamba Bush Camp – ultra-intimate, wilderness-first
Mwamba Bush Camp sundowners
Best for: Safari purists; repeat travellers; anyone who wants the feeling of living inside the ecosystem.
For travellers who want the most intimate, wilderness-first experience, Mwamba Bush Camp is the standout. Located at the confluence of the East Mwamba and main Mwamba Rivers with only four chalets, it’s ultra-personal and deliberately low-key, perfect for safari purists or anyone wanting to feel like they’re living inside the ecosystem rather than visiting it. Wildlife can move right through camp, and Mwamba’s “Last Waterhole Hide” is a signature highlight – a place for close-range, unhurried viewing where you can settle in and let the action come to you.
Tafika Camp – adventure and variety, just north of Nsefu
Tafika Camp chalet
Best for: Active travellers who want walking, driving, and something extra beyond the vehicle.
Just north of Nsefu, Tafika Camp offers a different energy: adventurous, friendly, and ideally set up for travellers who want variety in how they explore. It balances rustic charm with real comfort and is excellent for walking safaris and game drives, with biking available for those keen to add something active and slightly unconventional to their safari. Tafika is also one of the locations from which BBC series Kingdom was filmed – a detail that has become part of its appeal for travellers arriving with the landscape already etched into their minds.
Olimba Camp – off-the-beaten-path Nsefu
Olimba Camp’s eco-friendly concept chalet, opening in 2026
Best for: Adventurous travellers who want quieter corners and a less commercial feel – ideal for lodge-hopping within the park.
For an off-the-beaten-path finish – or a stay built around quieter corners – Olimba Camp, opening in 2026, is the hidden gem. It’s less commercialised and more remote, designed for travellers who want a calmer, more exploratory safari and who enjoy the feeling of discovering lesser-known areas rather than focusing on the busiest routes. Olimba formerly served as a base for the crew filming Kingdom, reinforcing just how compelling this Nsefu wilderness area is.
Why you’ll want to go
South Luangwa still delivers what many safari destinations promise but can’t always sustain: a sense of place. Nsefu, in particular, feels like the park’s wild core – predator-rich, quiet, and made for travellers who want to do safari properly: walk, watch, wait, and go deep. Add the global spotlight of Kingdom, and it’s no surprise that this “once secret” corner of Zambia is now firmly on travellers’ wish lists.
A hyena clan makes a meal of it
Further reading
South Luangwa National Park and Nsefu area are centred around the Luangwa River, and life in the valley benefits from its rich floodplains that spill over into the surrounding plains, savannas and woodlands – ideal safari habitat. Read more about South Luangwa and Nsefu here.
A new continent-wide assessment provides the most accurate picture to date of Africa’s forest elephants. The African Elephant Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission produced the report.
The report improves understanding of this elusive species, enabling stronger conservation planning based on reliable data.
Updated estimates show 135,690 forest elephants across surveyed areas. This reflects improved DNA-based survey methods – not population recovery, with additional elephants representing previously unsurveyed landscapes.
Forest elephants remain Critically Endangered, with major threats including poaching, habitat loss, land-use change and fragmented populations, especially in West Africa and parts of Central Africa.
DNA capture-recapture methodsand expanded monitoring have reduced uncertainty in population estimates, revealing previously undetected elephants.
Despite more precise data, declines continue in key regions, and long-term recovery requires more substantial anti-poaching efforts, improved habitat connectivity and sustained international support to protect these essential forest ecosystem engineers.
A new assessment of African forest elephants provides the most complete and reliable understanding of this species to date. While the updated numbers offer a more accurate picture of forest elephant distribution, and an uptick in previous estimates, they also confirm the species remains Critically Endangered and under high threat from poaching, habitat loss and human pressure.
Forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) are found mainly in Central and West Africa, with small populations in East and Southern Africa. They live in some of the continent’s thickest tropical forests, which makes them difficult to count. Because of this, conservation efforts have previously been held back by gaps in basic information.
The African Forest Elephant Status Report 2024 is the first-ever continent-wide focused solely on forest elephants. It draws from the African Elephant Database (AED), which compiles survey data across 22 range states. This is also the first status report produced since forest and savannah elephants were formally recognised as separate species in 2021.
The result is a clearer understanding of population size, spatial trends and threats. As Yuta Masuda of the Allen Family Philanthropies stated: “Accurate and up-to-date data are critical for understanding the status of African Forest Elephants and strengthening their protection.”
Updated forest elephant numbers: what the data show
According to the report, an estimated 135,690 forest elephants were found in areas surveyed between 2016 and 2024. The 95% confidence interval places the actual number between 99,343 and 172,297, and an additional 7,728 to 10,990 elephants may live in unsurveyed areas.
These figures represent a 16% increase compared to the last assessment in 2016. This does not mean the species is recovering. Instead, improved survey technologies, notably DNA spatial capture–recapture methods, have reduced uncertainty and revealed elephants that were previously missed.
As Prof Rob Slotow, Co–Chair of the African Elephant Specialist Group, clarifies: “The updated numbers of African Forest Elephants should not be interpreted as population growth, but rather as the result of improved survey coverage made possible by DNA–based methods.”
The new numbers reflect better data, not a recovery in population numbers.
Young forest elephants in Dzanga-Sangha Special Reserve, Central African Republic
Why DNA methods changed the picture of forest elephants
Forest elephants live in dense rainforest where visibility is extremely limited. Standard aerial or ground counts do not work well in these conditions. In the past, most estimates came from dung counts, which required scientists to guess how quickly dung decays. These guesses added uncertainty.
The latest report uses a major improvement in methodology: genetic capture–recapture. By collecting dung samples across large areas and identifying the unique DNA profile of each elephant, researchers can work out how many individuals were sampled and re-sampled. This produces much more accurate population estimates.
This method was used most notably in Gabon’s 2021 national survey, which significantly changed understanding of the country’s forest elephant numbers. Gabon alone now accounts for 66% of the global population. Congo-Brazzaville (the Republic of the Congo) holds 19%, with the remaining animals across 20 other range states.
In addition to Gabon, new surveys in northern Congo-Brazzaville (the Republic of the Congo) and Angola added roughly 600 to 700 elephants to the “new population” category noted in the report.
Overall, 94% of counted forest elephants now come from high–confidence estimates, compared to 53% in 2016.
Where forest elephants remain
Forest elephant distribution is uneven. The updated continental range covers 907,830km², of which 74% has been surveyed. Central Africa remains the species’ stronghold, holding just under 95% of the global population.
Central Africa: Central Africa is home to the most intact tropical forests and the majority of forest elephants. Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville together support 85% of all forest elephants. Here, populations persist mainly in remote forests with strong anti-poaching efforts.
However, major losses continue in some places. The Okapi Wildlife Reserve in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), once an important stronghold, lost about 7 000 elephants when combined with losses in the W–Arly–Pendjari complex in Burkina Faso.
West Africa: West Africa’s population makes up only 5% of forest elephants. Populations are fragmented and isolated due to extensive habitat loss. Forest cover in the Upper Guinean region declined by about 90% between 1900 and 2013.
East and Southern Africa: East and Southern Africa account for less than 1% of the global total. Small populations survive in Uganda, Rwanda, South Sudan and Angola. Many were counted for the first time using updated DNA techniques.
African forest elephants drink and feed in a forest clearing – a baï – in Dzanga-Sangha Special Reserve
Poaching, habitat loss and conflict
Although poaching rates have declined in some regions since 2018 or 2019, the illegal killing of forest elephants remains high. Forest elephants’ slow reproductive rate, with long gestation periods and long intervals between births, means populations can’t rebound quickly.
Poaching trends vary by region. Central Africa experienced intense poaching from 2003 to 2018. The report recorded 1,080 carcasses at Central African MIKE sites (spots monitored under the CITES Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants Programme) between 2016 and 2024. A total of 730 of these were illegally killed.
In West Africa, weaker monitoring and extensive land–use pressure make trends harder to interpret, but the W–Arly–Pendjari complex shows serious decline.
Habitat loss and fragmentation are expanding threats. Logging, mining, roads, and large–scale agriculture reduce forest cover, create access routes for poachers, and increase human–elephant conflict. Forest elephants often raid crops when habitat is disrupted, leading to retaliatory killings and political pressure.
“We need strengthened anti–poaching measures, better land–use planning for habitat connectivity, and sustained international support to translate the cautious hope provided by this report into long–term recovery,” says Dr Benson Okita–Ouma, Co–Chair of the African Elephant Specialist Group.
Lack of recovery
Forest elephants are important ecological engineers. Their browsing, bark stripping and seed dispersal maintain the structure of Africa’s tropical forests. Some tree species rely almost entirely on forest elephants to disperse large seeds (see, for example, how a decline in Central Africa’s forest elephants has led to a similar decline in ebony trees). A continued decline would alter forest composition and reduce carbon storage.
Despite their importance, forest elephants declined by more than 86% over 31 years up to 2015, driven by poaching and habitat loss. The species’ listing as Critically Endangered reflects this steep decline.
The 2024 report does not show signs of recovery. Instead, it highlights an urgent moment for action. As Dr Grethel Aguilar, IUCN Director General, notes: “This report provides the most accurate picture of elusive African forest elephant populations to date.” A brief moment of clarity, and a warning.
The new assessment offers a sharper, more comprehensive view of a species that has long been difficult to monitor. The numbers are higher not because forest elephants are safer, but because scientists can now count them more accurately. Many populations continue to decline, and major threats remain. But with more accurate data, comes a stronger opportunity to focus conservation efforts where they count.
“With this new data, we have an unprecedented opportunity to focus conservation efforts where they are needed most and give the species a real chance to recover,” says Aguilar.
African forest elephants remain Critically Endangered – and while new DNA-based surveys have improved population estimates, poaching, habitat loss and conflict continue to threaten their survival.
Elephants and ebony: new research reveals how Africa’s forest elephants sustain its darkest wood – and what happens when they vanish
Forest elephant numbers are believed to have plummeted 86% in just 31 years, yet their role in maintaining forest ecosystems is critical. Read more about these endangered gardeners here.
Research has uncovered population density declines of 90% for forest elephants and 70% for savannah elephants across Africa in 53 years. Read more about this alarming study here.
Stunning high-definition camera trap images reveal Nouabalé-Ndoki’s hidden creatures, including golden cat, leopard, forest elephant and palm civet. Check out these portraits of Congo’s ghosts here
Decoding Botswana’s elephant hunting quotas + your day on safari + Black Friday Okavango offer
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From our CEO – Simon Espley
The math and the impact of Botswana’s elephant trophy-hunting quotas are clear; do we care?
Sadly, most people who encounter our report below about Botswana trophy hunting will scan it and then move on. No dramatic headlines or sensational rumours to fuel the social media feeds.
Most will miss the message that seemingly minuscule trophy-hunting quotas, in the context of ‘too many elephants’, disrupt population dynamics and accelerate the looming demise of large-tusked elephants. Because, like poaching, trophy hunters surgically remove the tiny portion of male elephants that have large tusks. The usual rhetoric from trophy hunting acolytes is that killing only 0.3% of the population per year is sustainable. It’s not.
Because trophy hunting targets the biggest bulls, which comprise a tiny and already limited portion of the population. The science says that the current quota will reduce Botswana’s bulls aged 30 and older by 25% and bulls over 50 by 50% compared with a no-hunting situation. The math is simple and easy to comprehend if you calm the ideological fervour and have both eyes open.
As I write this, my Facebook feed is awash with news that UK trophy hunter Ricky Clark claims to have killed the last lion on permit in Benin, from where lions are rapidly disappearing. That’s how extinction happens – very slowly and then suddenly. There are about 85+ tuskers left in Africa. Watch that space …
Vultures rarely make the headlines, but they quietly hold ecosystems together. That’s why it’s worth giving Mokala National Park in South Africa’s Northern Cape airtime this week, for making vulture conservation history. In a first for a South African national park, Mokala has been declared a Vulture Safe Zone, thanks to work between SANParks and the Endangered Wildlife Trust. Home to a critical breeding population of endangered white-backed vultures, Mokala is now one of the country’s most important strongholds for the species.
Since 2008, targeted action has reduced poisoning risks, made power infrastructure safer, and removed hazards such as open reservoirs, where vultures often drown. More than 1,100 vulture chicks have already been ringed and tagged here. Add stricter controls on toxic veterinary drugs, and Mokala’s skies are looking a little safer for our planet’s most efficient clean-up crew.
This week, we dig into Botswana’s elephant hunting debate with a critical new report, and take you through what to expect on a typical safari day, from first light to star-filled nights.
Yours in wild adventure,
Did you know? Your African safari choice makes a difference
We donate a portion of the revenue from every safari sold to carefully selected conservation projects that make a significant difference at ground level. YOUR African safari choice does make a difference – thank you!
Our stories this week
BOTSWANA ELEPHANT HUNTING
A new Elephants Without Borders report reviews Botswana’s elephant hunting system, scrutinising quotas, transparency & risks to mature bulls
YOUR SAFARI DAY
Experience a full day on safari, from sunrise sightings to starlit nights, and discover what wildlife and moments each part of the day offers
The Big 5, leopards galore & iconic landscapes: this safari focuses on two of Africa’s premier leopard locations, renowned for their relaxed spotted cats. From iconic elephants to giant baobab trees on wide, sandy riverbeds and cable-car river crossings to epic scenic flights, this safari has it all for those who seek an exclusive journey of discovery and adventure.
Journey through three of Botswana’s most iconic landscapes: the arid Central Kalahari, the lush Okavango Delta, and the mighty Chobe River. Enjoy luxurious lodges, fine dining, and seamless service as you follow wildlife from salt pans and desert dunes to glistening lagoons and wide rivers. This safari is shaped by water and the life it sustains.
Know someone who dreams of an African safari? Introduce them to us and earn 5% of their safari value (up to US$1,000) when they book. Cash, credit, or donation – your choice.
You already know the magic of an Africa Geographic safari – now share it! Simply email us now and copy in your friend who is keen to travel, and we’ll take it from there.
AG safari guests Aidan and Yasmin from the UK went on a perfect birthday safari to Kenya:
A top company to help organise and arrange your perfect safari trip. Benjamin was extremely helpful in tailoring our experience exactly as we wanted it, from the initial conversations to the suggested changes to the organisation whilst on the trip. I would thoroughly recommend Africa Geographic. If you want peace of mind for your perfect once-in-a-lifetime trip, then this is the company for you. Will definitely be recommending them and using them again if and when we visit Africa!
Once abandoned, Tanzania’s Kwakuchinja Corridor is coming back to life. This short film, Guardians of the Corridor, follows the rangers, communities and partners leading its revival between Tarangire and Lake Manyara. (08:11) Click here to watch
Picture it: you’ve arrived on safari, greeted by a world of possibility (and wildlife) that will shape each day of your stay. The rhythm of safari life is wonderfully fluid. Between game drives, meals, spa treatments, pool time and wildlife wandering past your room, deciding how to spend your hours becomes a rather delightful challenge.
If you’re wondering what a day on safari might look like, and when the best wildlife moments tend to unfold, here’s our guide to help you shape your perfect safari experience.
What would your ideal safari day look like?
Safari mornings
This is hands down the Africa Geographic team’s favourite time of day. Ask any guide, and nine times out of ten, they will tell you that the early morning is when the bush truly shines. If there’s one drive you don’t want to skip, it’s this one.
Safari mornings begin in the soft pre-dawn hush, with steaming coffee and cool air shaking off any lingering sleep. The excitement comes from not knowing what lies ahead. Nocturnal animals are still on the move, leaving fresh tracks (nature’s morning newspaper) while diurnal species begin to stir and take advantage of the pleasant temperatures.
Returning from a night on the prowl
For similar reasons, early morning is also the ideal time for a guided walk. Whether you’re tracking wildlife on foot or scanning the horizon from a vehicle, the colours, scents and sounds are heightened at dawn. And no matter where you are in Africa, sunrise rarely disappoints. It’s a feast for the senses and a perfect time for photography. Just imagine the channels and floodplains of the Okavango Delta coming alive at dawn as elephants, lechwe and herons move through the mist. Or picture a morning on the plains of Serengeti National Park, where predators return from nighttime hunts while great herds drift across grasslands.
Expect: Crisp air, top wildlife activity, beautiful light, fresh tracks, high energy.
Sleep in, and you may miss a magical morning sunrise
Midday on safari
By late morning, most guests return to camp for brunch or lunch, followed by downtime during the heat of the day. In general, midday is not peak wildlife-viewing time; most animals sensibly retreat to shade to rest or ruminate, and the harsh overhead sun makes photography trickier.
There can still be action in the middle of the day
But safari is never predictable. This is the perfect time to visit waterholes, where elephants snorkel, and rhinos wallow in mud baths. And because many guests are back at camp, there’s always the chance of having a special sighting all to yourself. Cheetahs and leopards sometimes hunt at this time, taking advantage of reduced competition from lions and hyenas. Or picture a midday in Greater Kruger, where midday hours can surprise you with elephants gathering at waterholes and leopards resting in the shade of marula trees.
Expect: Slower wildlife activity, excellent waterhole viewing, quiet bush time, relaxed hours at camp.
Elephants gather at the water in MalaMala, Greater Kruger
The best way to spend the afternoon
As the heat begins to ebb, the bush revives. Animals emerge from the shade, birds pick up their chorus, and the golden light returns. Even in winter, early afternoons are warm, but don’t trust anyone who says it never gets cold in Africa: take a jacket for the evening return.
Sunset on safari is a daily performance, with skies painted in reds, oranges and soft pinks. For those hoping to see elusive nocturnal creatures such as aardvarks or pangolins, winter afternoons offer the best chance, as they may begin moving earlier than usual. Destinations such as South Luangwa and Chobe National Parks are famous for fiery sunsets, making afternoon drives especially rewarding.
The perfect way to end a day on the Luangwa River
Expect: Great general game viewing, warm colours, classic sunsets, and increasing animal activity.
At sunset, the wilderness comes alive
Safari under the stars
Evening drives and night drives offer a different experience altogether. Yes, predators are on the move, and nocturnal species begin their nightly routines. But sightings are often fleeting, and your guide’s careful spotlight work must always prioritise ethical viewing, especially near hunts.
Sunset views on an evening drive
Still, night drives reveal safari characters you may otherwise miss: bushbabies leaping through branches, chameleons glowing under torchlight, civets slinking along sandy tracks. And then there’s the soundtrack: roaring lions, whooping hyenas, and a sky filled with stars stretching across the wilderness. Imagine an evening in Hwange National Park, where night brings the sounds of roaring lions and restless elephants filtering through from the riverbanks and teak forests.
Trailing a leopard on a night drive in Greater Kruger
Note that not all national parks permit night drives; choose a private reserve or conservancy if you’d like to include them.
Expect: Mysterious atmosphere, nocturnal wildlife, dramatic night sounds and astronomical moments.
The magic of the bushveld night sky
The FOMO factor
If you’re looking for consistency, the morning game drive is usually the most rewarding safari outing of the day. That said, safari is also a holiday, if you want to skip a drive and indulge in a massage or enjoy elephants drinking at the lodge waterhole, go for it. Just remember that Murphy’s Law is alive and well in the bush… and your fellow guests may return with the inevitable “you’ll never guess what we saw!”
Expect: Unforgettable moments, whether you head out or stay in camp.
Sometimes staying in camp is a great safari option
A new Elephants Without Borders report reviews Botswana’s elephant hunting programme and examines whether the science, quotas and management systems guiding it are reliable.
The report studies how hunting affects elephants when combined with drought, poaching, tusk damage and changing movement patterns across northern Botswana.
It explains why older male elephants are important. When hunting targets the biggest bulls, it reduces an already limited segment of the population, changing herd structure and reducing the number of big bulls.
The review questions the scientific methods used by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and compares official quota rules with more up-to-date population models.
It highlights limited data sharing, and recommends more careful quotas, better transparency and stronger protection to support long-term elephant conservation.
The report also notes concern over the conflict of interest arising from a pro-hunting organisation (Conservation Force) authoring national management plans with limited public consultation.
A new technical report by Elephants Without Borders offers the most detailed independent review so far of Botswana’s elephant hunting programme. It looks at the science behind hunting quotas, the pressures affecting elephant numbers and how the government decides how many elephants can be taken. Because Botswana has the world’s largest remaining savannah elephant population, weak management can affect conservation, rural communities and wider international wildlife policy.
The report, authored by Scott Schlossberg and Michael Chase, focuses on the sustainability of current hunting levels. It does not advocate for or against trophy hunting; instead, it evaluates the quality of the science used by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) and explores how hunting interacts with poaching, drought, tusk breakage and elephant movement. These combined pressures help show whether trophy hunting can continue without harming the long-term health of Botswana’s elephants.
Cover pages from the report, Scientific Review of Botswana’s Elephant Hunting Programme: An Elephants Without Borders Technical Report
Understanding elephant age structure
Elephants can live for more than 60 years and reproduce slowly. Mature bulls, in particular, are biologically and socially significant. Bulls in their 30s and older play key roles in guiding younger males, maintaining social order and contributing the majority of successful breeding. However, they naturally make up only a small proportion of any wild elephant population.
The report explains that even in well-protected populations, large, old bulls are rare. For example, in Tanzania’s Tarangire ecosystem, where elephants face minimal poaching or hunting, males aged 25 to 39 comprise only about 5% of the population. Males aged 40 or older make up less than 1%. When hunting targets the biggest bulls, it reduces an already limited segment of the population.
EWB’s modelling shows the impact clearly. With the current quota of about 0.3% of the total population per year,bulls aged 30 and older could drop by almost 25% compared with a no-hunting situation.Bulls over 50 could fall by 50%. These losses matter because hunting relies on large males, and elephant society relies on their leadership and breeding role.
An elephant in the Okavango Delta
Quotas and biological realities
DWNP says that hunting up to 1% of the national elephant population each year is sustainable. The report finds no scientific support for this claim and shows that different quota levels lead to very different results.
When the quota is set at 1%, large bulls disappear rapidly from the population. At the current level of 0.3%, mature males still decline substantially, especially when combined with other pressures. According to the report, more sustainable outcomes are observed at lower quotas between 0.1 and 0.2%. These would maintain a greater number of older bulls and allow the population to absorb periods of heightened ecological stress.
A key problem is how DWNP decides which elephants are counted as available for hunting. The department assumes that elephants move freely between hunting and non-hunting areas, forming a single well-mixed population. The report argues that this assumption does not reflect reality. Elephants in heavily hunted concessions rely on animals immigrating from neighbouring protected areas. If movements are disrupted by drought, fences, or human disturbance, the hunted population may not replenish itself.
What the new models show
To assess whether hunting is sustainable, the authors built a new model using real survival data, male and female differences and the selective removal of big bulls. This is different from the older Craig et al. model still used by DWNP, which relies on invented numbers and assumes elephants always breed at full speed. The report says these flaws weaken the scientific basis of today’s quotas and the Non-Detriment Findings submitted to CITES.
EWB’s modelling shows that ecological stressors make each other worse. Droughts, poaching and movements restricted by fences all reduce the number of big bulls.
When combined with hunting, these pressures produce declines in both the number and the average tusk size of hunted elephants. Under a 0.3% quota, trophy size declines when ecological pressures interact. Under a 0.1% quota, the system is more resilient, and the decline in trophy size is more modest.
“In our models, we predicted what will happen to the hunting industry under different scenarios for the future,” says report author Scott Schlossberg. “When numbers of bulls become depleted, this directly impacts the hunting industry: they have fewer bulls to hunt, and hunters are forced to take younger bulls with smaller tusks. That sort of change can impact the hunting outfits’ bottom line and the revenue that Botswana receives from hunting fees. A sustainable hunting industry requires a healthy elephant population.”
Drought also compromises populations, which should be taken into consideration when setting quotas
Interactions with poaching, drought, tusk damage and human-wildlife conflict
Hunting does not operate in isolation. The report emphasises that Botswana faces several external pressures that can reduce the pool of huntable elephants.
Poaching is still a concern. Even relatively small numbers of illegally killed bulls can reduce trophy quality and also the availability of older males. The report notes the importance of improved monitoring and surveillance. Appendix 2 of the report shows that poaching is rising in important northern landscapes and that poachers are targeting the same large, older bulls valued by trophy hunters. Even low levels of poaching can shrink the number of mature bulls, disrupt social behaviour and reduce trophy quality. The report calls for stronger surveillance, faster reporting of carcasses and open records of elephant deaths.
The report warns that this organised, cross-border poaching is now one of the most serious threats to Botswana’s elephants. During 2017–2018, 156 poached carcasses were recorded, suggesting around 400 elephants were killed in five hotspots. Between October 2023 and May 2025, a further 120 elephants were poached in NG15 and NG18. Over six months, authorities intercepted seven armed gangs leaving Botswana with freshly taken tusks, confiscating 103 tusks weighing nearly three tonnes.
Using a conservative value of USD 1.5 million per elephant, the poaching of around 120 elephants a year equals about USD 180 million (BWP 2.51 billion) in national losses. This is wealth taken directly from the State, from rural communities that rely on wildlife income, and from the tourism sector.
“In Botswana, poachers and trophy hunters are both targeting the same elephants: older bulls with big tusks,” says Schlossberg. “Poaching directly affects hunting by reducing the number of bulls available to hunters. In the long run, controlling poaching is one of the best ways to ensure the sustainability of legal hunting.”
Poachers arrested in Zambia, found with ivory from elephants poached in Botswana. The growing sophistication of trafficking networks continues to threaten the country’s remaining big bulls
Drought also complicates management. Climate projections suggest more frequent drought events in southern Africa. Drought kills more elephants (especially reducing numbers of calves and females – leading to lower numbers of bulls in future years).
Retaliatory killings linked to rising conflict in agricultural zones cause additional losses. When these pressures overlap, the effects get worse. Drought-weakened bulls are easier targets for poachers, conflict kills more males, and the shortage leaves hunters focusing on the last old bulls.
Tusk breakage is another issue. Many big bulls damage their tusks during fights or when pushing over trees. These bulls are still important to the population but are less attractive to hunters. This reduces the number of huntable elephants, yet DWNP does not include tusk damage in its quota calculations.
The report discusses disease as one of several additional mortality risks that could influence elephant numbers and, therefore, the sustainability of hunting quotas.
The report notes that a major disease event occurred in 2020, when approximately 350 elephants died in northern Botswana, most likely from bacterial septicaemia. It also highlights that seasonal pans in the region harbour viruses potentially lethal to elephants. Although mass disease die-offs are described as historically uncommon, the report warns that future outbreaks could affect population size and age structure, and should therefore be incorporated into hunting planning if they continue or increase.
Together, these threats demonstrate that Botswana’s elephant population, though large, contains a narrow and irreplaceable pool of prime-aged males that could be depleted if hunting is combined with these additional threats.
“When DWNP was planning for hunting, they assumed a healthy environment with few threats to elephants,” says Schlossberg. “In the real world, we know that elephants are being lost to drought, poaching, disease, and retaliatory killings. We don’t know exactly what future levels of these losses will be. Setting a lower quota, at 0.1 or 0.2% of the population, is the best way to ensure that we have enough mature bulls to withstand whatever happens in the future
Elephants killed by bacterial septicaemia
Hunting in photographic tourism zones
The report raises concerns about hunting inside areas designated for photographic tourism. One example is NG13, a section of an elephant movement corridor connecting the Okavango Delta to Angola. NG13 is a photographic tourism zone, yet it remains the only part of this transboundary corridor where hunting is still permitted. The authors argue that this undermines the corridor’s ecological integrity and disregards the intended land-use designations. It also risks conflict between hunting operators and photographic tourism, both of which depend on the presence of large bulls.
An elephant tusker hunted in NG13, northern Botswana. Faces have been obscured for legal reasons – in accordance with privacy and defamation laws
Controversial finding: Quotas exceed DWNP’s own stated maximum
One major finding is that DWNP is not following its own quota formula. DWNP’s own Non-Detriment Finding says hunting should stay below 0.5% of the elephants inside hunting blocks. These blocks contain about 45,000 elephants, which means the quota should be around 225 elephants.
However, the report shows that the 2025 quota was set at 410 elephants and later raised to 431. This equals about 0.9% of the elephants in the hunting blocks, which is almost double the limit DWNP itself set. The authors say this large difference weakens the scientific credibility of the quota system and increases the risk of overharvesting mature males. Supporters of the current system may argue that quotas are based on the national elephant population instead. The report explains that this approach conflicts with DWNP’s own written guidance for how quotas should be calculated.
Quotas for elephant hunting across Botswana, showing differences in offtake pressure between zones. Source: Schlossberg & Chase, 2025
Controversial finding: Limited transparency and potential conflicts of interest
The report says a lack of transparency is a significant problem in the hunting programme. EWB documents four years of unanswered requests to DWNP and the Ministry of Environment for basic hunting data. Data such as ages and tusk measurements of hunted elephants, annual offtakes, quota allocations per concession and records of elephants killed through Problem Animal Control were requested. None of this information has been provided.
“If elephant hunting in Botswana is sustainable, then there should be nothing damaging or embarrassing in the data preventing its being shared with the public. Releasing this data could increase public confidence that elephant hunting in Botswana is sustainable,” state the authors.
The report also notes concern over the conflict of interest arising from a pro-hunting organisation (Conservation Force) authoring national management plans with limited public consultation.
The authors say that without public access to these records, it is impossible to judge whether hunting is truly sustainable. They point out that Conservation Force, a US-based hunting advocacy organisation, prepared Botswana’s Elephant Management Plan. According to the report, this process involved minimal public consultation, raising questions about conflicts of interest and whether national wildlife policy is being shaped without adequate scientific review.
Supporters of the current system may argue that hunting contributes to community livelihoods and that opposition risks undermining Botswana’s sovereign right to manage its wildlife. The report, however, frames transparency as a strength rather than a threat, arguing that robust data sharing would enhance public trust and improve decision-making.
Recommendations and the way forward
The authors recommend several changes to make the hunting programme more sustainable. They suggest reducing maximum quotas to 0.2% of the elephant population, improving transparency by releasing hunting and Problem Animal Control data each year, and honouring photographic tourism zones within Wildlife Management Areas.
The report also recommends restricting hunting to the dry season, when elephants are more predictable and less widely dispersed, and increasing anti-poaching efforts through aerial surveillance and technology.
The main message is that sustainable hunting requires careful management, realistic scientific assumptions, and open decision-making. Selective hunting combined with drought, poaching and other pressures creates risks that can only be reduced through strong science and transparent oversight.
The report recommends increasing anti-poaching efforts through aerial surveillance and technology
Why this matters
Botswana’s decisions will influence African savannah elephants across southern Africa. The country hosts more than a third of the continent’s remaining elephants, and its landscapes form vital movement corridors for transboundary wildlife populations. The hunting programme, therefore, has implications well beyond individual concessions.
The report shows that hunting must be managed alongside ecological, economic and social needs. Whether people support or reject trophy hunting, the future of Botswana’s elephants depends on quotas based on solid evidence, open decision-making and monitoring systems that track the combined effects of multiple pressures. As climate change intensifies and land use becomes more contested, clear, transparent and science-based management is essential to protect both elephants and the livelihoods that depend on them.
AG follows the money to reveal how this trophy hunter makes huge profits by not adequately compensating the NG13 communities in Botswana. Read more here
Hunting in Botswana: Human-wildlife conflict scientist takes a deeper look at whether the historic hunting ban was good or bad for elephants and people
Does the hunting of elephant bulls with large tusks lead to the decline of Africa’s tuskers? We examine the science
Zebras on the move + Gonarezhou’s elephant corridors + ultimate Botswana safari
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From our CEO – Simon Espley
The smell of death was all around us, and one of our guests was having none of it. We were on a game drive in the vast Kwando Private Reserve in northern Botswana, following a massive herd of buffalo for hours, knowing that a pride of lions was in the area and likely to hunt again soon. The lions struck in the early evening and pulled down a craggy dagga boy. It was a helluva fight that went on for about 20 minutes, bellowing, growling, dust, blood and then that acrid smell as the body was opened up and bits dragged all over the place. Gruesome for sure, nature doing her thing.
The kill, so often skipped over in glossy wildlife documentaries, is an emotional experience that triggers us all, frequently resulting in a mix of tears, silent contemplation and even disgust. On this occasion, one of our guests had had enough and wanted to leave the scene. Everyone else wanted to stay; in fact, we all wanted to remain on the scene for as long as possible. Hyenas were circling, as were some of the buffalo herd. What to do?
One thing experienced travellers to Africa know is that nothing is ever a problem. Hakuna matata. We retreated to watch from afar while arrangements were made over the two-way radio. Thirty minutes later, the lodge manager had picked up the distraught guest and dropped off our dinner, carefully wrapped in wicker baskets. We were soon back at the scene, fascinated as the Greatest Show on Earth played itself out around us. It was a late night.
To our guests still out there as the dry season peaks in some areas and has been broken by welcome rain in others: Safari njema, good people!
A remote camera trap in South Africa’s West Coast National Park has confirmed something long hoped for: leopards have returned to the area for the first time in 170 years! The species vanished from this Cape coastline in the mid-1800s. But leopards have slowly begun to recolonise parts of the Western, Eastern and Northern Cape. This photograph is the most unmistakable evidence yet that restored corridors and recovering habitats along the West Coast are working.
The sighting follows years of coordinated effort by Landmark Leopard and Predator Project, SANParks, researchers, municipalities and private landowners. Their focus on reconnecting landscapes, improving protection and strengthening coexistence has allowed leopards to move more safely across a region once closed to them. Hooray!
This week, we bring you a practical guide to Botswana’s zebra migration, and new research on how elephants from Zimbabwe’s Gonarezhou National Park move beyond park borders.
Yours in wild adventure,
Did you know? Your African safari choice makes a difference
We donate a portion of the revenue from every safari sold to carefully selected conservation projects that make a significant difference at ground level. YOUR African safari choice does make a difference – thank you!
Our stories this week
ZEBRA MIGRATIONS
Explore Botswana’s spectacular zebra migrations, tracing ancient routes & seasonal movements across the Salt Pans, Okavango Delta & Chobe
GONAREZHOU’S ELEPHANTS
A recent study shows how Gonarezhou’s elephants move beyond park borders, highlighting barriers & urgent need for corridor restoration
Journey through Botswana’s most spectacular wilderness regions, from the wide-open Makgadikgadi salt pans to the shimmering waterways of the northern Okavango Delta and the predator-rich woodlands of Moremi. Expect a seamless blend of high-end comfort and extraordinary wildlife encounters: a safari crafted for travellers who want Botswana at its finest. Soar low over floodplains by helicopter, drift silently in a mokoro through reed corridors, walk with Bushmen trackers, and meet the charismatic meerkats of the Kalahari. Exclusive access to private concessions and a collection of remarkable lodges.
Embark on the ultimate northern safari circuit, from the foothills of Mount Meru in Arusha to the elephant-rich plains of Tarangire, the lush Ngorongoro Crater, and the predator-filled northern Serengeti. Expect a feast of wildlife encounters, dramatic Great Migration river crossings, and breathtaking views over some of Africa’s most iconic landscapes. Experience Tanzania’s legendary northern parks at their very best.
Know someone who dreams of an African safari? Introduce them to us and earn 5% of their safari value (up to US$1,000) when they book. Cash, credit, or donation – your choice.
You already know the magic of an Africa Geographic safari – now share it! Simply email us now and copy in your friend who is keen to travel, and we’ll take it from there.
AG safari guests, Laurie and friends, went on a magical safari to Kenya and Rwanda:
Magical Africa. “Africa Geographic put together a wonderful itinerary in Kenya and then to see the gorillas in Rwanda. When one of our travellers’ luggage got stuck in Europe, Luis went above and beyond to reunite her with her things. He was responsive throughout the trip whenever we had a question. The animals were plentiful and entertaining, the guides and staff everywhere were warm and knowledgeable, our lodgings were comfortable and beautiful, and we would use Luis and AG again and again.”
What does it take to bring back a species – and what does it mean for an ecosystem? Lions have been successfully returned to Zambia’s Nsumbu National Park after an absence of over a decade. The reintroduction hinged on years of careful planning, stakeholder engagement, and collaboration. In this landscape, the return of lions is both an ecological milestone and a cultural homecoming. See why here. (36:13) Click here to watch
East Africa’s Great Migration is perhaps the most famous mammal migration in the world. For good reason, but few people realise that Africa is home to several smaller mammal migrations that are equally spectacular in their own way. Two such migrations are those of the zebras in Botswana, one of which is the second-longest land mammal migration in Africa (second only to the Great Nile Migration). These migrations offer astounding (and often less crowded) wildlife sightings, but, more importantly, they are a testament not only to the resilience of nature in the face of human interference but also to the genetically programmed instinct to migrate.
Zebras gather on the Boteti River, one of the region’s only permanent water sources, during their long, looping seasonal journey
In the late 1960s, Botswana entered into an agreement with the European Union to provide cattle for food purposes, but while this deal may have been lucrative at the time, it came with stringent conditions. One of these was that Botswana needed to take measures to prevent the spread of foot-and-mouth disease between wild animals and domestic cattle. Thus, a series of veterinary fences was erected, separating swathes of land and cutting off pre-existing migratory routes. When these fences were moved in the mid-2000s, researchers and conservationists were astounded to see a portion of the zebra herds begin to follow two ancient migratory patterns: the Chobe-Nxai Pan and Okavango-Makgadikgadi migratory routes.
The Chobe-Nxai Pan zebra migration
While there has been plenty of anecdotal evidence of the seasonal movement of various animals in Botswana, it was only in 2012 that researchers confirmed, using tracking collars, that zebras were completing an unexpectedly long return journey of over 1,000km each year. Until then, the zebras’ route through inaccessible parts of Botswana via the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area had kept their movements largely hidden.
A river of stripes surges as thousands of zebras follow ancient migratory routes
The herds spend the harshest of the dry months around the Chobe River floodplains from June until early November before massing in early December when over 20,000 zebras begin their journey southwards – triggered by rain in the Nxai Pan area. Most travel in an almost straight line before arriving in Nxai Pan National Park in two to three weeks, while others take less direct routes, often stopping at Seloko Plain before joining the rest a few weeks later.
Zebra mom and foal after the rains on Makgadikgadi Pan
These herds disperse throughout Nxai Pan National Park (part of the greater Makgadikgadi Pan system) and remain there for about three months – December to February – before returning to the north. This return route to the Chobe River and north into Namibia is less direct and more circuitous, taking about three months (March to May), with some zebra travelling over 800km before being forced to return to more permanent water systems such as the Chobe River.
Okavango-Makgadikgadi zebra migration
Somewhat smaller than the Chobe-Nxai Pan migration, this 500km return route sees the movement of around 15,000 zebras between Moremi/Okavango Delta and the Makgadikgadi Pans National Park.
The herds take advantage of the Okavango Delta floodwaters during the dry season, which lasts until November/December. The migration in November/December is triggered by rains in the Makgadikgadi area. The journey takes a few weeks, and the herds remain in the Makgadikgadi area, feeding on the nutritious grass for about three months – December/January to February/March. Around March, the zebras begin to mass on the western edge of Makgadikgadi Pans National Park before setting off on their return route past Maun and into the south-eastern areas of the Okavango Delta, including Moremi Game Reserve.
Interestingly, only about 55% of the zebras undertake this migration, with the remaining 45% staying in the Moremi Okavango Delta area.
Zebras stand off in Nxai Pan
When to see Botswana’s zebra migrations?
The best time to view zebras feeding on the seasonal green grasses of the Makgadikgadi Pans ecosystem is during the rainy season, from December to March each year, with March being when zebras are massing for their return trips north or east to their dry-season feeding grounds.
Gathered along the Boteti River
One significant benefit of setting out on an African zebra migration safari is that it is most dramatic during Botswana’s low tourism season, meaning lower lodge rates and fewer safari vehicles. The Boteti River on the western edge of Makgadikgadi Pans National Park provides one of the only permanent water sources in the area for thirsty zebras, which means that large concentrations of zebras can be found there as the herds move in and out of the Pans area.
A zebra unsettles the oxpeckers in Nxai Pan
The future
Once, mass large mammal migrations occurred throughout southern Africa on a tremendous scale, including the migration of an estimated half a million wildebeest through Botswana’s Central Kalahari Game Reserve. These migrations have all but been eradicated, mainly due to the erection of cattle/veterinary fences blocking the original routes. The revival of the zebra migrations in Botswana has led researchers and conservationists to hope that ancestral migratory routes could be recovered if given the opportunity, not just in Botswana but throughout the world.
It does not require a leap of logic to understand that migrations can allow large mammal numbers to increase beyond what they might if they were resident in an area by ensuring that resources are not over-utilised (by over-grazing, for example). It is too soon to tell what impact these zebra migrations will have on zebra numbers. Still, for those fortunate enough to witness them moving en masse, there is no choice but to marvel at nature’s sheer genetic determination and resilience.
A family unit keeps tight formation as they trek to Makgadikgadi Pan
Further reading
The zebra is a firm favourite among safari-goers because of its dazzling black-and-white stripes and familiar horse-like body language. Read everything there is to know about zebras here
The Okavango Delta is an enormous watery oasis, home to an astonishing variety of wildlife and host to some of the best Botswana safaris. Read about the Delta here
A multi-year tracking study of 26 elephants reveals how individuals use landscapes around Gonarezhou NP, Zimbabwe, and where movement remains possible.
Elephants rarely travel far outside the park, favouring the open boundary with Mozambique over the heavily settled Sengwe corridor.
Males roam much furtherthan females, while family groups stay close to the park and avoid human-dominated areas.
Seasonal conditions strongly shape dispersal, with most movement occurring in the cool-dry season when resources are scarce.
Human presence, fences and fragmented habitat limit connectivity, increasing ecological pressure inside the park and highlighting the need to restore corridors.
Understanding how elephants move through landscapes is essential for designing protected areas that actually work. A study from Gonarezhou National Park in Zimbabwe examines where elephants go when they leave the park, how far they travel, and what shapes these decisions. The findings highlight both the resilience of elephants in human-influenced environments and the structural limits that still confine their range.
At stake is the long-term viability of one of southern Africa’s fastest-growing elephant populations – and ecological connectivity across the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area (GLTFCA).
Why movement matters for elephants
African savannah elephants are wide-ranging herbivores that rely on mobility to access water, food, shade and mates. Their seasonal dispersal also protects habitats from overuse. Most protected areas, however, are now islands in growing human landscapes.
Connectivity between parks is therefore essential. Ecological corridors – unfenced stretches of natural habitat linking protected areas – allow wildlife to move safely between core refuges. Without such linkages, isolated populations face increasing density pressures, habitat degradation and, eventually, genetic risks.
Gonarezhou’s elephant population is growing at roughly 6% per year, and the surrounding mosaic of communities, farms and fenced boundaries makes dispersal increasingly difficult. Against this backdrop, researchers collared 26 adult elephants between 2016 and 2022 to understand whether, when and how they leave the park.
Where elephants go when they leave Gonarezhou
The most striking finding is that elephants rarely disperse far from the park. Movement outside Gonarezhou increased only after 2020, mainly through the unfenced 100km eastern boundary with Mozambique. In contrast, Zimbabwe’s Sengwe communal lands to the south – part of the official wildlife corridor to Kruger National Park – saw far less elephant activity.
Overall, 68% of all out-of-park locations were in Mozambique, while 32% were in Sengwe. Elephants avoided densely settled areas, especially during the day, indicating strong sensitivity to human presence.
Map of the study area within the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area, showing Gonarezhou National Park and neighbouring protected areas. Each dot represents a GPS location of collared elephants recorded between 2016 and 2022, with blue indicating males and magenta indicating females. Background colours reflect different land-cover types used in the analysis. Source: Mandinyenya et al. (2025).
Distance differences: males roam, females remain close
Sex played a significant role in dispersal patterns: male elephants ranged far more extensively, sometimes travelling up to 60 km beyond the park boundary, while females, typically moving in family groups, remained within about 15km of Gonarezhou. These differences align with well-known behavioural tendencies, with bulls roaming widely in search of resources or mates, and family groups avoiding riskier areas, particularly where fences or human activity may limit their ability to move safely.
Family groups stay close to the safety of Gonarezhou, reflecting how females avoid risky, human-dominated areas.
When elephants choose to leave
Seasonality strongly shaped movement. The study divided the year into three climatic periods:
Cool-dry season (Apr–Jul)
Hot-dry season (Aug–Nov)
Hot-wet season (Dec–Mar)
Elephants dispersed most during the cool-dry season, when water and vegetation become patchier across southern Africa. This matches broader elephant ecology: dry-season shortages often push elephants beyond fenced boundaries in search of browse and water.
By contrast, dispersal declined sharply during the hot-wet season, when water and forage are widely available inside Gonarezhou. During this time, the park functions as a seasonal refuge.
An elephant in Gonarezhou’s rainy season: a time when dispersal drops as the park provides all the resources they need
How elephants use human-dominated landscapes
Human–elephant conflict often spikes where elephants leave protected areas, particularly when they raid crops or encounter homes, fields or livestock. Many species adjust their behaviour to avoid such risks, including shifting to nocturnal movement.
This risk-avoidance pattern was evident in Sengwe: elephants entered the communal lands mostly at night, minimising daytime contact with people. Yet, despite global patterns of crop-raiding, the study found that collared elephants spent little time in cropland, suggesting either limited availability or strong avoidance.
The Mozambique side, in contrast, offered lower human densities, private wildlife concessions, and artificial water points. These features likely encouraged greater elephant presence, especially during the dry season.
What habitats do elephants prefer outside the park
Land cover classification revealed subtle but essential patterns. Male elephants shifted toward forested areas (deciduous broadleaf) when outside Gonarezhou. Females continued to favour shrublands, similar to their habitat preferences inside the park.
Forested areas may offer concealment, shade or seasonal browse. Shrublands may feel safer for family groups – open enough to detect threats and accessible enough for calves.
Barriers, corridors and the limits of dispersal
Even with an open eastern boundary, Gonarezhou remains partially encircled by veterinary and management fences. These fixed barriers may restrict female movement more than male (female elephants, travelling in family groups with calves, are especially unlikely to cross obstacles or enter risky areas), and may also prevent elephants from reaching Zinave or Banhine National Parks in Mozambique.
The Sengwe–Tshipise corridor, intended to restore natural movement between Gonarezhou and Kruger, remains heavily settled, fragmented and risky for elephants. Some bulls in this study did successfully travel from Gonarezhou to Kruger and back – living proof that connectivity is still possible – but these individuals appear to be exceptions.
Conservation of elephants
This study’s central message is clear: Gonarezhou’s elephants are inclined to move beyond the park, but the surrounding landscape seldom allows it. For a rapidly growing population confined within a fenced and semi-isolated protected area, this limitation carries several consequences. Elephant numbers continue to rise inside the park, increasing pressure on vegetation. Opportunities for the population to expand into under-utilised protected areas in Mozambique are lost, while the small amount of movement that does occur – often at night in communal lands – heightens the risk of human–elephant conflict. At a broader scale, restricted movement undermines functional connectivity across the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area (GLTFCA), a system designed to support wildlife dispersal between countries.
Given these challenges, the authors emphasise that maintaining and restoring ecological connectivity is essential. They recommend addressing the barriers that prevent elephants from moving naturally toward Zinave and Banhine National Parks, and prioritising targeted conservation efforts and pilot projects within the Sengwe corridor. Additional priorities include exploring non-lethal strategies to reduce conflict between elephants and local communities, considering the potential role of artificial water points in non-protected areas, and improving understanding of the “fear landscape” that suppresses female movement in particular. Finally, the study underscores the importance of strong community engagement in areas where people live along potential wildlife corridors, as local support is fundamental to any long-term solution.
Gonarezhou’s growing elephant population depends on open corridors to maintain natural movement and ecological balance
What the study adds
For managers and policymakers, this research provides rare, high-resolution evidence of how elephants actually navigate a transboundary landscape. Despite political ambitions for seamless wildlife movement across borders, the reality on the ground is more constrained.
Elephants, especially males, will move where opportunities exist. But without coordinated action to secure and rehabilitate corridors, Gonarezhou risks becoming an ecological island – and its elephants unable to play their full role in the wider GLTFCA system.
Reference
Mandinyenya, B.R., Mingione, M., Traill, L.W. & Attorre, F., 2025, ‘Elephants’ habitat use and behaviour when outside of Gonarezhou National Park’, Koedoe 67(1), a1842. https://doi.org/10.4102/koedoe.v67i1.1842
Further reading
Gonarezhou is a conservation success story and iconic wilderness destination for those seeking true wilderness. Read more about Gonarezhou here
Okavango Delta safari planner + clever cheetah moms + Black Friday Okavango special
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From our CEO – Simon Espley
INVITATION
If you’ve journeyed into Africa’s vast wilderness areas, you will recognise the moment when the chatter of life falls away, when peace and contentment permeate your very soul, and a quiet rhythm steadies your own. In that moment, you understand: all is well.
There is one place that amplifies this sense of calm for me – Botswana’s Okavango Delta. Perhaps it has to do with the natural rhythm of an intact flood ecosystem, or the smell of wild sage, the warble of green pigeons secreted somewhere in a riverine forest, or wild dog tracks entombed in cracked mud. Or maybe it’s all of these sensory triggers combined, and more …
A short while ago, I recounted my latest Okavango Delta sojourn and invited you to visit an old-school bush camp in the heart of one of Africa’s best wildlife areas. Well, I am happy to announce that, based on the response, we have pre-purchased a number of nights at this authentic bush camp during the 2026 prime safari season (June to October). Our journey designers are on standby to tailor-make your private Okavango Delta safari.
Finally, DID YOU KNOW that the Okavango Delta’s peak flood arrives from Angola during June to August, the Botswana dry season, when there’s no rain at all? It’s one of the few places on Earth where the land floods after the rainy season has ended. Other examples include the Sudd in South Sudan and the Cuvelai Basin in Angola and Namibia.
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor – Taryn van Jaarsveld
Did you know that the source of the Zambezi River actually lies high in Angola, far from the thunder and spray we know downstream? Until recently, this region was rarely studied: remote, tricky to reach, but crucial to understanding the rivers that rise there. Most previous research on the Angolan Highlands, known locally as Lisima Lya Mwono (“the source of life”), focused on their role in sustaining the Okavango Delta. But new findings from the National Geographic Okavango Wilderness Project now highlight their equal importance to the Zambezi system.
The study, which involved one of the first full scientific expeditions along the entire length of the Zambezi River, shows that Angola hosts the Zambezi’s longest tributary, the Lungwebungu River, and contributes roughly 70 % of the water reaching Lake Kariba. Researchers mapped water flow, sampled sediments, and recorded how forests and peatlands store and release water through the seasons. The paper offers new insight into the importance of the Angolan Highlands: what happens here decides the fate of the Okavango Delta, the Zambezi River, the rivers that feed half a continent – and the millions of people and hundreds of ecosystems that depend on them.
This week, we turn our attention to the iconic Okavango Delta, with a guide to planning your Delta adventure, and explore how cheetahs use precise timing to give their cubs the best chance of survival.
Yours in wild adventure,
Did you know? Your African safari choice makes a difference
We donate a portion of the revenue from every safari sold to carefully selected conservation projects that make a significant difference at ground level. YOUR African safari choice does make a difference – thank you!
Our stories this week
OKAVANGO DELTA
Plan your Okavango Delta safari: when to go, where to stay and how to experience Botswana’s iconic inland oasis in intimate camps
CLEVER CHEETAHS
New research shows how cheetah mothers time breeding with baby booms of prey, boosting cub survival
Journey through three of Botswana’s most iconic landscapes: the arid Central Kalahari, the lush Okavango Delta, and the mighty Chobe River. Enjoy luxurious lodges, fine dining, and seamless service as you follow wildlife from salt pans and desert dunes to glistening lagoons and wide rivers. This safari is shaped by water and the life it sustains.
This unforgettable 11-day journey through Southern Africa, led by expert guides, will take you to all the best spots to see endangered African wild dogs. Visit Hwange, the Okavango Delta, Kwando Reserve, and stop over in Victoria Falls. Experience guided bush walks, game drives and mokoro excursions – all in search of painted wolves.
AG safari guest James went on an epic adventure to the Okavango Delta in Botswana:
Great Botswana Adventure. Africa Geographic booked us a terrific Botswana safari. Christian recommended great camps in top wildlife areas away from crowds. AG also organised the logistics of charter flights around the Okavango Delta. They were responsive during the trip whenever we had a question. We will use them again!
The Okavango Delta is one of Africa’s most remote and wildlife-rich areas. It is renowned for its exceptional predator density, with regular sightings of lions, leopards, cheetahs, and several active and denning wild dog packs. Here’s two minutes of wanderlust to feed the safari itch. (01:49). Click here to watch
Once upon a time, the Okavango Delta was little more than a fabled unknown on the safari circuit – only braved by the most adventurous of travellers. A remote wetland known mainly to researchers, bush pilots and Bushman trackers. Today, you can hardly keep safari goers away. This vast oasis of floodplains and islands is now one of Africa’s most sought-after safari regions – a place of intimate camps set right in the thick of the wildlife action, where lions work the floodplains, wild dogs weave through the woodlands, and elephants wade past your doorstep.
But where does one start when heading to this piece of African paradise? Here are all the practical tips you need for visiting the Delta: why the Delta matters, what to expect, and where to stay – from simple tented camps to design-forward luxury camps and lodges, and community-owned camps. This is everything you need to know about the Okavango Delta.
A red lechwe splashes through shallow floodplains
Okavango Delta at a glance
The Okavango Delta, in northern Botswana, is a seasonal maze of floodplains, lagoons, palm islands and woodlands in the middle of the Kalahari. Accessed via Maun or Kasane, usually by light aircraft, it’s famous for big predators, water-based safaris and low-impact camps. Spend 4–8 nights here to have enough time to experience game drives, mokoro trips, boating, walking safaris and night drives. A trip here pairs well with Chobe and the Makgadikgadi Salt Pans for the ultimate Botswana journey. For many travellers, this is the place where a love of safari truly takes root.
Why the Okavango Delta is different
The Okavango is an inland delta – a river that never reaches the sea. Instead, floodwaters from Angola spread out across Botswana’s Kalahari sands, turning 15,000km² of desert into a patchwork of wetlands and islands.
This seasonal “miracle” concentrates wildlife in extraordinary numbers.
Epic leopard sightings in the heart of the bushveld
Predators follow the antelope herds onto the floodplains; elephants and buffalo move between islands and woodlands; birdlife explodes. For travellers, this means:
Reliable big-game viewing – including lions, leopards, cheetahs and globally important populations of African wild dogs.
Both land and water safaris – you could be gliding in a mokoro in the morning and tracking lions on a game drive that afternoon.
Space and privacy – strict low-impact tourism policies keep bed numbers low, so sightings are often shared with just one or two vehicles – or none at all.
Crucially, this is also a living cultural landscape. Bushman communities have moved through this region for thousands of years. In some concessions, such as NG12 in the far north, their descendants still guide visitors using tracking skills honed over generations.
Lions launch over a channel, turning the Okavango’s wetlands into a hunting groundSome camps in the Delta, such as Okavango Origins, allow lodge vehicles to track animals off-road – perfect for following the tracks of a precious predator
When to go to the Okavango Delta
The Okavango is rewarding year-round, but your experience changes with the flood.
May–October (dry season & flood peak):
From May to October, the Delta settles into its dry season and flood peak: days are cooler (although September is warmer and October can be very hot), drier and mostly rain-free, while rising floodwaters fill channels and lagoons, making this the prime time for mokoro and boating. As the surrounding bush dries out, game crowds onto the remaining islands and floodplains, delivering superb, often intense predator viewing.
A large buffalo herd gathers en route to water
November–April (green season):
From November to April, temperatures rise and dramatic afternoon storms transform the Delta into a lush, green world. This is the season of baby animals and superb birding, with fewer visitors and better-value rates. While some water activities may be restricted in parts of the Delta, game drives remain productive and often feel more exclusive.
The Okavango’s green season still allows for productive game viewing
What to expect from the Okavango Delta
A typical Delta day blends activity and downtime:
Early morning: Coffee around the fire, then out at first light for a game drive, walk or mokoro excursion.
Midday: Brunch, time to rest, swim or watch wildlife from your deck.
Afternoon & evening: Another activity, often ending with sundowners on a floodplain, followed by a night drive back to camp, where spotlighting may reveal civets, owls, genets and more.
Wild dog sightings abound in the Okavango Delta
Expect small groups, flexible guiding and a focus on staying out in the field when the action is good – especially at camps using expert trackers, such as Okavango Origins, where Bukakhwe Bushman guides read spoor, sound and scent with remarkable precision.
You will reach most camps by light aircraft from Maun or Kasane, sometimes with short helicopter hops for more remote concessions. Luggage is limited to soft bags, and some areas are malarial, so advance planning and medical advice are recommended.
Bush walks are a favourite activity in the Delta
Top experiences in the Okavango Delta
Glide in a mokoro through narrow channels as reed frogs call and fish eagles cry overhead. Track predators with Bushman guides, learning how to read fresh tracks and subtle signs on ancestral land. Follow wild dogs on the hunt in northern concessions where several packs den and hunt regularly, and drift along at sunset by boat, watching elephants cross channels and herons stalking in the shallows.
Walk on an island and discover the finer details – from medicinal plants to termite mounds – that are often missed from a vehicle. Head out on night drives in private concessions, when leopards, genets, hyenas and porcupines emerge, and spend unhurried time with your hosts, listening to how communities and conservation partners are working together to keep the Delta wild.
The Okavango Delta is the home of mokoro safaris
Khwai: predator hotspot on the Delta’s edge
On the northeastern edge of the Okavango, Khwai links the Delta, Moremi and Chobe via a ribbon of permanent water. The Khwai River and its floodplains draw in elephants, buffalo, lechwe and other grazers year-round – and with them come lions, leopards, hyenas and wild dogs. The result is one of Botswana’s most reliable areas for predator action and photographic opportunities, with a mix of open plains, riverine woodland, and reflective channels that work for photography in almost any lighting conditions.
Why go: High predator densities, year-round water, and clean, varied backdrops for photography.
A lion on an Okavango Delta bridge
Where to stay
The Delta offers a wide range of camps – from classic tented lodges and high-end treehouses to back-to-basics, authentic bush camps. Here’s how a few key options stand out, depending on the kind of safari you’re after.
Okavango Origins – community, predators and proper wilderness
The intimate and epically positioned Okavango Origins
Set in the northern Okavango, south of the Selinda Spillway, Okavango Origins operates in partnership with the Bukakhwe Cultural Conservation Trust and the Gudigwa community. Safaris here take place on ancestral Bakakhwe Bushman land, guided by men and women who grew up in this landscape and now lead guests through it with exceptional tracking skill. The camp itself is a small, relaxed Meru-tented setup – only a handful of tents with full-size beds, ensuite bathrooms and electricity, designed for comfort without fuss.
Days are spent on day and night game drives in open vehicles, ethical off-road tracking of predators, walking safaris and, when levels allow, mokoro outings from a quiet channel deep in the Delta. This area is known for wild dogs, tree-climbing lions, leopards and strong general game, from sable and kudu to red lechwe and elephant. A portion of every stay is channelled into community projects and training, with staff drawn wherever possible from the village of Gudigwa. This is the Delta for travellers who want serious wildlife, authentic guiding and tangible community benefit – at a price point gentler than many ultra-luxury lodges.
Camp Okavango – classic water-based safari
Sundowners on a glamorous deck at Camp Okavango
On remote Nxaragha Island, at the heart of the permanent Okavango, Camp Okavango is one of Botswana’s best-known water camps. You come here for water, not long drives: the experience is about drifting through a maze of channels and lagoons on traditional mokoros and motorboats, then walking on nearby islands to explore on foot.
The lodge offers contemporary suites on raised walkways and airy main areas overlooking the wetlands, with a slow, tranquil pace that suits couples, birders and anyone wanting that quintessential “floating” Delta experience – reed-fringed channels, mirrored lagoons and superb birdlife all year round.
Shinde – intimate classic in a private concession
Elegant dining on the water at Shinde
In the Shinde Concession on a palm-dotted island, Shinde is an intimate, luxury tented camp overlooking the Shinde Lagoon and surrounded by permanent water and grass plains. From here, guests enjoy a flexible mix of land and water activities: day and night game drives, boat trips, mokoro excursions, guided walks and seasonal fishing.
Because it sits in a private concession, vehicles can linger at sightings and access areas closed to the general public, keeping the feel exclusive even in busy seasons. Refurbished tents with generous bathrooms and a classic, understated style make Shinde a strong choice for travellers wanting excellent guiding, varied activities and fewer vehicles, in a camp that feels personal rather than grand.
Tuludi – treehouse luxury in Khwai Private Reserve
Tuludi offer wide views over floodplains and woodlands
For a contemporary take on Delta luxury, Tuludi in the 200,000-hectare Khwai Private Reserve combines spacious suites with wide views over floodplains and woodlands. Each of the elevated rooms has a private plunge pool, large deck and indoor–outdoor bathrooms, connected to the main area by raised boardwalks, and there’s even a treehouse library and slide for a touch of fun.
Game drives here offer excellent year-round predator viewing, complemented by seasonal water activities during the floods, photographic hides, and family-friendly options. Tuludi works particularly well for couples, families or small groups who want high-end design and comfort alongside honest, wildlife-focused safaris in a low-vehicle-density reserve.
Oddballs’ Enclave – back-to-basics on Chief’s Island
Oddballs Enclave offers a light footprint overlooking the waters
On Chief’s Island, in the middle of the Delta, Oddballs’ Enclave strips things back to what matters most: wilderness, walking and local guides. This small, eco-friendly camp has simple tents on raised decks and a lightweight footprint, overlooking the channels and floodplains around Chief’s. Guests are allocated a private guide – usually from a nearby community – and days are entirely flexible.
There are no game drives; instead, you explore on foot and by mokoro, following tracks onto nearby islands or even fly-camping under the stars. For active travellers and those on a tighter budget who still want front-row access to some of the Delta’s best wildlife, Oddballs’ Enclave is one of the most authentic options available.
Little Sable – small camp, big wildlife
Superb wildlife viewing at Little Sable
Also in Khwai Private Reserve, Little Sable is an intimate eight-tent camp overlooking open grassland and woodland in one of Botswana’s most productive private conservation areas. The camp is deliberately simple and down-to-earth compared to some of its neighbours, but it has plenty of character and comfort – and shares the same superb game-viewing as larger, higher-priced lodges in the reserve.
Activities focus on classic game drives with strong year-round predator viewing, complemented by seasonal water activities, night drives and walks when conditions allow. Operating in a community-focused reserve and owned by a conservation-minded safari company, Little Sable suits travellers who value intimate camps, excellent guiding and the knowledge that their stay supports long-term conservation and local livelihoods.
Final thoughts
The Okavango Delta is not just another safari stop; it is one of Africa’s last great freshwater wildernesses – a place where daily predator action, deep cultural roots and diverse habitats come together. Planning how to visit the Okavango Delta starts with choosing your safari style and timing. Whether you choose a community-owned camp like Okavango Origins, a classic water lodge such as Camp Okavango, or design-driven retreats like Tuludi, you’ll find an experience that fits your style and purpose. When you are ready to explore, plan carefully, choose the camps that match your interests and values – and let the Okavango show you why so many travellers return to its waters again and again. Our safari experts can also help, so that you get the best out of your experience. Let us plan your handcrafted, unique safari.
Giraffe head to cross the water
Further reading
The Okavango Delta is an enormous watery oasis, home to an astonishing variety of wildlife and host to some of the best Botswana safaris. Here’s all the insight you need into understanding its ecological and conservation significance
Check out this fantastic gallery of images by Hannes Lochner, which will have you booking your Okavango Delta (Botswana) safari with us and packing your bags
Moremi Game Reserve lies at the heart of the Okavango Delta and is the only formally protected section of the Delta. Read more about Moremi here
Breeding and hunting are both costly for predators. For a female cheetah, the energy demands of conceiving, carrying, feeding and raising cubs can stretch over almost two years. In that time, her chances of success depend not just on her speed, but on something less obvious: timing. A new study asks a simple question with complex implications: when should a “clever” cheetah breed to make best use of the prey available to her?
Seasons, prey and cheetah reproductive phases
Many African ecosystems are shaped by seasonal rainfall, with a clear wet season when grass flourishes and a dry season when food is scarce. In these landscapes, most antelope and other hoofed prey animals give birth during a relatively short period in the wet months. This creates a sharp pulse of small, vulnerable newborn animals that are highly profitable for predators. Other areas are more aseasonal: rainfall is more evenly distributed throughout the year, vegetation remains available for longer, and ungulates give birth over extended periods rather than in a tight baby boom.
The study, co-authored by scientists from Nelson Mandela University, University of Mpumalanga and Endangered Wildlife Trust, looks at how many prey animals are available. It also looks at which age classes dominate at different times of year. Neonates (animals younger than three months) are small and relatively easy to catch for cheetahs. Juveniles, between three and twelve months, are larger and more mobile but still less capable than adults. Adults, older than twelve months, are bigger, stronger and more dangerous to hunt. Earlier work has shown that cheetahs in southern Africa switch their diet between these age classes with the seasons: they rely heavily on juveniles and adults in the dry season and take almost no neonates, but shift to neonates and fewer adults in the wet season when a flood of young prey appears.
Against that backdrop, the cheetah reproductive cycle is long and demanding. A female can come into oestrus roughly every two weeks and is physiologically capable of conceiving at any time of year. Gestation lasts around three months. Cubs begin eating meat at about one month of age, but only wean at about four months. Mothers start bringing live prey when cubs are roughly two and a half to three and a half months old, and the cubs only begin to suffocate prey on their own between four and a half and six and a half months old. Independence comes late, at around 18 months of age. From conception to independence, a single reproductive attempt lasts about 21 months, during which the mother must repeatedly find adequate food for herself and her growing cubs. Because different phases demand different amounts and types of food, theory predicts that an optimally foraging predator should try to align the most demanding phases with peaks in accessible prey.
Growing cheetah cubs need plenty of practice hunts as prey size and age change
What the researchers tested
The research team analysed 246 cheetah litters monitored across multiple sites in South Africa, Namibia, Malawi, and Tanzania. These sites included fenced reserves, unfenced reserves and farmland. Using long-term rainfall data, they grouped sites into seasonal and aseasonal rainfall regions. They then used published information to identify the local breeding seasons of the main ungulate species present.
For each litter, the researchers estimated the month of conception. They made the assumption that it was three months before birth. They identified birth dates while correcting for the period when cubs remain hidden in dens and are not yet seen by observers. From birth, they projected cubs would wean at 4 months and eventually reach independence at 18 months. With these dates, they could ask whether any of the four key phases – conception, birth, weaning and independence – showed clear seasonal peaks. They could also tell whether those peaks lined up with the wet or dry season and with the prey birthing period, when neonates and juveniles are most abundant.
Their framework suggested that in strongly seasonal systems, conception might be expected to occur toward the end of the prey birthing pulse. Birth would then fall in the dry season, when neonates have grown into juveniles. Weaning and independence tend to align with subsequent prey birthing seasons, giving mothers and independent cubs access to easy-to-catch young prey.
In a changing climate, clever timing may help cheetah mothers raise cubs
What they found: flexible but patterned cheetah breeding
Across all sites, cheetahs could conceive and give birth in any month of the year. There was no overall difference between seasonal and aseasonal areas in the total number of litters conceived or born, confirming that cheetahs are physiologically able to breed year-round.
In seasonal systems, however, a clear pattern emerged. Among the 142 litters from areas with strongly seasonal rainfall, conceptions peaked between January and April, during the wet season and the prey birthing period. Nearly three-fifths of litters were conceived in the wet months. Births peaked between April and July, in the early dry season, and again, just over 60% of litters were born in the dry season. Weaning and independence did not show strong statistical seasonality, but most litters nonetheless reached these stages during prey birthing periods, when neonate and juvenile prey were abundant.
Statistical models confirmed that more litters were conceived during the prey breeding season and that this trend increased with rainfall. An interaction between rainfall and prey birthing season suggested that rainfall outside the main prey birthing window may act as an environmental cue, prompting females to conceive in anticipation of an upcoming wave of neonate prey.
In aseasonal systems, represented by 106 litters, the picture was very different. Conception, birth, weaning and independence were spread fairly evenly across the year, without strong peaks in any particular month. This fits the prediction that when neonate and juvenile prey are available for much of the year, there is no marked advantage to breeding at a specific time. Interestingly, a greater proportion of litters in aseasonal areas were successfully weaned and reached independence than in seasonal areas. That pattern suggests that a more consistent prey supply may ease the energetic bottlenecks faced by mothers and cubs. However, the study did not experimentally test the mechanism underlying this difference.
Why prey age matters
A central message of the study is that it is not just overall prey abundance that matters to cheetahs, but the changing composition of prey age classes through the year. Neonates and young juveniles are smaller, less coordinated and less experienced, which makes them easier and safer for a medium-sized predator to capture. They are also energetically profitable at precisely those times when mothers are pregnant, recovering from birth or supporting rapidly growing cubs.
By conceiving near the end of the prey birthing pulse in seasonal landscapes, a cheetah mother can benefit in several ways. In late gestation, when her own energetic needs are high, she can exploit abundant neonates that are easy to catch. During lactation in the early dry season, when she must find high-value meals but is no longer hindered by pregnancy, she can target larger juvenile prey. As her cubs approach independence, their first months of solo hunting tend to coincide with the next wave of neonate prey, which is critical for inexperienced hunters still developing their skills. In this sense, the cheetah appears “clever” not because of any conscious calculation, but because natural selection has favoured reproductive schedules that track predictable pulses of vulnerable prey.
A cheetah mom takes down a young gazelle – easier meals for hungry cubs
Caveats and implications for cheetah conservation
The authors were cautious about over-interpreting their results. The breeding data come from monitoring programmes designed primarily for other purposes, so exact birth dates had to be inferred from first sightings and known denning behaviour. Some litters likely died before they were detected. If mortality is higher in certain seasons, that could bias the apparent timing of breeding. The analyses also demonstrate a strong alignment between cheetah reproduction and prey demography, but do not isolate prey availability as the only causal driver. Other factors, including photoperiod, rainfall patterns and broader environmental conditions, almost certainly play roles in shaping reproductive timing in cheetahs and other felids, and those roles remain to be fully understood.
Cheetahs are often portrayed as highly specialised predators with limited capacity to adapt to environmental change, and their low cub survival is a major concern. But this study shows a degree of behavioural flexibility. In seasonal systems, cheetahs appear capable of fine-tuning their reproductive timing so that conception, birth and cub independence align with favourable prey conditions. In aseasonal systems, they breed year-round and achieve higher rates of cub independence, apparently taking advantage of more consistent prey availability.
This flexibility is encouraging in a world where climate change and land-use shifts are altering rainfall regimes and potentially reshaping the timing of prey birthing seasons. An ability to adjust breeding schedules could help cheetahs persist. At the same time, the study highlights how dependent cheetahs are on predictable pulses of neonate and juvenile prey in seasonal systems. If that synchrony is disrupted, for example, by changes in rainfall that desynchronise plant growth and ungulate reproduction, raising cubs successfully may become more difficult.
By clarifying when and why cheetahs breed, this research helps identify periods when mothers and cubs are most vulnerable and when protecting key prey age classes is particularly important. It moves the conversation beyond simple counts of prey and predators to consider the timing and structure of their interactions. This is a crucial layer of understanding for anyone interested in the long-term future of cheetahs.
Reference
Annear, E., Minnie, L., van der Merwe, V., & Kerley, G. I. H. (2025). When should “clever” cheetah breed? Seasonal variability in prey availability and its effect on cheetah reproductive patterns. Ecology and Evolution, 15(6), e71655. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.71655
Kalahari’s overlapping cheetah litters: A cheetah mother has been observed simultaneously raising two cheetah cubs of different age classes – behaviour never witnessed in the wild
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From our CEO – Simon Espley
Let the rhino horn skulduggery commence. Again.
South Africa’s rhino horn traders will be licking their lips after the Northern Cape Division of the High Court in Kimberley recently decided that rhino horn harvested from registered captive breeding operations can be exported. And yet international commercial trade in rhino horn is illegal; it has been banned since 1977 under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). There is, however, a loophole for rhinos bred in captivity for non-commercial purposes. Expect rhino horn traders to aim truckloads of horn at that flimsy legislative gap.
I am solidly behind the sustainable wildlife industries if their actions are transparent, sustainable and ethical. And rhino owners urgently need to monetise their investment in private rhino herds, which are vital to keeping rhinos safe from poachers.
Sadly, though, the rhino horn industry in South Africa has tarnished its reputation with a slew of shady dealings that prove beyond a doubt its lack of readiness for such an important responsibility. One example includes a scheme that used Thai prostitutes posing as hunters to export rhino horns as ‘trophies’ before selling them illegally. Another example is the arrest of industry kingpin John Hume, who was linked to a fraudulent operation involving 964 rhino horns destined for illegal markets in Southeast Asia. These charges relate to fraud, theft, biodiversity law violations, racketeering and money laundering.
The good news is that South Africa’s Minister of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment, Dr Dion George, said in a statement: “South Africa will not support any move to reopen the ivory or rhino horn trade. Our duty is to protect our wildlife, not to profit from their destruction.”
For years, observers in Congo-Brazzaville watched gorillas scratching at the soil and assumed they were after ants. But a study in Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park has revealed something far more intriguing. Researchers found that the great apes were foraging for a small underground fungus, known as Elaphomyces labyrinthinus. That’s right: the gourmand gorillas were foraging for truffles, very similar to the culinary kind prized by humans!
Not every gorilla group studied engaged in truffle-hunting, but individuals appeared to learn from one another. When a female moved from a group that rarely foraged for truffles to one that did so frequently, she soon joined in, suggesting the behaviour is socially transmitted. The findings add to growing evidence that gorillas possess their own cultural traditions.
This week, we also explore Africa’s great wildlife migrations – 10 of them, to be exact – and uncover how giraffes’ extraordinary legs hold a hidden physiological secret.
Yours in wild adventure,
Did you know? Your African safari choice makes a difference
We donate a portion of the revenue from every safari sold to carefully selected conservation projects that make a significant difference at ground level. YOUR African safari choice does make a difference – thank you!
Our stories this week
10 AFRICAN MIGRATIONS
Our guide to Africa’s 10 greatest animal migrations – from wildebeest, to whales – & how you can help protect these journeys
LUCKY LEGS
Giraffes’ long legs ease heart strain from high blood pressure, revealing an energy-saving secret behind their towering height
Whether you are a passionate beginner or a seasoned creator, this unique art safari offers the chance to hone your skills with professional wildlife artist Alison Nicholls. Soak up the atmosphere of the Big 5 Timbavati Private Nature Reserve in the Greater Kruger, South Africa and channel it into artistry! 6–12 September 2026 – only 3 spots left!
Discover the untamed beauty of South Luangwa National Park, Zambia – a renowned leopard stronghold and the birthplace of walking safaris. Embark on expertly guided bush walks and game drives, spend a night under the stars in a secluded sleepout, and refine your photographic skills in one of Africa’s finest hides. An authentic safari experience that reconnects you with the wild at its most raw and real.
Know someone who dreams of an African safari? Introduce them to us and earn 5% of their safari value (up to US$1,000) when they book. Cash, credit, or donation – your choice.
You already know the magic of an Africa Geographic safari – now share it! Simply email us now and copy in your friend who is keen to travel, and we’ll take it from there.
Your safari helped fund the treatment and rehabilitation of another pangolin rescued from poachers.
Meet Heritage – a female pangolin rescued on Heritage Day from poachers and given a second chance at life.
Thanks to the sting team, Limpopo Pangolin Collective, SAPS, Umoya Khulula Wildlife Centre, and Scales Pangolin Rescue Fund, she was given a second chance. When she arrived at Provet Wildlife Services, Heritage was weak and struggling to walk. But with the help of Dr Debbie English and team, she received groundbreaking care – including the first-ever MRI performed on a pangolin in Limpopo. The scan revealed a hidden spinal infection, now being successfully treated.
Your safari booking with Africa Geographic helped fund her recovery through a donation to Provet. When you travel with us, you’re not just exploring Africa’s wild places – you’re helping protect them. Check out some of our safari ideas here.
Spend a few minutes of joy with the lion cubs of Khwai, Botswana, as they test their skills, playfighting and tumbling over anthills. (03:56) Click here to watch
Giraffe legs ease the heart’s burden: A new study shows that long legs reduce the energy needed to pump blood up the giraffe’s long neck, cutting the strain on its powerful heart.
Evolutionary advantage: By evolving long legs before a long neck, giraffes lowered their cardiovascular demands while gaining access to high foliage.
Energy efficiency trade-off: The leg design saves up to 5% of daily energy but sacrifices agility and makes drinking risky.
A model for high blood pressure: Understanding giraffe circulation may offer insights into managing hypertension and cardiovascular limits in other species – including humans.
Few animals are as visually distinctive as the giraffe. Its extraordinary neck and towering stance symbolise evolutionary ingenuity, yet the biological costs of being tall have remained less well understood. A new study by researchers from the University of Pretoria and the University of Adelaide now suggests that the giraffe’s remarkable legs are not just for height – they play a crucial role in reducing the energetic strain on its powerful heart. Yet another fascinating discovery in the biological study of giraffes.
The cost of being tall
“The giraffe’s long neck allows it to access foliage that is out-of-reach for shorter animals. It is also used for fighting, and it provides a high vantage point from which to scan for predators,” says experimental physiologist Dr. Edward Snelling, who conducted the study along with comparative physiologist Dr. Roger Seymour. “However, there are also significant energy costs associated with having such a long neck. That energy cost is in the form of blood pressure. And it is a cost that must be paid by the heart.”
Adult giraffes have a mean arterial blood pressure of 200 to 250 millimetres of mercury (mmHg) at heart level – more than twice that of most mammals. This is because every metre of height adds about 77mmHg of gravitational pressure that must be overcome to deliver blood to the brain. Since the giraffe’s brain sits more than two metres above its heart, its cardiovascular system must work continuously against gravity. That means the giraffes you might see browsing the umbrella thorns of the Serengeti today owe as much to their legs as their necks.
The left ventricle – the heart’s main pumping chamber – performs this heavy lifting. The study, published in the Journal of Experimental Biology, calculates that a giraffe’s left ventricle uses around 16% of the animal’s total resting energy. By contrast, a typical large mammal of the same body mass, such as an eland, uses only about 9%. The giraffe’s heart alone uses more energy than the entire resting body of a human.
This relentless workload is the cost of height.
Giraffes at Lake Manyara, Tanzania
Simulating evolution of giraffes
A giraffe’s overall height (from ground to head) is fixed by its ecological needs — reaching high foliage, scanning for predators, etc.
To test how the giraffe’s body shape affects its circulation, the researchers created a computer model of an imaginary hybrid animal – the “elaffe”. This theoretical creature combined the body and legs of an eland with the neck of a giraffe, reaching the same overall height as a real giraffe. The researchers set out to find out which combination of neck length and leg length requires the least cardiac effort.
The theoretical “elaffe” model
The researchers used the model to estimate how much energy the heart would expend if a giraffe’s height were achieved through neck length alone, rather than through both neck and leg length. In other words, their elaffe model stood at the same height as a giraffe, though it’s legs were much shorter and its neck much longer than a giraffe. The result was striking: the elaffe’s heart would have to use 21% of the animal’s resting energy – one-third more than an actual giraffe. In other words, the giraffe’s long legs save it from an additional 5% of its daily energy expenditure, the equivalent of around 3,000 kilojoules of food every day, or about 1.5 tonnes of leaves each year.
The explanation is straightforward. By standing on long legs, the giraffe raises the position of its heart relative to the ground, compared to if it was simply achieved through a long neck. This shortens the vertical distance between the heart and brain, reducing the blood pressure required to maintain circulation and easing the heart’s workload.
A case of evolutionary timing
The fossil record supports this conclusion. Long legs appeared in the giraffe’s ancestors before the evolution of its long neck. The researchers suggest that this sequence makes energetic sense: longer legs can reduce the heart’s effort, whereas a longer neck only increases it.
In early giraffids, limb length increased steadily over time, followed later by the elongation of the neck. Fossil genera such as Canthumeryx, Palaeotragus and Samotherium show this gradual progression over roughly nine million years. In modern giraffes, neck and leg length are now almost equal, suggesting a balance between the benefits of feeding height and the limits of cardiovascular demand.
The limits of adaptation
Even with these savings, the giraffe’s cardiovascular system operates close to its physical limits. The study notes that moving the heart much higher within the body would cause serious complications. The heart must remain at the same level as the lungs to ensure blood reaches them at low pressure. If pulmonary blood pressure rises above about 27mmHg, fluid can leak into the lungs, leading to pulmonary oedema – a potentially fatal condition.
The researchers calculate that if the giraffe’s heart were only 35 centimetres higher than it is, this dangerous threshold would be reached. This anatomical constraint prevents the heart from shifting further up the neck, even though such a position would reduce the effort needed to pump blood to the brain.
Long legs offer clear energetic benefits, but they come with trade-offs. They make giraffes less agile and limit their maximum speed. Because their legs act as long levers, their muscles cannot generate the acceleration required to outrun predators such as lions. Long legs also complicate one of life’s simplest acts – drinking.
To reach the water, a giraffe must splay its front legs wide apart and lower its head, creating an awkward and vulnerable posture. Observations in the wild show that giraffes are among the most cautious species at waterholes and are statistically the most likely to leave without drinking.
The study’s model suggests that if giraffes had slightly shorter forelegs and a correspondingly longer neck to maintain their height, their heart would need to work harder – increasing its energy cost from 16 to about 17%. The savings achieved by long legs, therefore, come at the expense of manoeuvrability and safety.
Long-leggedness means an awkward and vulnerable pose while drinking
The energy equation of evolution
The researchers frame these findings within the larger question of how evolutionary design balances competing demands. The giraffe’s shape represents a compromise between feeding advantage, energetic cost and physiological limitation. By evolving long legs before lengthening the neck, early giraffes may have reduced the circulatory penalty of height while still gaining access to treetop resources.
This interplay between anatomy and physiology also helps explain why no other land vertebrate has matched the giraffe’s vertical reach. The study concludes that the vertical distance between the heart and head in adult giraffes – just over two metres – is likely the maximum ever achieved among terrestrial animals. Larger extinct species, such as the giant sauropod dinosaurs, would have required unsustainable blood pressures had they attempted to raise their necks much higher than shoulder level.
Why it matters for giraffes
Understanding how the giraffe manages its extraordinary blood pressure sheds light on broader biological and medical questions. The species offers a natural model for studying chronic hypertension – the persistent high blood pressure that affects many humans. Yet unlike humans, giraffes have evolved mechanisms to withstand such pressures without damaging their blood vessels or organs.
By analysing how anatomy and evolution solved this problem, scientists can better understand how blood pressure and cardiovascular efficiency interact across species. In the words of Dr Snelling, “Anything a giraffe can do to lower its blood pressure and save energy, while still getting enough blood to its brain, is going to be a big advantage for the animal. This is where long legs come into the story.”
Ultimately, the study shows that the giraffe’s long legs are not merely architectural supports for its famous neck – they are an integral part of a finely balanced system that allows the world’s tallest animal to survive the physical consequences of its height. The next time you watch a giraffe stretch for acacia leaves in the heart of Kruger, remember those long legs are doing more than just adding height – they’re saving a life’s worth of energy.
Long legs offer more than just height – they offer a means to conserve energy
Reference
Seymour, R.S. & Snelling, E.P. (2025). “How long limbs reduce the energetic burden on the heart of the giraffe.” Journal of Experimental Biology, 228. https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.251092
Africa’s migratory species sustain ecosystems and livelihoods: From zebras to whales, their movements regenerate landscapes, support biodiversity, and underpin tourism, food security, and cultural heritage.
Ten remarkable migrations define the continent’s natural rhythm: Including the Great Wildebeest Migration, Botswana’s zebra trek, Zambia’s Kasanka Bat Migration, and South Africa’s Sardine Run, each is a spectacle of survival and renewal.
Seasonal rains and resources guide these journeys: Whether following fresh grass, insects, ripened fruit, or ocean currents, migrations see species adapting with Africa’s changing climates and habitats.
Protecting migratory corridors is essential: Conservation tourism, protected areas, and community-led efforts are vital in preserving these age-old natural highways for future generations.
Migratory animals are vital to Africa’s ecological balance. They drive natural cycles across borders and biomes. They regulate ecosystems, disperse seeds and fertilise soils. Their seasonal movements connect distant landscapes, ensuring the renewal of grasslands, wetlands and oceans. Yet their importance extends beyond ecology: they support food security, safari tourism, and cultural identity for communities across the continent.
Some of these migrations are among the most significant natural events on Earth. From birds and bats to whales and wildebeest, the continent’s migratory species draw tourists who wish to witness these bucket-list spectacles in person. Ethical safaris can now bring travellers face to face with nature’s great journeys without leaving a heavy footprint.
Here are 10 great African migrations worthy of your bucket list:
Burchell’s zebras cross the waters of Moremi Game Reserve, in the Delta
Two distinct migrations occur: one between Chobe and Nxai Pan, and another linking the Okavango Delta with the Makgadikgadi Pans. From December to March, rains turn the salt pans emerald-green, drawing zebras to graze and foal before they trek north as the land dries. Flamingos and springbok share these ephemeral plains, shimmering in heat haze and mirage.
Zebras on the move in Botswana
Why they migrate: To follow the rains and access seasonal grazing, ensuring water and nutrition for the herds and their young. Best time to go: December to March for the lush Makgadikgadi Pans and foaling season; May to July for returning herds and predator action. Where to go: Visit Makgadikgadi Pan, Nxai Pan or the Boteti River area. One significant benefit of setting out on an African zebra migration safari is that it is most dramatic during Botswana’s low tourism season, meaning lower lodge rates and fewer safari vehicles. Experiencing the annual occurrence on a mobile safari is the quintessential migration experience, allowing travellers to trace portions of their long, wild journey.
2. The Great Wildebeest Migration – Tanzania and Kenya
A wildebeest river crossing in the Serengeti
Across the Serengeti National Park and Maasai Mara National Reserve, one of Earth’s greatest natural dramas unfolds: the Great Wildebeest Migration. Each year, over a million wildebeest, joined by zebra and gazelle, move in a circular rhythm dictated by rain and grass – travelling a total of 800km or more during each cycle. From January’s calving season on the southern Serengeti’s nutrient-rich plains to the perilous Mara River crossings in August, their instinct to follow renewal turns the landscape into a living theatre of survival.
The herds begin in Tanzania’s Ndutu area in January, sweeping northward through the Western Corridor and Grumeti, reaching Kenya’s Maasai Mara by midyear. Come November, they journey south once more, the cycle unbroken.
Braving the Mara River
Why they migrate: To follow seasonal rains and fresh grazing across the Serengeti–Mara ecosystem, ensuring survival and reproduction in changing conditions. Best time to go: February for calving in Ndutu; June–July for the Grumeti River crossings; August–October for the Mara River crossings drama. Where to go: Join a mobile migration camp or stay in key locations – Ndutu, Grumeti, or the Mara Triangle – to follow the herds’ path. Balloon safaris, guided safaris and remote camps offer unforgettable front-row seats.
3. Liuwa Plain wildebeest and antelope migration – Zambia
Wildebeest in Liuwa Plain National Park
Far from the crowds, on Zambia’s remote western horizon, Liuwa Plain National Park hosts Africa’s second-largest wildebeest migration – around 45,000 blue wildebeest sweeping across silvered grasslands, accompanied by zebra, oribi and red lechwe. Managed by African Parks and the Barotse Royal Establishment, Liuwa’s revival tells a story of conservation triumph. Once decimated by poaching, it now thrives with returning predators – hyena clans, wild dogs, cheetah and lion prides descended from the legendary Lady Liuwa.
Driven by November rains, the wildebeest and antelope herds move with the storms in search of grazing, echoing the seasonal pulse of the Zambezi floodplains. The park’s vastness – unmarred by roads or crowds – makes this migration an experience of pure solitude.
Why they migrate: To track seasonal rainfall and reach the nutrient-rich grazing that follows the first rains across the Zambezi floodplains. Best time to go: November to April, when rains bring green grass, new life and the peak of the migration. Where to go: Liuwa Plain National Park. Guided drives and walks offer exclusive access to this unspoiled wilderness – a rare place where solitude and spectacle still coexist. Liuwa Plain offers excellent wildlife safaris.
4. The Great Nile Migration – South Sudan and Ethiopia
Tian in Boma and Badingilo National Parks
In the vast, little-known wilderness of South Sudan and Ethiopia, a natural wonder long hidden by conflict and isolation has been revealed – the world’s largest land mammal migration. Each year, an estimated six million antelope – including white-eared kob, tiang, Mongalla gazelle and reedbuck – move across the Boma–Badingilo–Jonglei landscape, a 200,000 km² ecosystem (including Boma and Badingilo National Parks) that stretches east of the Nile and into Ethiopia’s Gambella National Park. This is the Great Nile Migration.
This immense migration, newly confirmed by aerial surveys led by African Parks and the Government of South Sudan, surpasses even East Africa’s Serengeti–Mara movement in scale. The herds follow ancient floodplains and seasonal rains between January and June, painting the plains in motion as they move north and east in search of fresh grazing. Among them, predators and scavengers shadow the flow.
Tiang seen from the air
Why they migrate: To track seasonal rainfall and the fresh grazing that follows the shifting floodplains. Best time to go: The great herds cross the grasslands and wetlands from January to June Where to go: The migration takes place across the Boma and Badingilo National Parks in South Sudan, and Gambella National Park in Ethiopia. The parks are not easily accessible to the general public, and the migration happens across vast, remote areas. Therefore, it is not possible to visit these parks to see the migration. The migration has only recently been surveyed from the air to confirm its scale. However, a pilot tourism project in Maruwa, in Boma NP, is currently being developed, and Gambella is accessible through exclusive chartered aircraft safaris.
5. Kasanka Bat Migration – Zambia
8 million straw-coloured fruit bats take part in the Kasanka Bat Migration
When dusk falls over Kasanka National Park, Zambia, the sky comes alive. From late October to December, around 8 million straw-coloured fruit bats – the largest mammal migration on Earth – descend upon a single patch of swamp forest. Drawn from across central Africa, these nocturnal nomads follow the ripening of wild fruits such as musuku, fig and mango.
The Kasanka Bat Migration unfolds in Kasanka’s evergreen mushitu forest. By day, the bats hang from the trees, cloaking branches in motionless mass. At twilight, they erupt in clouds, their flight paths carving ribbons across the sky. And at sunrise, they flock back to their roosts in a kaleidoscope of wing beats and sunrays.
Why they migrate: Food – their seasonal feast in the fruiting forests of Kasanka. Best time to go: Early November to mid-December, when the colony is at its peak. Where to go: Kasanka National Park. Visit the various hides in the park, where you can witness sunrises and sunsets silhouetting millions of wings against the miombo canopy.
6. Rift Valley flamingo migration – Tanzania and Kenya
Flamingos in Lake Nakuru
Across East Africa’s ancient Rift Valley, shallow soda lakes shimmer pink with life. Here, millions of lesser flamingos gather in synchrony – their curved bills filtering cyanobacteria from saline waters. These ethereal birds drift between Lakes Bogoria and Nakuru in Kenya and Natron in Tanzania, migrating as water levels shift and feeding grounds bloom with microscopic algae. Lake Natron in northern Tanzania remains a regular breeding site, where the mineral flats harden into nursery islands safe from predators. Yet this fragile rhythm faces disruption – rising rainfall and dilution of the soda lakes threaten the flamingos’ delicate food balance and nesting zones.
Flamingos in flight over Lake Natron
Why they migrate: To feed on nutrient-rich cyanobacteria and to breed when lake chemistry aligns. Best time to go: June to October, when dry-season mirages and reduced rainfall reveal vast flocks. Where to go: Kenya’s Lake Bogoria and Lake Nakuru, or Tanzania’s remote Lake Natron. Travellers can fly over red waters and flamingo colonies on a helicopter safari. Witnessing massive flocks of flamingos taking flight against the backdrop of Ol Doinyo Lengai volcano is an experience for the books!
7. Whale Migrations – Southern Africa
Humpback whale
Every winter, the Southern Hemisphere’s great whales journey north along Africa’s coastlines, tracing ancient “blue corridors” through the ocean. Southern right whales leave their Antarctic feeding grounds in June, seeking South Africa’s temperate shallows to calve and nurse. Humpback whales follow similar routes, travelling up to 25,000 kilometres from the icy Southern Ocean to the subtropical bays of Mozambique, Tanzania and Kenya.
From Hermanus to Aliwal Shoal, these giants breach and tail-slap, echoing haunting songs that carry through the surf. But their journeys are fraught: shifting ocean temperatures and declining krill stocks threaten their feeding cycles and body condition.
Southern right whale off the coast of Hermanus, South Africa
Why they migrate: The whales head to warmer waters or their newborns, and the safety of calm coastal waters Best time to go: June to November for humpbacks and southern rights along South Africa’s Whale Coast. Mozambique’s Inhambane and Zanzibar’s southern shores offer epic sightings from July to October. Where to go: From land-based lookouts in Hermanus, Gansbaai, Plettenberg Bay and Zanzibar, or on ethical boat safaris in Sodwana and Watamu. False Bay and Kleinbaai, are also well known for land-based and boat-based viewing.
8. Migratory birds – across the continent
European bee-eater
Each year, the skies above Africa become invisible highways for millions of migratory birds. Species such as barn swallow, steppe eagle, Amur falcon, European roller and white stork traverse thousands of kilometres. These journeys follow the shifting seasons – birds flying north to Europe and Asia to visit temperate climes, then south to escape the northern winter and feed in Africa’s rich wetlands, savannahs, and deltas. Around 185 species fly from Europe and Asia to southern Africa alone.
The East African Rift Valley and the Sahara are crucial corridors, while the Mediterranean bottleneck at Gibraltar channels flocks in waves so vast they seem to cloud the horizon. Some raptors ride thermals for hours each day; others, like the tiny willow warbler, could go 2 days without food or rest when crossing the sea.
Why they migrate: To seek out better food sources and optimal conditions for breeding. Some breed in their African destinations while others breed in the north. Most migrants are insect- or seed-eaters, travelling thousands of miles as the seasons change to seek out resources. Most Palearctic migrants breed in the northern hemisphere and spend the non-breeding season in Africa. A smaller number, known as intra-African migrants, breed and move within Africa following seasonal rains and food availability. Where to go: Kenya’s Rift Valley lakes from September to April; Botswana’s Okavango Delta in summer; and South Africa’s wetlands and savannahs in the austral spring. The Zambezi floodplains also host large numbers of Palearctic waders and terns in the wet season.
Amur falcons are one of hundreds of species that make the annual flight across hemispheres
9. Barbel Run – Botswana
A frenzy of barbel during the Barbel Run
When the Okavango Delta in Botswana absorbs the floodwaters each year, the underwater plains of the Panhandle erupt with life. The Barbel Run – Africa’s hidden migration – is a frenzy of silver and muscle as catfish (Clarias gariepinus) surge upstream, churning the shallows in pursuit of smaller fish fleeing the advancing waters.
The barbel creates an intense feeding chain. Tigerfish slash through the bait balls, birds dive-bomb from above, and tourists gather to witness the spectacle.
Exploring the waterways of the Okavango Delta
Why they migrate: Triggered by rising water and temperature, barbels move en masse to spawn and hunt as the delta floods. Best time to go: August to October, when water clarity peaks and predator activity intensifies. Where to go: The Okavango Panhandle. Guided mokoro or boat excursions offer front-row seats to this underwater carnival.
10. The Sardine Run – South Africa and Mozambique
A sardine bait ball in the Indian Ocean
Each winter, between May and July, South Africa’s eastern coastline hosts a dramatic natural display – the Sardine Run. Billions of sardines (Sardinops sagax) surge northward from the cold waters of the Agulhas Bank to KwaZulu-Natal and Mozambique, driven by seasonal currents and the promise of spawning grounds.
The sea churns with life as dolphins, sharks, gannets, and whales converge in a feeding frenzy. The sardines, forming shimmering bait balls up to 20 metres across, twist through turquoise surf under aerial and underwater assaults.
Why they migrate: A genetically distinct subpopulation follows the cooling winter currents to breed – an instinctive annual journey. Best time to go: June to July, when the run peaks off South Africa’s Wild Coast. Where to go: From a dive boat at Port St Johns or Coffee Bay (both in South Africa), where divers hover amid swirling silver clouds – a cathedral of movement beneath the waves.
Final thoughts
Africa’s great migrations are the continent’s lifeblood, connecting landscapes and species across invisible frontiers. Yet every flight path, river course and ancient trail now depends on our willingness to protect it. By supporting conservation-driven lodges, protected areas and community projects, travellers help safeguard these natural highways. Supporting conservation-focused lodges, parks and community-led initiatives offers a way to keep these wild journeys alive.
Further reading
Botswana’s zebra migrations: Botswana hosts two zebra migrations, one of which is the longest mammal migration in Africa. The zebras travel in search of water and grazing
The Great Wildebeest Migration explained: The Great Wildebeest Migration is the quintessential African safari experience. Here’s our detailed guide on everything you need to know
Africa’s migratory animals under threat: Africa’s migratory animals – from wildebeest & birds, to dugongs & whales – are under threat due to habitat loss and climate change, according to a UN report
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From our CEO – Simon Espley
Does responsible travel = a better holiday?
A responsible safari is one that provides long-term, sustainable benefits to African ecosystems, biodiversity and people. And by this, I mean literal benefits – not just marketing hashtags. This is a complex topic with many layers, but to smash through the politics and vested interests, surely the responsible choice for our fragile wild areas is to focus on lower-volume, higher-value tourism?
Frustratingly, terms such as ‘green’, ‘eco’, ‘sustainable’, and ‘responsible’ come and go in a never-ending cycle of what’s fashionable, combined with cynical abuse of good intentions as mass tourism operators and others adopt them to greenwash their marketing slogans and collateral.
Sadly, for most people searching for a holiday, cheap prices and thrills are the dominant energies driving decision-making. Purveyors of mass tourism know this, and focus their marketing accordingly. And their clients get what they pay for … big resorts and hotels, crowded vehicles, rushing between attractions, cheap thrills and an overriding lack of reflection or meaningful engagement. Tick! Next please. This focus on volume trashes ecosystems, scares away wildlife and tramples on local people’s dignity and sense of purpose.
The best way to achieve truly responsible safaris is to prioritise smaller lodges and bush camps, which offer exclusivity – surely the ultimate luxury these days – and a greater sense of tranquillity. And note that smaller does not necessarily mean very expensive.
Choosing smaller safari lodges and bush camps means fewer vehicles and tourists, undisturbed wildlife encounters, more attentive, discreet service and meaningful engagement with local people. This combo has long-term sustainability etched into its soul.
And choosing a safari company that ensures your safari contributes directly to conservation and community welfare also yields a deep understanding of your safari’s legacy and positive impact. Read more about the sustainable revolution safari here. If better wildlife encounters, serenity and legacy are important to you, then responsible travel choices translate to a more rewarding holiday.
If this makes sense, get in touch and we’ll help you plan a meaningful safari.
Ancient antelope teeth have rewritten our understanding of human evolution. A new study from South Africa’s Cradle of Humankind challenges the belief that this region shifted from woodland to grassland 1.7 million years ago. By analysing over 600 fossil antelope teeth from seven sites, scientists found strong evidence of grazing throughout nearly two million years.
The findings reveal that early humans lived in a mixed habitat of trees, shrubs, and grasslands, rich in ecological variety and opportunity. Some antelopes even ate differently from their modern relatives, showing adaptability. Some grazed, others browsed: a flexible response to habitat. Flexibility shaped survival. Africa has always belonged to the adaptable!
This week, we explore Africa’s 10 cat species, from lions to the continent’s most secretive small cats, and examine new research using AI and satellite imagery to track the wildebeest migration – revealing lower population numbers.
Yours in wild adventure,
Did you know? Your African safari choice makes a difference
We donate a portion of the revenue from every safari sold to carefully selected conservation projects that make a significant difference at ground level. YOUR African safari choice does make a difference – thank you!
Our stories this week
AFRICA’S 10 CATS
Discover Africa’s 10 cat species, from lions and leopards to elusive small cats – their habitats, behaviours, and conservation challenges
MIGRATION NUMBERS DOWN
AI and satellites reveal lower wildebeest numbers in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem, offering a new view of Africa’s Great Migration
Discover Mozambique from the wilds of Gorongosa National Park to the barefoot luxury of Benguerra Island in the Bazaruto Archipelago. Game drives, bush walks, pangolin foraging, dhow cruises, snorkelling, and helicopter flights make this the perfect blend of adventure and indulgence.
The perfect bush and beach trifecta. A classic Tanzanian bush and beach safari that immerses you in iconic locations with time-honoured luxury camps. This is an unforgettable 10-day sojourn that blends the untamed beauty of Tanzania’s northern safari circuit with the tranquil allure of its pristine beaches. You’ll journey through Tarangire National Park to the awe-inspiring panoramas of the Ngorongoro Crater, the sweeping plains of Serengeti National Park, and the sun-kissed shores of Zanzibar.
Know someone who dreams of an African safari? Introduce them to us and earn 5% of their safari value (up to US$1,000) when they book. Cash, credit, or donation – your choice.
You already know the magic of an Africa Geographic safari – now share it! Simply email us now and copy in your friend who is keen to travel, and we’ll take it from there.
AG safari guests, Joel and Miranda from Canada, went on an unforgettable honeymoon safari to East Africa:
“Highly Recommend! Wow, we can’t say enough great things about Ramona and Tracie, who were our main contacts at Africa Geographic. They were both so kind, patient, and thorough in helping us plan our perfect honeymoon, and we’re so grateful we went with them.
Every place we stayed struck the perfect balance between sustainability, supporting local communities, and ensuring an amazing experience. It’s clear they’ve put a lot of thought and care into choosing their partners across Africa, and we highly recommend using Africa Geographic if you’re planning to travel across the continent.
Planning an African safari can be overwhelming – but it doesn’t have to be. Wildlife photographer Andrew Macdonald shares what makes an Africa Geographic safari truly extraordinary. (03:26) Click here to watch
The Great Wildebeest Migration across the Serengeti–Mara ecosystem is one of Earth’s most spectacular wildlife events. This natural engine shapes vegetation, feeds predators, and drives the vital safari tourism industry in Tanzania and Kenya. The migratory wildebeest population has been estimated at around 1.3 million animals for decades. But a new study published in PNAS Nexus challenges this long-held figure, using satellites and artificial intelligence to produce an independent estimate that may reshape how we monitor wildlife.
Traditionally, wildebeest numbers have been calculated through aerial surveys, counts from fixed-wing aircraft flying over set transects. These surveys began in the 1950s, and they are the foundation of population estimates used by governments and conservation bodies. The latest aerial count, conducted by the Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (TAWIRI) in 2023, covered nearly 4,800 km² and estimated roughly 1.3 million wildebeest, affirming assumed number estimates.
But aerial surveys have limitations. Because they rely on sample areas, researchers must statistically extrapolate results across unsurveyed regions, a necessary but imperfect process that introduces potential errors. Aircraft-based counts also pose safety risks and can disturb animals. As the new study notes, plane crashes remain a leading cause of death among wildlife biologists.
The research team, led by Isla Duporge of Princeton University and Tiejun Wang of the University of Twente, applied a radically different approach: high-resolution satellite imagery analysed by deep-learning algorithms.
Thousands of wildebeest dot the plains
A new way to count the Great Wildebeest Migration
The study analysed high-resolution satellite images taken over two consecutive years, August 2022 and August 2023, covering more than 4,000 square kilometres of the Serengeti–Mara ecosystem. These months correspond to the dry season, when the bulk of the migratory wildebeest herds are typically found in the northern Serengeti National Park and Maasai Mara National Reserve regions. By surveying at the same stage of the migration across two years, the researchers could compare population estimates and assess consistency in herd distribution, while cross-referencing GPS collar data from individual animals to confirm that most of the main herds were within the satellite’s survey area during image capture.
Two artificial intelligence models, U-Net and YOLOv8, were trained to detect and count wildebeest in satellite images. These models (which are widely used in image recognition) find animals either by outlining their shapes or by spotting and labelling them in images.
Their detection accuracy was high, with F1 scores (a measure of precision and recall) reaching 0.83 in 2023. This is similar to or better than human accuracy. These results produced counts of about 500,000 to 530,000 wildebeest.
The finding is worrying. This AI-assisted satellite count of 530,000 wildebeest is less than half the long-accepted estimate of wildebeest migration numbers. Has the wildebeest population plummeted? Not necessarily.
The authors stress that their results should be viewed as complementary rather than contradictory. Differences in timing, coverage, and methodology between aerial and satellite surveys may account for some of the gap. Aerial counts often focus on southern areas of the Serengeti just after calving, whereas this satellite analysis covered northern Tanzania and southwestern Kenya later in the migration.
Nonetheless, the scale of the difference – hundreds of thousands of animals – demands attention. The researchers cross-checked GPS collar data from 48 female wildebeest across both years, confirming that most collared individuals were within the satellite’s survey area at the time of image capture. This makes it unlikely that large herds were missed.
The team also considered overcounting risks. At the 30-centimetre resolution of commercial satellites, zebras and eland cannot easily be distinguished from wildebeest, meaning some detections might not be wildebeest at all. In that case, the AI counts may actually be overestimates.
Wildebeest cross the river
Ecology, technology, uncertainty and the Wildebeest Migration
If the satellite data do reflect reality, several ecological explanations are possible. Habitat fragmentation, driven by agriculture, fencing, and infrastructure, continues to constrain migratory routes. Climate change is altering rainfall patterns and grass quality, potentially disrupting the timing and cohesion of the herds. High predation on calves and persistent bushmeat poaching could also be contributing to lower numbers.
Alternatively, wildebeest may now be spread across a wider area than before. The migration could be fragmenting into smaller groups that respond flexibly to shifting conditions, a phenomenon scientists call “behavioural plasticity”. If so, traditional aerial transects may underestimate dispersed herds, while satellites may capture a snapshot of only part of the broader movement.
The only way to resolve these discrepancies, the study concludes, is to conduct synchronised aerial and satellite surveys, counting simultaneously and at the same location to compare results directly and calibrate both methods.
Why this matters
Beyond the wildebeest themselves, this research marks a turning point in conservation monitoring. Satellite-based AI surveys can cover vast areas without disturbing wildlife or risking human lives. They offer repeatable, scalable data that could revolutionise how populations of large, wide-ranging species, such as elephants, zebras, camels, and even seals, are monitored.
Yet, these technologies are not replacements for traditional fieldwork. The authors emphasise “methodological pluralism”: using multiple, independent approaches to cross-verify wildlife numbers. Each method, including aerial, ground-based, or satellite, offers distinct strengths and perspectives. Together, they can give a more accurate picture of ecological change in real time.
Beyond counting animals, the technology also opens a new frontier: understanding collective movement. The Great Migration is an emergent phenomenon. No single leader directs it, but order arises from simple individual cues. High-resolution imagery enables the study of how herds flow, split, and reform, revealing the physics of migration itself. In this way, satellites and artificial intelligence are not only helping conserve the Great Migration. It also illuminates the principles that make this spectacle possible.
The bigger Wildebeest Migration picture
The Great Migration drives nutrient cycles, sustains predators, and maintains grassland health across the Serengeti–Mara system. Understanding wildebeest numbers is not an academic exercise; it underpins policy, tourism, and conservation strategy.
Whether this new count indicates a decline or just a new way of seeing depends on how future studies build on it. What is clear is that artificial intelligence and satellite sensing now offer conservationists a powerful new way to see the movement of half a million animals from space.
Reference
Duporge I., Wu Z., Xu Z., Gong P., Rubenstein D., Macdonald D.W., Sinclair A.R.E., Levin S., Lee S.J., Wang T. (2025). AI-based satellite survey offers independent assessment of migratory wildebeest numbers in the Serengeti.PNAS Nexus, 4(9), pgf264. https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgaf264
Further reading
The Great Wildebeest Migration is the second largest overland migration in the world – a magical spectacle that tops many bucket lists. Discover ethical Great Migration safaris with Africa Geographic here.
The vast Serengeti in northern Tanzania is home to an extraordinary amount of wildlife and plays host to the greatest show on Earth – the Great Migration. Read more about Serengeti National Park here
This interesting introduction to Kenya’s Maasai Mara will have you contacting Africa Geographic to book your next African safari. Read more about Maasai Mara here
Africa is synonymous with its majestic big cats, but the continent is also home to a host of lesser-known felines (Felidae). The big cats of Africa need no introduction and are the highlight of any African safari. But there are seven other African cat species that call the continent home. Most of these are small, secretive and seldom seen, even by the researchers attempting to learn more about their behaviour and ecology. They may not be as well-known as the big cats, or indeed as easy to see, but these medium-sized and small cats are equally beguiling. They also face the same threats – habitat loss, deforestation, bushmeat poaching and indiscriminate snaring: sweeping threats to wildlife regardless of size.
These are the ten African cat species (as recognised by the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN’s Cat Specialist Group):
Big African cat species
1. African lion – Panthera leo
The largest of our cat species and the second largest in the world, these iconic big cats are the apex predators in all of the African wilderness areas in which they occur. They are also the only true social African cat species (and in the world, in fact!), and one of the most sought-after species on any African safari.
The king of the cats – lions (Panthera leo)
In 2025, the IUCN assessed their population as ranging from 22,000 and 25,000 individuals, but some assessments from Panthera and other conservation organisations suggest that there may be fewer than 20,000 wild lions in Africa. Lions are classified as ‘Vulnerable’ on the IUCN Red List.
A lion pride male practices patience
There are two recognised subspecies of African lion: P. l. leo (northern lion), which occurs across Africa and India, and P. l. melanochaita (southern lion), found in eastern and southern Africa. There are plenty of safari destinations where it is easy to spot wild lions, including the Maasai Mara National Reserve in Kenya, Tanzania’s Serengeti National Park, Khwai in Botswana, Greater Kruger in South Africa and Zambia’s Luangwa Valley (North Luangwa and South Luangwa). Check out our story on the best spots to see wild lions, linked at the bottom of this article.
Secretive yet highly adaptable, the exquisite aesthetic and graceful power of African leopards make them a firm favourite for safari-goers. Their rosetted coats provide perfect camouflage, allowing them to be extremely successful ambush predators, but their light-footed approach to stealth belies their sheer strength. Where necessary, leopards can lift kills over twice their body weight metres high into suitable trees.
Leopard (Panthera pardus)
Though the African leopard was confirmed as a subspecies by the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN’s Cat Specialist Group in 2017, leopards from Africa and across Asia are considered to be the same species (with nine subspecies), meaning that they have the most extensive distribution range of any of the big cats. Of the nine recognised leopard subspecies worldwide, P. p. pardus is the only one found in Africa, ranging from sub-Saharan regions to parts of North Africa. Due to their secretive, solitary nature, there are no accurate estimates of how many leopards remain in the wild. Leopards are classified as ‘Vulnerable’ on the IUCN Red List. Leopards can be seen across Africa, but there are a few places that offer truly epic leopard sightings, including Laikipia in Kenya, Greater Kruger in South Africa, Tuli Block in Botswana, and Moremi Game Reserve in Botswana.
A leopard misjudges its leap as a scrub hare races past in Khwai Concession, Botswana
3. Cheetah – Acinonyx jubatus
Fleet-of-foot yet slight and retiring, the cheetah is something of an odd one out. As the fastest land mammal in the world, it also boasts the highest hunting success rate of the big cats, but is constantly harassed by other larger predators and regularly loses its hard-won meals. Cheetahs hunt mainly during the day to reduce competition with the nocturnal predators, hence the characteristic “tear marks” that run from the corners of the eyes to the mouth, which help to reduce the glare from the sun. Five subspecies of cheetah are recognised, two of which occur in Africa: A. j. jubatus across southern and eastern Africa, and the critically endangered A. j. soemmeringii in the Horn of Africa.
Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) (See more from Lennart on www.lensman.se)
There are believed to be less than 7,000 cheetahs left in the wild (6.517 as assessed by IUCN in 2021), and the individuals that do remain have been observed to have unusually low genetic variability. Cheetahs are classified as ‘Vulnerable’ on the IUCN Red List. Cheetahs are regularly spotted in the Serengeti in Tanzania, Maasai Mara in Kenya, and Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park in South Africa and Botswana.
The Maasai Mara’s “Five Musketeers”, a legendary former coalition that held onto a large territory for a number of years
Medium-sized African cat species
4. Serval – Leptailurus serval
The serval is the only member of its genus and bears only a passing resemblance to a cheetah, despite regularly being mistaken for one thanks to their spotted coat and similar colouration. They are far smaller than cheetahs – weighing at most 18kg (large cheetahs have been recorded weighing up to 70kg). Their legs are very long, yet their tails appear almost disproportionately short, and their large ears are used to pinpoint the smallest rustles of rodents in the long grass. A hunting serval that has detected the sounds of rodents or other available prey remains motionless before launching upwards to heights of more than 2m and covering distances of over 3.5m.
The population of this inconspicuous cat is unknown, but their numbers are believed to be stable, and the IUCN Red List classifies them as being of ‘Least Concern’. Three subspecies of serval are currently recognised: L. s. serval in southern Africa, L. s. constantina in West Africa, and L. s. lipostictus in East Africa. Servals can sometimes be observed in South Africa’s Greater Kruger, Zambia’s South Luangwa National Park and Tanzania’s Ngorongoro Crater.
A serval (Leptailurus serval)
5. Caracal – Caracal caracal
Slightly shorter and stockier than the sympatric serval, the caracal has something particularly regal about it. This look is complemented by the long tufts of fur extending from the tips of their ears. These reddish cats survive off small mammals and rodents but have been known to tackle larger prey such as young antelope. They are expert jumpers and have been recorded leaping up to 3 metres to grab birds mid-flight.
Caracal mom and kitten in Samburu National Reserve
Their exact numbers in the wild are unknown, and they are classified as ‘Least Concern’ on the IUCN Red List. However, in many parts of its range, it is considered rare or endangered.
Three caracal subspecies are recognised, with two occurring in Africa: C. c. caracal in southern and eastern Africa and C. c. nubicus in North Africa.
A caracal hunts sandgrouse in Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park
Few people are even aware of the existence of the African golden cat, and far fewer have had the good fortune to see one in the wild. This shy and secretive cat is endemic to the rainforests of West and Central Africa, and researchers are working hard to supplement the scant information available on its behaviour, distribution and ecology. Camera trap footage has been essential in capturing snippets of information about the golden cat.
Genetic analysis shows that it is closely related to the caracal, and the two species do share a similar look, though the golden cat lacks the characteristic black ear tufts. While it is believed to be locally common in certain parts of Gabon and Uganda, this attractive cat is threatened by habitat loss from deforestation and bushmeat hunting. It is classified as ‘Vulnerable’ on the IUCN Red List.
Two subspecies are recognised: C. a. aurata found in West Africa and C. a. celidogaster occurring in Central Africa. African golden cats are rarely seen, but sightings have been recorded in Gabon’s Lopé National Park and Uganda’s Kibale National Park.
African golden cat (Caracal aurata)
The small African cat species
7. Jungle Cat – Felis chaus
Also known as the “swamp” or “reed” cat, this small felid is widespread throughout much of the Middle East, South and Southeast Asia, but in Africa is found only in wetter regions of Egypt. Ten subspecies of jungle cat are recognised, but only F. c. nilotica occurs in Africa, limited to Egypt’s Nile Delta region. This wetland-dwelling cat prefers dense ground cover and hunts small rodents and birds. It is listed as ‘Least Concern’ on the IUCN Red List. In Africa, jungle cats can occasionally be spotted by avid seekers along the Nile Delta wetlands in Egypt.
Jungle cat (Felis chaus)
8. African wildcat – Felis lybica
The ancestor of the domestic cat, these cats are often mistaken for their domestic cousins. However, African wildcats can be distinguished (occasionally with difficulty) by their slightly longer, banded legs and reddish ear colouration. This genetic closeness is one of the greatest threats to African wildcat populations, as interbreeding with domestic cats is common, leading to significant genetic pollution.
African wild cat (Felis lybica)
The African wildcat has only recently been recognised as being a distinct species – it was initially considered a subspecies of Felis silvestris (European wildcat), and the IUCN Red List still lists it under Felis silvestris lybica as ‘Least Concern’, though future updates may revise this. The species African wildcat has actually been divided into three subspecies: F. l. lybica across northern Africa, F. l. cafra in southern and eastern Africa, and F. l. ornata in Asia.
African wildcat in Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa
African wildcats may be spotted in Namibia’s Kalahari regions, and all across South Africa’s savannah areas, among others. Keep an eye out for them on guided night game drives in Greater Kruger.
9. Sand cat – Felis margarita
This tiny desert-dwelling cat is well adapted to handle the extremes of its desert habitat, both in terms of a lack of water and extreme temperature fluctuations. Four subspecies of sand cat are recognised. The African subspecies F. m. margarita is slightly smaller and more yellow than the Asian subspecies, and occurs in North Africa’s Sahara Desert regions. Interestingly, its ear canal is about twice the size of a domestic cat’s, and its hearing is roughly five times more acute.
Though considered to be of Least Concern in terms of conservation status, these cats are secretive and hard to find. Rare images of sand cat kittens can be viewed here. Sand cats inhabit desert areas and are occasionally seen by research teams seeking them out in the Sahara regions. However, they are very tricky to spot, due to their elusive nature, ability to disappear without a trace and perfect camouflage.
Also known as the “small-spotted cat”, the black-footed cat is the smallest of all of the African cat species and is endemic to the southwestern areas of Southern Africa. They may be tricky to spot when on your African safari, as they are extremely elusive. These tiny cats weigh less than 2kg on average but are reputed to be the most successful hunters of all the cat species.
While it is difficult for researchers to estimate the number of black-footed cats in the wild, they believe that there are less than 10,000 mature individuals and that the population is declining. For these reasons, the black-footed cat is listed as ‘Vulnerable’ on the IUCN Red List. No subspecies are recognised; Felis nigripes is a monotypic species endemic to southern Africa. While evasive and rare, black-footed cats are sometimes seen in southwestern Africa, including Southern Africa’s Kalahari and Richtersveld regions, and Namibia’s Namib Desert.
Black-footed cat (Felis nigripes)
Supporting big cat conservation in Africa
Are you keen to support big cat conservation in Africa? You can help save leopards by supporting our Spots on the Line campaign, and you can contribute to the conservation of lions through our Collar a Lion campaign.
Explore Africa’s big cats – lion, leopard, & cheetah – through stunning photos & fascinating facts about their habitats, behaviours, & traits. Celebrate Africa’s big cats here
Chimp cultural crisis + Serengeti unveiled + connecting the Cape
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From our editor – Taryn van Jaarsveld
Chimpanzees are known for their intelligence, but new research from Côte d’Ivoire’s Taï National Park shows how fragile their cultural knowledge can be. Poachers have wiped out all the males in one chimpanzee community, and the group has lost a key learned behaviour: a distinctive “knuckle-knock” mating gesture that had been passed down for decades. Though new males have since matured, the behaviour hasn’t returned.
The findings show that when individuals vanish, so can generations of knowledge essential to survival. From tool use to communication, these learned traditions are part of what defines each chimp community. Researchers say conservation must protect not only individual animals but the complex societies and cultures they form. Without that, we risk saving the species but losing their stories.
This week, we turn our attention to two extraordinary conservation landscapes: Tanzania’s Serengeti, where the Great Migration unfolds in all its power, and South Africa’s Cape region, where scientists are mapping 40 potential wildlife corridors linking the Garden Route, Baviaanskloof, and Addo.
Did you know? Your African safari choice makes a difference
We donate a portion of the revenue from every safari sold to carefully selected conservation projects that make a significant difference at ground level. YOUR African safari choice does make a difference – thank you!
Our stories this week
SERENGETI GUIDE
The vast Serengeti, northern Tanzania, is home to an extraordinary amount of wildlife. It plays host to the greatest show on Earth – the Great Migration
EDEN TO ADDO
Scientists have mapped 40 potential wildlife corridors linking the Garden Route, Baviaanskloof & Addo: a step towards creating a Cape mega-living landscape
Travel Desk – 2 African safari ideas
Cape Town, Winelands, Sabi Sands & Victoria Falls – a luxury journey – 13 days – from US$12,725pps
This is the ultimate luxury journey to three of Southern Africa’s most popular tourism destinations: Cape Town (including the Winelands), Sabi Sands, and Victoria Falls. Experience vibrant Cape Town, and the nearby Franschhoek Winelands, before a short flight to Sabi Sands Game Reserve for guided Big Five game drives, gourmet meals, sundowners and relaxation. Finish your adventure at Victoria Falls with thrilling game drives, river cruises, stunning views, and so much more.
Victoria Falls & Chobe – 7 days – from US$4,320pps
This safari delivers two of Africa’s most popular safari meccas: the iconic Victoria Falls in Zimbabwe, and Chobe, Botswana’s most popular national park. Enjoy an activity every day, from river cruises to game drives, a helicopter flight over Victoria Falls and, for the more adventurous, bungee jumping and river rafting – and so much more!
The prime 5-year-old breeding male leopard, “Selati LM0025” (pictured in camera trap photos below), has become the eighth leopard killed on the roads of Hoedspruit, Limpopo, South Africa, since mid-2024. His loss is a devastating blow to the local leopard population’s genetic health.
To stop this tragic trend, the Ingwe Research Program launched the Road Ecology Project, to identify roadkill hotspots and safe wildlife crossings, which is vital data for lasting solutions. But they can’t do it alone. You can support Ingwe’s work by joining our Spots on the Line campaign to fund fieldwork, camera traps, and data analysis that could save leopards.
Your support can turn loss into lasting protection.
WATCH – AFRICAN SAFARI INSPIRATION:
The rivalry between two shoebill chicks in Bangweulu Wetlands, Zambia, becomes apparent when their mother leaves to fetch water. A short from the David Attenborough-narrated BBC documentary, Africa. (04:08) Click here to watch
In northern Tanzania lies a world-renowned wilderness so expansive that the original inhabitants, the Maasai people, named it as a “place where the land runs forever”. A land synonymous with the very essence of an African safari, where the magnificence of the scenery and the expansive atmosphere is matched only by the quality of wildlife viewing. This is the Serengeti, named for the Maa word siringet – the perfect combination of sweeping grass plains, rocky outcrops, leafy woodlands and fertile, volcanic soils for the region’s populous herbivores and well-fed predators.
In the Serengeti ecosystem, the land really does seem to run forever – at roughly 31,680 km² (3,16,800 hectares) of protected area, it covers a large portion of Tanzania’s north-western corner. It is so vast that it dwarfs the contiguous ecosystem of the Maasai Mara roughly by a factor of ten.
Cheetahs assess their options amidst the grazing herds of wildebeest and plains zebra
Serengeti facts
The northern-most stretches of the Serengeti National Park merge across the international border of Kenya into the Maasai Mara, creating a vital East African ecosystem (more on that later). To the west lie the Grumeti and Ikorongo Game Reserves, south is Maswa Game Reserve and east is the Loliondo Game Control Area. Nestled to the southeast is the ancient caldera of Ngorongoro Crater and the surrounding Conservation Area. To the east of Loliondo looms Ol Doinyo Lengai, literally translated as “the Mountain of God”, one of Africa’s few active volcanoes; and one of many volcanoes that have played a role in shaping one of the most abundant wildlife ecosystems in Africa.
Serengeti National Park
14,764 km² (1,475,630 hectares)
Ngorongoro Conservation Area
8,292 km² (829,200hectares)
Maswa Game Reserve
2,200km² (220,000 hectares)
Grumeti Game Reserve
412 km² (41,200 hectares)
Ikorongo Game Reserve
602 km² (60,200 hectares)
Loliondo Game Control Area
4,000 km² (400,000 hectares)
TOTAL area under conservation
30,270 km² (302,700 hectares)
Under Tanzanian laws and policies, there is a historically complex distinction between National Parks, Game Reserves, Game Control Areas and Conservation Areas.
National Parks are afforded the highest levels of legal control over human activity and habitation within the park and are managed by the Tanzanian National Parks Authority, TANAPA. Game Reserves are similarly protected but are managed by the Tanzania Department of Wildlife with regions set aside for hunting. Game Control Areas allow for the use of land and resources other than for conservation and tourism reasons – including human residence, cultivation and the keeping of livestock.
Conservation Areas are areas of land recognized not only for their ecological importance but their historical value as well. Managed by its own specific Authority, the Ngorongoro Conservation Area is a designated World Heritage Site and is, quite literally, home to some of the footprints of human/hominid history. The archaeological research in Olduvai Gorge and Lake Ndutu has yielded a timeline of our evolution as a species and traces our transitions right through to the use of stone tools and the eventual progression to iron.
The combination of National Parks and Game Reserves, together with the less restricted forms of land use, accounts for the protection of around 80% of the entire Serengeti ecosystem.
A large pride pays no mind to the game drive vehicle
The Great Migration
The Serengeti-Mara ecosystem is home to the Great Migration – the second largest overland migration on earth, and for the majority of the year, the herds are moving through the Serengeti ecosystem. In February, the short grass plains in the southern section of the Serengeti National Reserve provide the perfect birthplace for hundreds of thousands of white-bearded (blue) wildebeest calves. Those that survive the attentions of the many predators will begin their life-long, roughly circular journey spanning the two countries with between 1.4 and 2.5 million other wildebeest. As the calves grow, they can cover more ground, and the herds flow north through the Grumeti Game Reserve and surrounding areas, eventually crossing into the Maasai Mara between July and September, before looping back towards Tanzania around October.
Hippos congregate in a rapidly drying river during the dry season
Nothing can truly convey the experience of sitting in the middle of the migration, surrounded by animals as far as the eye can see. The wildebeest are constantly vocal, with grunting contact calls interspersed with what can only be described as the desperate sound of the males trying to further their genetic future. The background cacophony is a permanent soundtrack to the spectacle of the Great Migration.
While the migration is known for multitudinous hunts and dramatic river crossings, there is also a strangely comic aspect for those that have the patience to sit and watch the more “ordinary” wildebeest sightings. Few would describe the white-bearded wildebeest as great thinkers of the animal kingdom, but the calves are always playful, despite the seemingly precarious nature of their very existence, and the mating season is hilarious. A male will gallop off in pursuit of a potential opponent, and after a (usually) brief clash of horns, will return to where he left his females, only to find that they’ve wandered off, at which point he looks dejected for a short time before galloping off to start again. The smell completes the sensory extravaganza that is the migration – a combination of leather, grass and cow with a hint of something sharp that might, metaphorically, be described as the scent of panic.
The Mara River is a favourite haunt for tourists when the herds of wildebeest and zebra run the gauntlet of crocodiles and big cats to cross back and forth – to gain access to grass on the other side
The full Serengeti experience
Quite aside from the huge herds of wildebeest, zebra and various antelope species that find themselves caught up in the migration, the Serengeti thrums with life throughout the year. Big cat sightings are a certainty: lions pose majestically on picturesque kopjes, leopards seclude themselves in the boughs of huge sausage trees, and cheetahs stretch out to their full stride through the golden grass. The sheer openness of the plains dwarfs elephant families, and large herds of buffalo stare down their noses at passing safari vehicles. A fortunate visitor might even spot one of the black rhinos that were brought in from South Africa to boost the population in the Serengeti.
The rainfall patterns are very similar to those of the Maasai Mara, with seasonal rainfall peaks in November/December and April/May (although these rainfalls are becoming more variable due to climate change). As in the Maasai Mara, the volcanic history of the area means that when it rains, the soils in certain areas become boggy, but the relevance of the timing of the rains extends beyond weighing up the chances of getting stuck. Tsetse flies are present in the Serengeti all year round, but their numbers increase significantly during the summer months and rainy season. The guides know how to avoid the pockets of tsetse flies, but wearing neutral clothing will help to avoid attracting attention.
Enjoying a packed lunch on the plains
Endless plains and beyond
It is no exaggeration to say that a visit to the Serengeti ecosystem is essential for avid safari-goers. The vast space and relatively low lodge density mean that for the most part, you can experience the spectacular scenery and wildlife in relative peace. Naturally, the river crossings in the north and birthing in the south attract large numbers of visitors, and sightings can be quite busy at times. And yet the vastness of the Serengeti translates into plenty of opportunity for privacy and wilderness, even during the busy tourism months.
Shaped by volcanic forces and fed by numerous river systems, there is something primordial about the boundless plains of the Serengeti and the ceaseless movements of over a million animals driven by the search for sustenance. History, both ancient and recent, has created one of the most spectacular wilderness ecosystems on the African continent.
A walking safari in the Serengeti – one of the best ways to savour this vast ecosystem
Serengeti conservation challenges
While the Serengeti remains one of the world’s iconic wildernesses, it also faces significant conservation pressures. Climate change is altering rainfall patterns, with direct impacts on migration routes, calving success and habitat quality. Human activities, including livestock grazing, fencing, increased tourism vehicle traffic, irrigation and settlement expansion, are fragmenting migratory corridors. For example, the iconic northward route of the herds into the Maasai Mara National Reserve in Kenya is under pressure as fewer days are spent there compared to a decade ago, due to changing water availability. Protecting and maintaining the linkages between different zones of the ecosystem is crucial for the long-term viability of the migration and the predators that depend on it.
At the same time, the Maasai people living around the Serengeti face growing pressure from restrictions on grazing and settlement within Game Controlled Areas like Loliondo and Simanjiro, which limit traditional pastoral livelihoods despite their long history of coexistence with wildlife.
Two young giraffes stand tall amongst impalas and a lone gazelle on the plains
Visitor planning and biodiversity beyond the migration
Although the migration is the headline event, the Serengeti offers incredible wildlife viewing year-round. The central Seronera Valley is renowned for resident lion and leopard populations, making it ideal for feline sightings even outside migration months. The western corridor around the Grumeti River offers dramatic scenery and river-crossing opportunities before the Mara crossings. Additionally, the Serengeti has over 500 bird species, large elephant and buffalo populations (though elephants remain fewer compared to other regions), and a rich variety of habitats from short-grass plains to acacia woodlands and kopjes (rocky outcrops). It’s helpful for visitors to tailor their itinerary according to what they most want to see (big cats, calving, river crossings, birdlife) and to consider that quieter, less-crowded months may offer better experiences of solitude and wilderness.
Exquisite luxury overlooking a Serengeti sunset
Responsible tourism and community engagement
Finally, modern safari travel places emphasis on responsible tourism. Visitors to the Serengeti should look for lodges and safari planners that work with local communities (such as the indigenous Maasai and other pastoralists), support conservation initiatives, minimise vehicle and environmental impact (for example by limiting off-track driving, using solar-powered lodges, and reducing single-use plastics), and respect cultural sensitivities. Understanding the role of local people in conservation – both as beneficiaries and as partners – adds depth to the safari experience and helps ensure that the Serengeti remains meaningful not just as a wildlife spectacle but as a living landscape, supporting people and nature alike.
Soaking up sun before the looming storm sets in
Further reading
Safari report-back: Simon Espley’s luxury Serengeti safari during the wildebeest migration – drama, excitement, awe and wonder. Read about this epic Serengeti safari here
The Great Wildebeest Migration is the quintessential African safari experience. Here’s our detailed guide on everything you need to know on the Great Migration
Safari report-back: Simon Espley’s walking safari in the vast Serengeti wilderness – a fantastic experience for adventurous souls. Read about this ultimate Serengeti walking safari here
The many rocky outcrops that dot the Serengeti landscape are always worth watching for lions and leopards
In South Africa’s Cape region, conservationists have long dreamed of linking three of the country’s wilderness areas through wildlife corridors. Through this plan, the Garden Route National Park, the Baviaanskloof Mega-Reserve, and the Addo Elephant National Park would be linked in one continuous landscape. Together, these protected areas form the heart of the Eden to Addo Corridor Initiative, a vision to reconnect fragmented habitats and restore the free movement of wildlife across the mountains, valleys, and plains of the Eastern and Western Cape.
Some of the focus areas for the corridor include the Robberg Coastal Corridor, the Keurbooms Corridor, the Langkloof Corridor and the Springbokvlakte Corridor.
A new study by Daan Lichtenberg and colleagues offers the most detailed map yet of how this could work. Using ecological modelling and expert knowledge, the researchers identified 40 potential wildlife corridors linking the three “mega-reserves” – a network of natural pathways that could one day turn the corridors into a reality.
The research focuses on mammal-based multi-species corridors, and the authors modelled ecological connectivity between the three protected areas. By integrating expert-derived resistance surfaces for nine representative mammal species, the study also highlighted significant barriers like agriculture and roads.
All three of these reserves are ecologically significant. The Garden Route National Park shelters some of South Africa’s last extensive tracts of indigenous forest, fynbos, and wetlands. The Baviaanskloof World Heritage Site lies inland and is a dramatic, folded landscape, hosting both thicket and mountain fynbos. To the east, Addo Elephant National Park protects a range of habitats, from arid Karoo to coastal dunes and marine areas. It supports one of South Africa’s best-known and intensively studied elephant populations, the largest in the Eastern Cape, and rare and endangered species such as the Cape mountain zebra, leopard, and black rhino.
Protected areas are islands of safety in a sea of human activity – but isolation comes at a cost. When animals are confined to small, fenced areas, populations become less resilient, genetic diversity declines, and ancient natural movements that once maintained ecosystems halt. Ecological corridors are the bridges that reconnect these islands, allowing wildlife to move and adapt in the face of threats like habitat loss and climate change.
Biodiversity conservation is increasingly dependent on maintaining landscape connectivity, especially in regions like South Africa that are facing rapid habitat fragmentation due to expanding urbanisation and agriculture. Protected Areas alone are often too small and isolated to offer robust, resilient protection for many mammal species
In 2024, South African National Parks (SANParks) unveiled their Vision 2040 strategy – an initiative that intends to align conservation with shared economic growth “in ways that can tangibly change lives”. The vision includes an ambitious strategy known as “Mega Living Landscapes” through which SANParks hopes to allow surrounding communities to have buy-in for the protected areas in their vicinity. This strategy calls for connecting protected areas through a network of green corridors and buffer zones, restoring the movement of species and ecological processes across vast landscapes. The Eden to Addo initiative (so named as the Garden Route region used to be named “Eden”) is a model of this approach – one that balances the realities of farming, tourism, and rural livelihoods.
Elephants crossing the Addo landscape
Mapping the movement of mammals
To build their models, the researchers focused on nine mammal species that represent a range of ecological roles – from browsers and grazers to predators and water-dependent species. These included elephants, leopards, Cape mountain zebras, bushpigs, Cape grysboks, chacma baboons, greater kudus, bat-eared foxes, and Cape clawless otters. Each plays a distinct role in the ecosystem, from shaping vegetation and dispersing seeds to keeping prey populations in check.
The results show a network of 40 potential corridors, most (75%) under 15 kilometres long, that could allow animals to move safely between the mega-reserves. Each corridor was mapped at a minimum width of 2km. The longest corridor extended up to 53.6km. Many follow natural features like forest belts, river valleys, and thicket mosaics, and many also include protected areas neighbouring the focus reserves. Others pass through farmland and private properties, highlighting the crucial role that landowners and communities will play in making these connections work.
The study identified 346 land parcels as top priorities for maintaining wildlife movement between the three reserves, with another 677 parcels marked as secondary priorities. Protecting or restoring these key areas would help keep the region’s ecosystems connected and resilient.
The researchers found that most of the proposed corridors lie in areas with a low to moderate human footprint, dominated by natural forest, fynbos, and grassland. However, agriculture and roads remain major barriers – especially near urban centres such as Gqeberha. Still, the research shows that with cooperation and careful planning, connectivity between these parks is within reach.
Creating ecological corridors is not just a technical exercise – it’s a social and economic challenge too. The success of the Eden to Addo vision will depend on collaboration between conservationists, farmers, and local communities. Fencing, land ownership, and human-wildlife conflict are real obstacles. But with incentives like biodiversity stewardship, restoration-based agriculture, and carbon credit schemes, connectivity can become part of a sustainable future for both people and wildlife.
This region’s diversity is extraordinary: seven of South Africa’s nine biomes meet here. Reconnecting these ecosystems would help species move and adapt as the climate changes, restore natural processes like fire and migration, and secure long-term refuges for threatened species. For the Cape mountain zebra, which depends on open, connected habitats, corridors could mean the difference between genetic diversity and isolation. For leopards, they offer safe routes between fragmented territories. And for elephants, the corridors reopen ancient pathways once blocked by fences and farmland.
A valley in the Baviaanskloof Mega Reserve
Lessons from the rest of Africa
Similar projects elsewhere on the continent show what’s possible with wildlife corridors. In Kenya, the Mount Kenya–Lewa–Ngare Ndare corridor allows elephants to move safely between mountain forests and the dry savannahs of Laikipia, reducing conflict with people and restoring old migration routes. The Kasigau Wildlife Corridor, linking Tsavo East and Tsavo West National Parks, allows the movement of wildlife between the two national parks.
Further south, the Kavango–Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA), spanning Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, is the largest land-based transfrontier conservation area in the world. Its network of cross-border corridors enables the free movement of elephants, lions, wild dogs, and countless other species across more than half a million square kilometres. KAZA shows that connectivity can be achieved at scale when neighbouring countries and communities share a vision for living landscapes that work for both people and nature.
These examples show how corridors can facilitate migration, coexistence and resilience. The Eden to Addo Corridor could become South Africa’s own contribution to this continental movement, linking its forests, thickets, and plains into one functioning ecosystem where wildlife can once again roam freely.
Elephants in Botswana’s Chobe National Park, part of the Kavango–Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA), Africa’s largest connected conservation landscape
This study successfully provides a robust, structured framework for multi-species corridor planning, offering crucial insights for conservation practitioners working to enhance landscape connectivity towards regional and national biodiversity conservation goals.
This kind of research gives the Mega Living Landscapes strategy a scientific foundation, showing exactly where ecological corridors can restore wildlife movement between protected areas. It turns a broad conservation vision into practical, data-driven guidance for connecting ecosystems while supporting the people who live alongside them.
However, the authors acknowledge that significant challenges remain, including the need for financial feasibility and engaging landowners, particularly since conservation initiatives often take place on privately owned land. Furthermore, social factors, such as potential human-wildlife conflict (e.g., resistance towards leopards and elephants) and the management of physical barriers like fences, must be addressed at the local level for the long-term sustainability of these corridors.
Reference
Lichtenberg D., Kreuzberg E., von Dürckheim K., et al. (2025). Landscape connectivity for biodiversity conservation: a mammal-based multi-species corridor approach for the Eden to Addo Corridor Initiative, South Africa.Biodiversity and Conservation, 34, 3933–3953. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-025-03140-8
Further reading
From relaxed elephants to hard-working dung beetles, Addo Elephant National Park is a conservation marvel packed with wildlife, adventure, and history. Read more about Addo here.
The Cape safari experience: fascinating wildlife and malaria-free protected spaces close to Cape Town and the Garden Route. Check out all the Cape has to offer here.
The Garden Route is a dramatic meeting of mountains, gorges, forest and the Indian Ocean, interspersed by quaint, sleepy beach towns. Read more about the Garden Route here.
Shark attacks buffalo? + ebony and ivory + Lake Malawi uncovered
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From our CEO – Simon Espley
Shark attacks buffalo in Kruger
Have you seen the video of a massive great white shark that attacked a buffalo in the Sabie River, Kruger National Park? No? That’s because it never happened. Ever.
Fake AI video clips and photos in our social media feeds are leaving some gasping in wonder and awe, and clicking share. A soaring eagle carries away a massive thrashing crocodile, and an elephant lovingly cradles a lion cub in its curled-up trunk to safety from the slavering mouths of tigers. ‘Entertainment’ aside, the growing void between software-generated fabrications and the real, biological, natural world grows, and our algorithmic enslavement continues to take root.
Carefully weeding my accounts of the purveyors of this cr@p does help. Still, the tide is rising, and the owners of social media continue to prioritise emotional engagement over boring facts, intelligent thought and constructive debate. This volume-based business model fuels their advertising revenue. We are rapidly heading towards a future where most content is generated by software, and we are the (muted) fuel that drives the revenue engine. Of course, this generic mousse completely misses the angular, beautiful reality of biological life and confuses the masses about what nature is all about. The risks to our planet’s biodiversity and stability are obvious as more and more people are being screened off from Mother Nature and see her as irrelevant in their lives.
Have no fear that my team will continue to celebrate the real world in our stories, galleries and reporting. Warts and all. Likewise, our tailor-made safaris are handcrafted to ensure the most meaningful experiences and to showcase this great place we call home.
Thanks for continuing to prefer science and facts over software-generated detritus. We are in the minority, but we are powerful. A luta continua!
Bats aren’t always the gentle insect-eaters we imagine. Scientists have, for the first time, recorded a greater noctule bat (Nyctalus lasiopterus) hunting, killing, and eating a songbird mid-flight, complete with the sound of crunches of feather and bone. Found in parts of North Africa, Europe, and Asia, this large and elusive bat has long been suspected of snacking on night-flying birds, but until now, proof was missing.
The bat was fitted with a high-tech tag, and the recording, captured in Spain, revealed the bat’s aerial chase of an unfortunate robin, ending in a 23-minute feast. Greater noctules usually feed on insects, but seem to switch to small birds during the birds’ migration seasons. The discovery offers a rare glimpse into the adaptability of these endangered giants.
This week, we explore the connection between elephants and ebony trees in the Congo Basin’s rainforests, and the wild beauty of Lake Malawi, one of the continent’s most overlooked travel gems.
Did you know? Your African safari choice makes a difference
We donate a portion of the revenue from every safari sold to carefully selected conservation projects that make a significant difference at ground level. YOUR African safari choice does make a difference – thank you!
Our stories this week
EBONY & IVORY
Central Africa’s elephants and ebony: new research reveals how Africa’s forest elephants sustain its darkest wood, & what happens when they both vanish
LAKE MALAWI
Lake Malawi is Africa’s best-kept secret – a freshwater lake surrounded by gorgeous beaches, islands & biodiversity with endless opportunities for exploration
Be prepared for the drama and the wonder of the vast open plains. Step into the wild heart of Tanzania as the Great Migration sweeps across the vast Serengeti. Encounter endless herds, prowling predators, golden savannahs and dramatic big skies on this unforgettable safari adventure. All Arusha–Northern Serengeti–Central Serengeti–Arusha flights included
Discover two of Tanzania’s extraordinary and contrasting destinations. The wild beauty of Ruaha National Park, where ancient baobabs tower over elephant herds and prowling predators, to the turquoise waters of Mafia Island, a barefoot hideaway of coral gardens and castaway calm. This classic safari-and-sea combination captures the true spirit of Africa-untamed, soulful, and unforgettable.
Repeat AG safari guest, Ana from Brazil, went on an unforgettable Tanzania safari:
Been travelling with Africa Geographic for some time now and it has always been a fantastic experience. They take really good care of me and present me with awesome destinations. This time, it was Selous and Ruaha in Tanzania. The camps were beautifully positioned, the management impeccable and the food was delicious! Africa Geographic suggested the destination and planned it extremely well.
The Roar of Somkhanda: watch the inspiring journey of South Africa’s first community-owned Big 5 game reserve, Somkhanda Game Reserve. Spanning 12,000 hectares of pristine Zululand bushveld, this sanctuary stands as a testament to the power of community-driven conservation. (08:49) Click here to watch
It probably would have come as something of a surprise to the local inhabitants of Lake Malawi to learn that their lake was “hitherto undiscovered”, but even by traditional standards of colonial “discovery”, Livingstone was mistaken. His arrival came some 13 years after that of several Portuguese traders. To add possible insult to unintentional injury, he then proclaimed Lake Malawi as Lake Nyasa – which translates as “Lake Lake” in Chiyao – a name that has stuck in both Tanzania and Mozambique to this day.
Livingstone’s alternative moniker, Lake Nyinyesi or “Lake of Stars” (in reference to the lights of the fishing boats bobbing about on the lake’s surface at night), was perhaps a better fit. This at least does some justice to the enchanting atmosphere of the lake and its surroundings. Whatever the label ascribed to this magnificent body of water, there is no question that Lake Malawi remains one of Africa’s best-kept travel secrets and a wonderful beach holiday experience. A crystalline freshwater lake surrounded by sandy beaches fringed by palm trees – could there be a better way to wash off the dust at the end of an African bush safari?
The Lake
Lake Malawi/Lake Nyasa is an African Great Lake – the southernmost lake in the East African Rift system. It is the fourth-largest freshwater lake in the world (by volume) and the third-largest in Africa (behind Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika). The lake is around 570km in length and some 75km at its widest point, with one central depression extending to a depth of over 700m. (If this doesn’t fully put things into perspective, Lake Malawi holds an estimated 7% of the world’s available surface freshwater.) It lies between Mozambique, Malawi and Tanzania and the exact position of the international boundary between Malawi and Tanzania remains a matter of considerable contention that has boiled over into frequent diplomatic disputes.
View over the Maleri Islands
The largest river feeding the lake is the Ruhuhu River, which flows south from Tanzania, while the renowned Shire River serves as the lake’s primary outlet. The basin is believed to be around 8.6 million years old, formed as the African tectonic plates began to diverge. Research indicates that water levels have varied considerably over the millennia, including periods where the lake dried out almost entirely.
Lake Malawi is classified as a meromictic lake. This means that the layers of water (surface and deep waters) do not mix, unlike the more common holomitic lakes where physical mixing of the layers occurs at least once a year. This stable “stratification” of the waters creates radically different environments for the lake’s organisms as the deeper waters are almost entirely without oxygen and considerably cooler.
The water is usually exceptionally clear for a freshwater lake, with visibility often extending further than 20m in clear conditions, sometimes more in exceptional cases. Beneath the warm cerulean waves, Lake Malawi’s ancient but turbulent geographic history has created truly spectacular underwater scenery decorated by electric flashes of vibrant fish.
Underwater life around Nankoma Island
Snorkel, scuba, kayak, sail (or just sunbathe)
Across the extensive shoreline of Lake Malawi, tiny beach villages, resorts and lodges offer the adventurous tourist a plethora of opportunities to explore the waters – above or below the azure ripples. Sailing and kayaking are at the top of the list for those eager to investigate the various bays and coves along the shoreline. This also provides the opportunity to marvel at the enormous granite boulders scattered by the forces of a more primordial earth, or perhaps even catch a glimpse of a fish eagle swooping in to snatch up an inattentive fish. For those intent on sticking to a more sedate pace, boat trips provide the perfect vantage to appreciate the lake’s famous, blazing sunsets. Snorkel or dive beneath the surface to take in the fishy kaleidoscope darting around the rocks in the shallows.
There are two caveats to exploring the lake’s waters. The first is that there are crocodiles and hippos in residence. However, they tend to remain closer to more vegetated or muddy areas rather than broad open clear waters. Fortunately, they are easy to spot in the clear water, too. It is worth remembering that Malawi’s rainy season runs from December to around March and the consequent runoff affects water visibility. The second is that bilharzia is a potential risk for those entering the water. As such, visitors should follow guidelines for the specific areas they are visiting. The risk is highest close to more densely populated areas and negligible on the secluded islands. Infection is rare, and bilharzia can be quickly and efficiently treated with anthelmintic drugs.
Trumpeter hornbills are a common sight in and around Lake MalawiSoft sandy beaches overlooking endless waters
Something fishy
In terms of wildlife, crocodiles and hippos take second place behind the astonishing variety of fish that inhabit the lake – up to 1,000 species – more than any other lake in the world.
The majority of these are cichlids, whose evolutionary radiations have been a source of eternal fascination for biologists intent on unpicking their taxonomic complexities. (Though their bright, shiny colours are the most attractive characteristic for the average diver.) These stunning little fish are everywhere, though most numerous in the shallow shoreline areas where they create nesting ‘sandcastles’ (officially termed bowers) and ferry their tiny fry by mouth.
Fishing is an integral way of life for local Malawians living on the lake’s shores. Exploring the tiny fishing villages, learning about the culture of fishing is fascinating. Unfortunately, overfishing has become a serious concern in recent decades. This stems from both small-scale and more industrial fishing, with some commercial operations increasing pressure on certain stocks.
Kaya Mawa with Mozambique in the distance
Lake Malawi’s Paradise island(s)
Though far from over-developed, there is a distinctive ‘beach-town atmosphere’ to some of the more popular sections and resorts of Lake Malawi, particularly along the southern shoreline (most notably, Cape Maclear). These hubs are desirable to low-budget travellers, and several backpacking establishments offer affordable accommodation and an enthusiastic nightlife.
Several upmarket lodges boast their own private beaches for those keen on a more exclusive experience. Here residents can step straight out of their cabins onto the white sand. There are many of these on Lake Malawi’s scattered islands, some of which are entirely private, set aside for exclusive use by lodge guests. These tropical escapes offer the same amenities as any other luxury beach holiday, usually at a fraction of the cost. The two largest islands, Likoma and Chizumulu, are inhabited by small populations of some 10,500 (Likoma) and 4,000 (Chizumulu) people. Fascinatingly, despite having no tarred roads or electricity after 10 PM, the town of Likoma is home to the enormous, gothic, stone edifice of St Peter’s Anglican Cathedral.
Beach lounging along Lake MalawiBarefoot bliss alongside Lake MalawiOne of the best pools in Africa – overlooking Lake Malawi
History lessons on Lake Malawi
This rich sense of history extends across the lake, and the Lake Malawi Museum documents the story of the first naval battle of World War I. However, to call it a naval battle might be something of a stretch. The story goes that Captain Rhoades of the SS Gwendolen was the first to receive official orders and immediately set out to disable the German steamship, the Hermann von Wissman, while it was being repaired. His friend and supposed drinking buddy, Captain Berndt, was entirely unaware that the war had started so when bombs began raining down on the docked Hermann von Wissman, Berndt rowed out to the Gwendolen to inquire if his old pal Rhoades had perhaps had one too many.
Bush and beach
Beyond its shimmering shores, Lake Malawi’s hinterland reveals a tapestry of inland wonders that rival the beauty of the water itself. Directly inland from Lake Malawi’s shoreline, a rich and varied landscape unfolds. The narrow coastal plain quickly gives way to wooded hills and escarpments clothed in miombo woodland, dominated by brachystegia, mopane, and acacia trees that flush golden after the rains. These forests shelter a surprising array of wildlife, including baboons, vervet monkeys, bushbuck, warthogs, and small antelope such as duiker. Birdlife is prolific: fish eagles, hornbills, sunbirds, and bee-eaters thrive in the woodland canopy and along the riverine thickets that feed into the lake. Pockets of evergreen forest cling to the higher ridges, where orchids and ferns flourish in the cool, misty air. In certain areas, particularly around Cape Maclear and Nankumba Peninsula, the escarpment forests blend into rocky outcrops and grassland, providing habitat for hyraxes and the occasional leopard.
The African pitta is one of the most sought-after bird sightings around Lake MalawiA duiker spotted in the inland woodlands of Lake MalawiAn iconic ancient fig tree overlooking the lake
Though not one of the usually fancied safari destinations, Malawi’s conservation and ecotourism ventures have gone from strength to strength in recent years. Many of the country’s pristine protected areas offer a ‘Big 5’ experience, with the added advantage that they are unspoilt by mass tourism. Just a short journey from the southern shore of Lake Malawi lies Liwonde National Park, bordered by (and indeed accessible to) the Shire River. Along with the adjacent Mangochi Forest and under the auspices of African Parks, the national park is flourishing, and translocated animals from other reserves have bolstered local wildlife populations.
Further south, the 700km² (70,000-hectare) Majete Wildlife Reserve in southwestern Malawi is one of Africa’s greatest conservation success stories and a premier Big-5 safari destination. Here, African Parks has also assumed responsibility for the rehabilitation and long-term management of the reserve, and implemented programs to protect the reserve, with teams successfully securing the safety of Majete’s wildlife populations
Malawi’s birding is equally varied and exciting, with 684 species on the list. Liwonde National Park is also the population stronghold of Lilian’s lovebird.
DID YOU KNOW that Majete Wildlife Reserve and Liwonde National Park are managed by African Parks? African Parks offers safari camps (lodges and campsites) where 100% of tourism revenue goes to conservation and local communities. Find out more and book your African Parks safari through Ukuri here.
Magical sunsets abound
The Lake of Stars
From spectacular hiking trails to pristine white beaches, Lake Malawi’s true magic lies in the fact that it is still relatively “undiscovered” (despite Livingstone’s best efforts). Removed from the famous safari circuits, its crystal waters and pristine biodiversity make for the perfect tropical escape accompanied by the warm embrace of local hospitality.
Liwonde National Park is an exceptional safari destination, revived from the brink of destruction & now a key protected area in Malawi. Read more about Liwonde here
Malawi’s Majete Wildlife Reserve is a booming Big 5 destination. Be drawn by epic scenery, cheetahs & wild dogs, & the mighty Shire River. Read more about Majete here
African forest elephants and African ebony trees share a close and ancient ecological relationship. A new study provides the first direct evidence that as elephant numbers decline across Central Africa, so too does the regeneration of ebony trees. The research reveals that elephants are crucial not only for dispersing ebony seeds but also for protecting them from predators – a dual role that determines the tree’s survival in the Congo Basin.
Deep in the humid heart of the Congo Basin, in dense forests, two of the continent’s most iconic treasures – ebony and ivory – are in decline, their fates intrinsically linked. A new study published in Science Advances reveals that the African forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis) and the African ebony tree (Diospyros crassiflora) are bound by a mutualism that now teeters on the edge of collapse.
For decades, the story of ivory has been one of poaching and elephant population decline. Forest elephants once roamed throughout the Congo Basin, acting as ecosystem engineers. But poaching for ivory has reduced their population by 86% in the past three decades, pushing the species to the brink of extinction. The repercussions of this loss reach beyond the elephant itself. As the study by Vincent Deblauwe and colleagues shows, when elephants disappear, so does the next generation of ebony.
A tree dependent on elephants
The African ebony tree is one of the most valuable timber species in the world, renowned for its dark, dense heartwood, which is used in the manufacture of fine instruments and furniture. It is a slow-growing, dioecious species – meaning individual trees are either male or female, and only the females bear fruit. Ebony produces large, fleshy fruits that fall beneath the parent tree. These fruits belong to what ecologists call the megafaunal dispersal syndrome – an evolutionary trait where plants rely on large-bodied animals to transport their heavy seeds over long distances.
Elephants are suited to this task. They consume the ripe ebony fruits, digest the pulp, and excrete the intact seeds far from the parent tree. This process performs two critical functions: it transports the seeds to new areas and deposits them within nutrient-rich dung, creating ideal conditions for germination.
The study, conducted at four forest sites in and around Cameroon’s Dja Faunal Reserve, compared areas with healthy elephant populations to those where elephants have been extirpated due to poaching. Researchers collected data on tree size, seed distribution, genetic diversity, and germination rates. They also ran controlled experiments to test how well ebony seeds survived and sprouted under different conditions – in elephant dung, on the forest floor, and when left exposed.
The results were precise. In forests without elephants, young ebony saplings were dramatically fewer – a 68% decline compared to elephant-rich areas. Moreover, almost half of all ebony trees in elephant-inhabited forests were young saplings, compared with only 15% in elephant-free forests. These findings indicate that without elephants, the natural regeneration of ebony is collapsing.
One of the most striking findings of the study is that elephant dung provides critical protection for ebony seeds. Seeds deposited within dung were 8.5 times less likely to be eaten by rodents and herbivores than those lying exposed on the forest floor. The dung acts as both a shield and a fertiliser – reducing predation while improving soil conditions for germination.
In contrast, in areas without elephants, the fallen fruits rot beneath the mother tree or are quickly consumed by rodents such as Emin’s pouched rats (Cricetomys emini) and by herbivores like yellow-backed duikers (Cephalophus silvicultor). Few seeds survive long enough to sprout, and those that do often germinate in dense clusters near the parent tree, where they compete for light and nutrients.
To understand the longer-term impact of elephant loss, the researchers analysed the genetic relatedness of ebony saplings.
By examining saplings of different ages, the team reconstructed a timeline of ecological decline. Fifty to a hundred years ago, young ebony trees in the study sites were, on average, born hundreds of metres – sometimes kilometres – from their parent trees. Today, in the same forests, that average distance has shrunk to just over 200 metres.
In elephant-free forests, saplings were found to be much more closely related – effectively siblings growing side by side. This indicates that seeds are now falling close to their parent trees rather than being carried long distances. These ebony trees are essentially now reproducing in patterns more typical of plants that rely on gravity, not animals, to disperse their seeds.
The loss of genetic mixing reduces the trees’ ability to adapt to disease, pests, and climate change. Over generations, such inbreeding could significantly weaken the resilience of ebony populations.
Elephants as forest engineers
Forest elephants influence their environment in numerous ways, extending beyond the dispersal of seeds. By trampling vegetation and feeding selectively on specific species, they shape the structure of tropical forests. They tend to favour slow-growing, dense-wooded trees – such as ebony – while suppressing the dominance of fast-growing, light-wooded species. This process increases the overall carbon storage capacity of forests.
Historically, forest elephants occupied the entire Congo Basin. Today, their range has shrunk to fragmented pockets, with populations surviving in a fraction of their former distribution due to years of intense poaching and habitat loss.
The disappearance of elephants is expected to change forest composition over time, shifting ecosystems to become less carbon-dense and less biodiverse. The study highlights that these are not abstract ecological changes, but measurable transformations already underway in the Congo Basin.
Because ebony trees grow extremely slowly – barely 1.7 millimetres in diameter per year – the effects of elephant decline take decades to become visible. Many of today’s mature ebony trees germinated when elephants were still widespread. The current lack of saplings represents a delayed ecological crisis: the signs of collapse may not be fully apparent for another century.
This slow pace of change creates a false sense of stability. Forests may appear intact today, but the absence of regeneration means that their long-term future is in jeopardy. The study’s authors warn that by the time these effects become apparent, the loss of both elephants and ebony could be irreversible.
While the research focuses on ebony, it reflects a broader pattern across tropical ecosystems. An estimated 70–90% of tropical tree species depend on animals for seed dispersal. As large vertebrates disappear, entire plant communities lose their primary regeneration mechanisms.
The study therefore serves as a warning: defaunation – the loss of large animal species – can trigger cascading effects on biodiversity, forest structure, and carbon storage. Protecting elephants, then, is not only a matter of conserving a charismatic species but also of maintaining the ecological processes that sustain tropical forests.
Ebony is among the first African timbers to have been exploited commercially, and it remains economically valuable. Combined with poaching and deforestation, this makes the species even more vulnerable. The research shows that elephant conservation indirectly supports the long-term sustainability of ebony and other valuable hardwoods.
According to the study, this mutual dependence holds a conservation message: protecting elephants safeguards trees that are crucial for both ecosystems and human populations. The continued loss of elephants will lead to the gradual decline of valuable timber resources and the forests’ ability to regenerate themselves.
A call for urgent action
The study concludes that the relationship between elephants and ebony represents the interconnectedness of tropical ecosystems. Once elephants disappear from a forest, the ecological functions they perform – seed dispersal, soil enrichment, vegetation control – vanish with them.
Given the current pace of poaching and habitat loss, the authors warn that the Congo Basin may soon lose one of its most crucial forest engineers. The long-term outcome would be a quieter, simpler forest – one less capable of supporting the diversity and richness that define it today.
Deblauwe, V., Luskin, M.S., Assola, S.D., Hardy, O.J….Jansen, S., (2025). Declines of ebony and ivory are inextricably linked in an African rainforest. Science Advances, 11(35), doi:10.1126/sciadv
Further reading
Good news: there are more forest elephants in Gabon than previously believed – first countrywide elephant population estimate in 30 years. Read more about Gabon’s forest elephants here
Forest elephant numbers are believed to have plummeted 86% in just 31 years, yet their role in maintaining forest ecosystems is critical. Read more about these endangered gardeners here.
Research has uncovered population density declines of 90% for forest elephants and 70% for savannah elephants across Africa in 53 years. Read more about this alarming study here.
Stunning high-definition camera trap images reveal Nouabalé-Ndoki’s hidden creatures, including golden cat, leopard, forest elephant and palm civet. Check out these portraits of Congo’s ghosts here
Elephant culling debate + top Cape safari spots + Mara photo safari
This is a copy of our weekly email newsletter. Subscribe here to receive the newsletter and more inspiration for your African safari.
From our CEO – Simon Espley
Here is the most important article if you want to understand the complexity of the debates raging about culling elephants. Find the story lower down in this newsletter.
Based on local murmurings, the “cull elephants” pressure is very high from some landowners in the Associated Private Nature Reserves (APNR) that share an unfenced border with the Kruger National Park. I have noticed a growing discontent with elephants that have hammered large trees such as knobthorns and marulas. As an aside, how ironic that those opposed to elephant culling have historically been referred to as “tree huggers”…
These murmurings border on naked disdain for elephants by some wealthy landowners who wield significant influence over management decisions.
Most people argue this debate emotionally, focusing on symptoms rather than causes. For example, many elephants in the APNR no longer roam over large distances because every landowner has installed one or more artificial watering points to attract elephants and other wildlife. In fact, elephants are attracted to the APNR due to its easy access to water. The APNR has become a sink for elephants. Elephants congregating in the APNR is a symptom. The causes include man-made waterholes.
Africa-wide, we know that African elephant densities have crashed during the last 53 years (90% down for forest elephants and 70% for savannah elephants). We also know that increasing numbers of elephants are congregating in certain areas, such as northern Botswana and the APNR, typically due to water and food availability, as well as human pressure elsewhere. “Too many elephants” is a common, and locally accurate, phrase summarising this conundrum.
Now that the man-made waterhole tactic is successful and the APNR serves as a concentration zone for elephants, the plan I am hearing is to, again, cull some of the “offending” elephants on an annual basis. Create a sink for an IUCN-listed endangered species and then shoot them. Think about that as a conservation strategy. Of course, I am oversimplifying this multi-layered situation to ensure we see the wood for the trees, so to speak.
Many APNR landowners generated their wealth elsewhere and view their investment in APNR land as an emotional conservation decision. Their investment is a vital aspect of what is a resounding conservation success story bordering the Kruger National Park. BUT, should scientists and land managers be playing second fiddle to these investors when it comes to important decisions like this? Just asking.
Shoh, this is a complex and emotionally-laden topic. Keep the passion
Good news roars from Cameroon: lions in Bouba Ndjida National Park are breeding again. GPS-collar data confirm multiple lionesses with cubs, a promising sign for one of Africa’s most threatened big cat populations. The northern lion subspecies (Panthera leo leo) once roamed vast tracts of Central Africa. But the subspecies now clings to survival with fewer than 1,000 individuals left.
These cubs represent hope. But survival to adulthood is far from guaranteed. Snaring, poaching, and conflict with herders still claim too many young lions as they disperse beyond park borders. Conservationists are now using real-time tracking to anticipate threats, boost patrols, and deepen collaboration with surrounding communities. Bouba Ndjida may be small, but it remains one of Central Africa’s last lion strongholds. Let us hope that these vulnerable populations can fight their way back!
This week, we look at the debate on elephants and trees in the APNR, and explore the incredible safari experiences that the Cape region has to offer.
Did you know? Your African safari choice makes a difference
We donate a portion of the revenue from every safari sold to carefully selected conservation projects that make a significant difference at ground level. YOUR African safari choice does make a difference – thank you!
Our stories this week
ELEPHANT AND TREES
A new study explores how stakeholder opinions differ on managing elephants, from culling to contraception, in the APNR
CAPE SAFARI
The Cape safari experience: fascinating wildlife and malaria-free protected spaces close to Cape Town and the Garden Route
Explore Kenya’s wild heart on a safari that spans the iconic Maasai Mara and Laikipia. Encounter the Big Five and the rare Samburu Special Five: think Grevy’s zebra, gerenuk, and even striped hyena. Beyond thrilling game drives, enjoy behind-the-scenes conservation experiences, visit the Mara Elephant Project, meet anti-poaching teams, and connect with local Maasai communities. This is Kenya: wild, diverse, and unforgettable.
Fancy a guided photographic safari in Kenya’s Maasai Mara? Join award-winning photographer Arnfinn Johansen on this exclusive safari for four guests. Highlights include guided game drives with an experienced Maasai guide in a modified photographic vehicle and accommodation at Oltepesi Tented Safari Camp. Departure date: 20-28 November 2026.
AG safari guests, Ashleigh and David from the UK, went on an unforgettable Botswana safari:
“A company that goes above and beyond!Could not recommend Africa Geographic highly enough! Christian was fantastic at helping me find the perfect safari option to match our time and budget. He was incredibly patient and thorough with providing lots of fantastic options.
We decided to go for a mobile camping safari in Botswana and, to date, this has got to be one of our best trips! We saw 70 lions, 14 hyenas, 7 African wild dogs, 5 leopards (including a cub!), 2 cheetah and 1 African wild cat – and that’s not even beginning on the numbers of zebra, antelope, elephants, wildebeest and buffalo.
Christian went above and beyond at every stage, even helping us when we had issues with domestic flights in Botswana! Thank you so much for helping us have an unbelievably amazing trip!”
Your safari to Majete Wildlife Reserve can help change lives. By staying at African Parks camps, you directly support local communities, creating jobs, improving healthcare and education, and funding vital conservation efforts. Book your Majete safari through Ukuri, where 100% of tourism revenue goes back to conservation and communities. (0:38) Click here to watch
Any reference to South Africa’s Cape region is almost guaranteed to bring to mind the famous mountains, glorious coastlines, and spectacular seaside scenery (also wine for the oenophiles). Yet inland from the sandy beaches and coastal forests lies a mosaic of fascinating habitats and protected spaces offering unique wildlife viewing. While South Africa’s safari circuit is dominated mainly by reserves in the northern and eastern parts of the country, the Cape safari experience is fundamentally different but equally enthralling. Here is our round up of some of the best safari spots in South Africa’s Cape region.
The Cape nature experience – the Western and Eastern Cape
There are a variety of diverse wilderness areas in the greater Cape region – specifically within the Western and Eastern Cape. These two adjacent provinces make up the south-western corner of South Africa. Together, they encompass the entire Cape Floristic biome and most of the Karoo ecosystems, right up to the transition with the grasslands of the Lesotho Highlands. Away from the lush greenery fed by temperate ocean climates and sheltered by a network of mountains, the landscape becomes progressively more arid and sparse, giving way to the almost Martian scenery of the Great Karoo.
While this round up of Cape safari destinations focuses on the more “traditional” safari experience – complete with iconic, large wildlife – the entire inland Cape region is a paradise for the enthusiastic naturalist. From ancient fossils, rock art and dramatic landscapes, to intriguing critters in unusual settings, the variety of habitats and animals on offer is guaranteed to captivate and delight.
For the most part, the Cape safari experience is an exclusive one, based around vast swathes of privately owned wilderness areas peppered with a combination of basic and high-end lodges. For those more accustomed to the conventional savannah setting, there is something vaguely incongruous about the sight of an elephant against the austere backdrop of mountains and sparse Karoo vegetation, or the Indian Ocean in the background. Yet, there was a time when the Big 5 (and many other species) roamed throughout the entire Cape region. Over centuries, they have been driven to the verge of extinction by human encroachment, unsustainable hunting practices and human-wildlife conflict. Fortunately, many of the private reserves of the Cape now boast an impressive conservation record and have served a pivotal role in restoring the magnificent creatures of the Cape to their rightful home. As a malaria-free destination, the Cape region is also one of the best safari options for families travelling with children.
A view towards the Indian Ocean over the Eastern Cape valley bushveld
Addo Elephant National Park
Tucked away in the Eastern Cape, Addo Elephant National Park is a conservation triumph and a rewarding wildlife destination. It’s a place where elephants roam confidently through rolling thicket, where penguins and whales share the same protected system, and where even the smallest creatures, like the famous flightless dung beetle, command respect. Just 30 minutes from Gqeberha (formerly Port Elizabeth) and completely malaria-free, Addo offers a seamless mix of classic game viewing and coastal wilderness that few parks can match. First proclaimed in 1931 to save the region’s last 11 elephants, Addo has since expanded to nearly 1790km² (179,000 hectares) of land and more than 70km² (7,000 hectares) of marine reserve, protecting everything from arid Karoo scrub to lush forest and the offshore islands of St Croix and Bird Island. Today it’s South Africa’s only park to host the Big 7: the traditional Big 5 (lion, elephant, buffalo, leopard, black rhino), combined with the southern right whale and great white shark.
Addo’s varied habitats support an extraordinary range of wildlife: kudu, eland, red hartebeest, Cape mountain zebra and springbok roam the plains, while more than 400 bird species fill the air with sound and colour. Visitors can explore by vehicle or on foot, follow historic 4×4 routes, or hike through the vast Alexandria dunefield that links forest to sea. Whether you come for the elephants, the dunes, or the sense of space and renewal, Addo delivers the full sweep of the Eastern Cape’s wild spirit in one unforgettable park.
An elephant bull in Addo Elephant National Park
Amakhala Game Reserve
The 90km² (9,000 hectares) Amakhala Game Reserve features all of the scenic beauty and wildlife magnificence of Addo, with the added advantage that access is exclusively granted to guests of the various lodges. With awe-inspiring views, relaxed wildlife and a variety of accommodation options to suit most budgets, Amakhala epitomises the appeal of the Eastern Cape safari adventure.
Game drive at Amakhala
Kariega Game Reserve
Another major destination on the Eastern Cape safari circuit, Kariega Game Reserve is a family-owned and operated 115km² (11,500 hectares) reserve. It is ideally positioned between the Bushman’s and Kariega Rivers, not far from the Sunshine Coast, and boasts a diverse range of habitats and glorious vistas.
The lush, rolling hills are home to the Big 5, as well as antelopes and a myriad of bird species. Visitors can opt to complement the traditional game drives with boat cruises and walking trails. Of particular interest to many of Kariega’s guests is Thandi, a white rhino cow that survived a brutal poaching attempt in 2012. Despite horrific injuries, Thandi went on to make a full recovery and, to date, has given birth to four calves (and is also now a grandma).
Spotting giraffes in KariegaOne of the Kariega Private Game Reserve lodges on the banks of the Bushman’s River
Lalibela Game Reserve
Recently rejuvenated, Lalibela Game Reserve offers an exclusive bush experience not far from Addo Elephant NP. The reserve is 100km² (10,500 hectares), and access is exclusive to guests of the lodges. Lalibela shares a similar setting with Addo, with the added advantage that there are substantial areas of open savannah grassland where herds of zebra, red hartebeest, wildebeest and blesbok congregate. Lalibela is also a significant site for cheetah conservation in South Africa.
As is the case for many of the reserves in the area, Lalibela is a vital habitat for South Africa’s national bird, the striking and endangered blue crane.
Conservation successes in the form of sprightly cheetah cubsThere is no time like sundowner time in Africa
Kwandwe Private Game Reserve
A private reserve with a proud record of rehabilitation from farmland to restored wilderness, Kwandwe Private Game Reserve straddles the Great Fish River and covers a total area of 300km² (30,000 hectares). This region of the Eastern Cape is topographically dramatic and picturesque and boasts high levels of biodiversity. The reserve has various conservation activities on offer for guests to experience, as well as walking safaris, and plenty of activities for families with young children to enjoy.
A lazy leopard morning in KwandweSunset over Kwandwe Private Game Reserve
Shamwari Private Game Reserve
Shamwari Private Game Reserve is probably one of the best-known private reserves in the Cape region and one of the most upmarket on this list. Offering the quintessential safari experience (and checklist), this 250km² (25,000 hectares) award-winning reserve has an impressive conservation record. Situated just 75km from Gqeberha, it shares many habitat similarities with Addo Elephant National Park. It is also home to the Big 5 and cheetah, with the added bonus of regular and reliable leopard sightings.
The reserve is also home to a wildlife rehabilitation centre, which is open for tourists to visit for an educational experience. No interaction with the animals is permitted, and the end goal is to release the animals back into the wild whenever possible.
Observing an elephant on foot in Shamwari
Eastern Cape – Karoo safaris
The vast plains of the Eastern Cape Karoo
Camdeboo National Park
Wrapped around the quaint town of Graaff-Reinet is the 194km² (19,400 hectares) Camdeboo National Park in the heart of the Karoo. The gorgeous scenery, with ancient dolerite columns looking out over the Valley of Desolation, is the main attraction here. Don’t be fooled by the name because arid though the area may be, it still teems with life. Shy Cape buffalo are the only representatives of the Big 5, and antelope and zebra abound, as do endlessly entertaining meerkats that call the park home.
However, the Camdeboo experience is mainly about escaping into nature and revelling in the scenery on display, as the shifting clouds and setting sun transforms the rocks through myriad shades of red.
Desolation Valley, Camdeboo National Park
Samara Karoo Reserve
After a couple of days spent enjoying the surroundings of Camdeboo, visitors with a hankering for a safari experience can travel to nearby Samara Karoo Reserve. Gradually assembled from a total of 11 farms, Samara is restoring a patch of wilderness and bringing wildlife back. The reserve now covers 283km² (28,300 hectares) in the Great Karoo, treating visitors to fantastic wildlife sightings and glorious views.
Even at its busiest, Samara only allows for a limited number of guests, making the experience extremely exclusive. Guests can expect sightings of white and black rhinos, elephants, lions, and herds of springbok, but tracking cheetah on foot is one of the reserve’s particular highlights.
Luxury dining in Samara’s wildsA lion pride up close while on a game drive
Mountain Zebra National Park
Situated further inland near the town of Cradock, Mountain Zebra National Park was initially established to save the Cape mountain zebra – a subspecies of mountain zebra that was threatened with extinction during the early 20th century. It straddles the transition between Nama Karoo, Albany thicket and the grassland habitats of the central plateau, incorporating the Bankberg Mountians. The park, at a size of 284km² (28,400 hectares) is a population stronghold for the still vulnerable Cape mountain zebras. Small herds are regularly relocated to other reserves to restore this zebra to its former range.
In addition to the park’s namesake animal, further introductions have seen the arrival of black rhinos, cheetahs, brown hyenas and lions that now roam the craggy hills of the park. Away from the scrublands of the Karoo, Mountain Zebra is primarily grassland and open savannah, offering unimpeded views of the wildlife, including herds of springbok, black wildebeest, and gemsbok. In the long term, there are plans to link Mountain Zebra with Camdeboo, creating a massive conservation area.
A zebra foal frolics through the long grasses of the Mountain Zebra National Park grassesThe road less travelled, winding its way into the heart of the Bankberg mountains
Western Cape Safaris
The almost incongruous yet stunning view of safari destinations in the Western Cape
Gondwana Game Reserve
Situated along the Garden Route not far from Mossel Bay, the 110km² (11,000 hectares) Gondwana Game Reserve was the first of its kind in the southern Cape region and is a fully free-roaming Big 5 reserve in the Western Cape. Once used for livestock farming, the land is being restored, and today, wildlife abounds. Crucially, Gondwana boasts large areas of fynbos, many species of which are either endangered or critically endangered. In addition to the Big 5, cheetahs stalk through the fynbos and the reserve is also populated by herds of eland, bontebok, giraffe, and zebra.
Against the backdrop of the Langeberg and Outeniqua Mountains, visitors can explore on a game drive, mountain bike or hike on foot with a guide. The particularly adventurous can set off on a three-night trek through the reserve with overnight stays at fly camps along the route.
Giants and epic landscapes in Gondwana
Karoo National Park
The state-run Karoo National Park covers a little over 750km² (75,000 hectares) of arid and inhospitable-looking Great Karoo terrain. A portion of South Africa’s Great Escarpment (a prominent topographical massif that runs almost the entire width of the country) divides the park into lower and upper sections.
Originally known simply as a convenient stopover for people travelling to or from Cape Town, Karoo National Park has evolved to become the perfect escape for those looking to detox from city life without having to pay ultra-luxury prices. Harsh though the environment may seem, the park has gone from conservation strength to strength. It is now home to black rhinos and lions and an assortment of other rare and critically endangered creatures like the Cape mountain zebra and the riverine rabbit (one of the most endangered mammals in the world), and Verreaux’s eagles nest on the park’s dramatic cliff faces.
The distinct Nama-Karoo landscape of Karoo National ParkA gemsbok navigates the Karoo’s rocky terrain
Sanbona Wildlife Reserve
In the heart of the Klein Karoo, at the base of the Warmwaterberg Mountains, lies the 620km² (62,000 hectares) Sanbona Wildlife Reserve – one of South Africa’s largest privately-owned reserves. Like the rest of the Karoo, ancient and more recent history is everywhere, including San rock art over 3,500 years old beneath rocky overhangs overlooking breathtaking views. Like many of the other reserves in the Cape area, Sanbona was once farmland, but intensive rehabilitation has restored the land to its former glory, as evidenced by the flourishing wildlife.
The Big 5 are all present, as are cheetahs and brown hyenas, and sightings are made more impressive by the backdrop of magnificent scenery. From guided walks to boat safaris and stargazing to curated children’s programmes, Sanbona has something to offer everyone.
Safari game drive at Sanbona in the Western CapeExploring the otherworldly landscape of the Klein Karoo at Sanbona
West Coast National Park
Just 90 minutes from Cape Town lies the 380km² (38,000 hectares) West Coast National Park, a coastal sanctuary where turquoise waters meet carpets of wildflowers, flamingos, and ancient history. Centred around the dazzling Langebaan Lagoon, West Coast NP protects one of South Africa’s most important wetlands and a fifth of the country’s salt marsh habitat. Each season transforms the park’s mood: from summer’s shimmering heat to spring’s spectacular bloom in the Postberg section, when the dunes erupt in colour and antelope wander among the flowers. Offshore, islands like Malgas and Schaapen host nesting seabirds such as Cape gannets and African penguins, while the surrounding Marine Protected Areas safeguard vital marine life and the delicate coastal ecosystem.
Hiking in Postberg
The park is also rich in history: Fossil beds nearby trace life back millions of years, and the park’s most famous relic – the 117,000-year-old Eve’s Footprint discovered at Kraalbaai – offers a rare glimpse into humanity’s deep past. Today, bontebok, eland, Cape mountain zebra, and caracal roam the fynbos and dunes, while over 250 bird species fill the skies and shoreline, making it one of South Africa’s premier birding destinations. Whether hiking through flower fields, cycling to the Seeberg viewpoint, or swimming at Preekstoel’s sheltered cove, the park invites slow exploration and quiet awe. Its Postberg wildflower zone is crucial for fynbos conservation. And why not pop into Langebaan for some fine dining while you’re at it?
Eland amidst the wildflowers
The Cape Winelands – to end off your safari
And lastly, no Cape safari is complete without a final stopover in the Cape Winelands – a landscape of rolling vineyards, oak-lined lanes and mountain backdrops that feels like the natural continuation of any Cape journey. Just a short drive from Cape Town, this region blends old-world charm with modern indulgence. Historic estates in Constantia, Stellenbosch, Paarl, Robertson and Franschhoek (South Africa’s gourmet capital) tell stories of centuries-old vineyards and Cape Dutch homesteads, while offering tastings of award-winning wines paired with artisanal chocolate, cheeses and olives. Beneath the shade of ancient oaks or on terraces overlooking vine-covered valleys, every meal becomes a celebration of place.
A leisurely winey lunch at Boschendal Wine Farm
Whether you join a guided tour or explore at your own pace, the Winelands promise both sophistication and serenity. Spend a night or two to soak in the romance of country life, where fine food, art galleries and boutique cellars are framed by mountains glowing gold at sunset. With its Mediterranean climate and easy proximity to Cape Town, this is the perfect add-on to a Cape safari – a chance to trade the call of the wild for the clink of a wine glass, without ever leaving the rhythm of the land.
The gorgeous vineyard-dense winelands of the Western Cape
The ultimate Cape safari experience
The Cape safari experience offers adventures that are refreshingly different to the more renowned safari destinations elsewhere in Africa. The weather is generally good throughout the year (though the reserves can get very cold during winter), and the scenery is alluring and presents the perfect backdrop for diverse wildlife sightings. The wilderness areas are easily accessible and malaria-free, and the entire safari can be easily combined with a tour of the Garden Route, Winelands or Cape Town.
Further reading
The city of Cape Town is one of South Africa’s most popular tourist destinations – for good reason. Here’s our ultimate Cape Town to-do list
Cape Town – South Africa’s Mother City – offers a blend of a nature-lover’s playground, modern city lifestyle, cultural diversity and foodie heaven. Read more about Cape Town here
Managing elephants in South Africa’s protected areas is one of conservation’s most persistent dilemmas. Elephants are a keystone species that shape ecosystems – opening landscapes, dispersing seeds, and maintaining biodiversity. But some studies identify elephants as the main drivers of large-tree loss in African savannahs, especially when their populations go unchecked. A new study on Kruger elephants explores how the opinions and strategies of managers, landowners, and tourists differ on managing elephant impacts, from culling to contraception and protecting large trees.
In the reserves of the Associated Private Nature Reserves (APNR), which form part of the Greater Kruger ecosystem and share an open boundary with Kruger National Park, elephant numbers have increased sharply – from about 500 in 1993 to between 2,000 and 3,000 today. At the same time, large trees have declined, especially in areas dense with artificial waterholes. This trend has created concern among reserve managers, landowners, and tourism operators, all of whom depend on a balance between elephants, vegetation, and visitor experience.
A study published in the European Journal of Wildlife Research by Cook, Witkowski, and Henley (2025) explores how the insights and opinions of conservation managers, landowners, tourists, and guides differ on elephant management – from culling and contraception to closing waterholes. It reveals a clash of ethics, economics, and ecology that shapes how Africa balances its giants and trees – and challenges one-size-fits-all conservation thinking.
The legacy of Kruger elephants
Between 1967 and 1994, more than 14,000 elephants were culled in Kruger National Park to maintain a population “carrying capacity”. That policy ended under international pressure, allowing numbers to increase rapidly to more than 30,000 today.
The removal of fences between Kruger and the APNR in 1993 allowed elephants to roam freely into the private reserves. However, because these reserves maintain a much higher density of artificial waterholes than Kruger – roughly 2.5 per km² versus Kruger’s 0.1 per km² – elephants spend more time concentrated in smaller areas. The result: persistent browsing and bark-stripping that kill large, old trees, some of which are crucial for nesting birds, shade, and tourism value. However, elephant feeding is not purely destructive. By dispersing seeds in their dung and opening up dense vegetation, elephants promote plant diversity and maintain grassland habitats. Still, because elephants favour certain tree species and sizes, sustained browsing can remove specific tree types or height classes from an area, affecting other species that depend on large trees for nesting.
This situation, often called “the elephant problem,” forces managers to weigh ecological science against ethical and economic considerations.
An elephant browses beneath ancient baobabs in Kruger – shaping the landscape
The study
Researchers surveyed 170 stakeholders in the APNR – including conservation managers, property owners, tourism staff, and visitors – to gauge support for four strategies to reduce elephant impacts on trees: waterhole closures, to disperse elephants naturally; tree protection, such as wire-netting or beehive deterrents; contraception, to limit population growth, and culling, to reduce numbers directly.
Respondents rated these approaches using a five-point scale and were invited to comment on their reasoning. The analysis examined how age, experience, gender, and stakeholder role influenced views on each option.
Shared concern, divided solutions
Almost all respondents agreed that elephants and large trees are both valuable. 97% said elephants contribute to tourism, and 96% supported protecting large trees on both ecological and aesthetic grounds.
However, while most acknowledged that elephants damage trees, fewer believed there are “too many elephants.” Many saw tree loss as a natural ecological process rather than a crisis. This tension – between recognising ecological impact and resisting population control – runs throughout the study.
Elephants gather at a Kruger waterhole
Managing Kruger elephants: what people support
Waterhole closure received the strongest support overall (59%), especially among younger conservation managers, who viewed it as a natural and ecologically sound approach. They argued that reducing artificial water availability would restore seasonal movement patterns and relieve localised pressure on trees.
Tourism operators were less convinced, worrying that closing waterholes could reduce wildlife sightings and, by extension, visitor satisfaction. The economic risk of “fewer elephants to see” weighed heavily against perceived ecological benefits.
Tree protection methods, such as wire-netting or beehives, were popular with property owners and tourists (77% support). They were seen as practical and non-lethal, as they protect iconic trees while maintaining tourism appeal. But respondents also commented on limitations: these methods are labour-intensive, costly, and unrealistic at scale. Participants observed that “it’s not realistic to protect every tree this way”. This highlights the gap between local success and landscape-wide impact.
Non-lethal options like contraception aim to reduce long-term pressure on landscapes
Contraception divided opinion sharply (43% support). Tourists were generally in favour, seeing it as humane and consistent with modern conservation ethics. Long-term stakeholders, particularly older landowners and conservation managers, were more sceptical. They questioned whether large-scale contraceptive programmes are feasible in the wild, citing cost, logistics, and uncertainty about social effects on elephant herds.
Culling was the most contentious option. Just over half of respondents (51%) agreed it would reduce tree damage, but culling also brought strong ethical opposition. This was especially true among tourists. Older respondents in the study were more likely to support culling, recalling its past effectiveness. Conservation managers viewed it as a pragmatic, if undesirable, tool for population control. Others rejected it outright as incompatible with modern conservation values and harmful to South Africa’s tourism image.
The study found clear demographic divides. Age and experience mattered. For example, those over 50, who had lived through the culling era, were more supportive of lethal control. Younger respondents preferred adaptive, non-lethal management – reflecting a shift towards “compassionate conservation,” which emphasises welfare as well as ecology.
Gender also played a role in stakeholder opinions: men were more likely to support culling than women. Tourism stakeholders tended to prioritise visitor experience, while conservation managers focused on ecological function.
The study showed many conservation managers were in favour of waterhole closures. Property owners favoured non-lethal options like tree protection and contraception. Tourists clustered almost entirely around non-lethal preferences.
Feeding on branches in Kruger
A values-based approach to managing Kruger elephants
The study concludes that there is no single “correct” strategy for managing elephants and trees. Instead, management should be adaptive and values-based – combining scientific monitoring with social acceptability.
While ecological data can identify when intervention is needed (for example, when tree loss exceeds thresholds), stakeholder values determine which interventions are socially sustainable. In the APNR, this might mean a mix of localised tree protection, selective waterhole management, and population control through contraception, with lethal measures considered only as a last resort.
The study also highlights the importance of communication and education. Misunderstandings about the feasibility of contraception, or the ecological outcomes of waterhole closures, suggest a need for ongoing dialogue between managers, landowners, and visitors.
The study offers a framework for balancing science and human values, aiming for coexistence between elephants, trees, and people
The broader lesson
Elephant management is often portrayed as a technical problem, but this research shows it is equally a social one. Decisions about waterholes, contraception, or culling are shaped by ethics, economics, and experience as much as by ecology.
By documenting these perspectives, the authors provide a framework for balancing scientific objectives with human values – a critical step in ensuring long-term coexistence between elephants, large trees, and the people invested in both.
Research shows that wire-netting can be used to significantly increase tree survival by reducing elephant impact on large trees. Check out the study on this net win here
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From our CEO – Simon Espley
She said yes! One of our guests just got engaged while on safari in the intoxicating forests of Congo-Brazzaville – sending my team into raptures.
The privately shared video taken by him as he dropped to his knee and fumbled his words had me hanging on with bated breath, and her reaction was priceless. Dropping her water bottle with a loud clunk, she stammered her acceptance …
That they were on the elevated wooden platform of their tented suite in Odzala-Kokoua National Park at the time made the moment even more special. How epic to share that special moment in such a remote location, with that gorgeous forest backdrop? And, after several sightings of western lowland gorillas, forest elephants and forest buffalo!
One of the group had this to say when I asked for her favourite moment:
“Hard to choose, it was such a great trip! My favourites: The spotted hyena with its kill on the road that surprised us when driving to Moba. Hearing chimpanzees at Moba Beach‘s mirador while having a freshly made omelette and potato pancake… it felt very luxurious at this beautifully remote place. The baby gorilla taking cover in its mum‘s arms during the rain. Sunbirds and crocodiles. The rain forest hikes, boat trips and the swim in the Lokoue River.”
Meanwhile, we are crafting our portfolio of Bush & Beach safari ideas for 2026 – anybody fancy some toes-in-the-sand time to wash off the dust of your bushveld safari? While you are there, put aside precious time to search for whale sharks, manta rays and dugongs.
The charismatic lemur’s home – Madagascar’s dry forests – are also home to baobabs, rare birds and many other unique lemurs. But they are vanishing under the weight of farming, fires, logging, and hunger-driven bushmeat hunting. The Ankoatsifaka Initiative for Dry Forests, a coalition of NGOs, scientists, and government voices, are determined to flip the script. By rallying behind the sifaka, they aim to boost patrols, support communities, and safeguard a landscape vital for both people and wildlife. The sifaka’s role as a seed disperser makes it a builder of forests and futures. If the “dancing lemur” can capture global imagination, Madagascar’s dry forests might just step into the spotlight where they belong – bringing much needed awareness to their plight.
This week, we bring you a visual feast and a fight for the future: 10 years of Remembering Wildlife photography, and Tacaguma Chimpanzee Sanctuary’s frontline battle to save chimps in Sierra Leone.
Did you know? Your African safari choice makes a difference
We donate a portion of the revenue from every safari sold to carefully selected conservation projects that make a significant difference at ground level. YOUR African safari choice does make a difference – thank you!
Our stories this week
WILDLIFE PHOTOS
Discover 10 years of Remembering Wildlife: world-class photography driving conservation and protecting endangered species
SAVING CHIMPS
Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary leads Sierra Leone’s fight for chimp conservation – an inspiring story shaping the future
Expect to be romanced, seduced and awed by three prime locations and effortless luxury. This exquisitely crafted 11-day luxury journey through Southern Africa combines the vibrant culture and scenic beauty of Cape Town and its renowned Winelands, with the unparalleled Big Five safari experience of the Greater Kruger and the iconic Victoria Falls – The Smoke That Thunders.
This iconic safari combines the wildlife riches of Khwai in the eastern reaches of the Okavango Delta, and Chobe National Park in Botswana, with the awe-inspiring majesty of Victoria Falls in Zimbabwe. First, you’ll visit Khwai to get your predator fix, then move on to Chobe to witness massive herds of elephants and other wildlife along the banks of the Chobe River. Last but not least, the grand finale: witnessing the mighty Zambezi River plunging into the misty gorges below at iconic Victoria Falls.
Has a long-lost leopard been spotted? The leopard known as the “Lion Pan male” was once a familiar sight in Kapama Game Reserve in Limpopo, South Africa. But he mysteriously vanished in April 2024. For more than a year, his fate was unknown.
But the Ingwe Research Program, which is on a mission to save the leopards of Hoedspruit, has just confirmed his presence in Makalali Game Reserve. This, after they received new images from Siyafunda (a wildlife conservation and community development organisation in Makalali). Ingwe’s researchers used AI to sift through the more than 14,000 photos in minutes, and were able to confirm the sighting. The Lion Pan male had resurfaced, an astonishing 57km away from his original home range – the longest recorded dispersal in the program’s history.
This milestone highlights both the power of AI and the reach of the Ingwe network, which now includes over 45 partner lodges and reserves working together to monitor and conserve leopard populations. Each data point expands our understanding of leopard ecology, survival, and movement across fragmented landscapes.
You can support Ingwe’s work by joining our Spots on the Line campaign, and help to secure a future for Africa’s most elusive big cats.
WATCH – AFRICAN SAFARI INSPIRATION:
In honour of the life and work of the late, great Jane Goodall: See how the zoologist, primatologist and chimpanzee expert’s passion for wildlife and unshakable drive have persevered and set an example for future generations. (01:28:49) Click here to watch
In the quiet predawn light of Timbavati, a Temminck’s pangolin slowly unfurls from its rolled-up armour. Across ecosystems, photographers have documented encounters like these: desert lions rediscovering ancient hunting skills on Namibia’s Skeleton Coast; a litter of 17 African wild dog pups emerging from the den for the first time in the Kruger. Each image tells a story of survival, resilience, and the unseen battles faced by wildlife.
Marking a decade of conservation through the eyes of the world’s finest wildlife photographers, the latest edition in the Remembering Wildlife series, 10 Years of Remembering Wildlife, shines a light on species most in need of protection. From elephants to pangolins, this 10th volume celebrates not just extraordinary wildlife photography but a global commitment to safeguarding animals and their habitats.
The images are more than art – they are urgent messages from the natural world. Mountain gorillas in Bwindi display playful defiance against the odds. A photographer tracks an endangered pangolin as it forages in the undergrowth. Elephants traverse drought-stricken landscapes in Amboseli, searching for life-giving waters. Through these encounters, Remembering Wildlife reveals both the fragility and tenacity of life.
The series is the vision of photographer and conservation champion Margot Raggett, whose determination to speak for animals has united some of the world’s best photographers and conservationists. What began with a single book, Remembering Elephants in 2016, has grown into a series of ten, including Remembering Rhinos (2017), Great Apes (2018), Lions (2019), Cheetahs (2020), African Wild Dogs (2021), Bears (2022), Leopards (2023), and Tigers (2024). To date, the series has sold over 55,000 books, raising more than £1.26 million (US$1.58 million) for 80 conservation projects in 34 countries across the world.
This year’s edition is the largest yet, including 200 pages and featuring images from renowned names in wildlife photography such as James Gifford, Tristan Dicks (who captured the cover photo), and Jonathan & Angela Scott, who also contributed the foreword. The book is divided into two sections: a retrospective of iconic images from past volumes, and a new section showcasing the world’s most trafficked mammal, the pangolin. Among these are 20 images selected through a global competition, offering rare insight into a creature most people will never encounter. All profits from the book support pangolin conservation.
Pangolins have roamed the Earth for 80 million years, yet over the past decade, more than a million have been removed from the wild, primarily for scales used in traditional medicine and meat as a delicacy, mostly in Asia. They also face habitat loss and electrocution, as their instinct to curl into a ball can prove fatal against electric fences. Margot Raggett explains:
“Pangolins are fascinating and endearing creatures, closely related to mongooses and cats, each with its own character. The scale of the illegal trade is likely higher than we realise, but there are dedicated conservationists, researchers, vets, and volunteers working tirelessly to protect them. This book supports those efforts.”
Collaboration lies at the heart of Remembering Wildlife. Many projects funded by the series are proposed by photographers themselves, and all work closely with local NGOs, researchers, and communities. Beyond protecting animals, these initiatives educate and empower people to safeguard wildlife for the next generation.
Want to see magnificent wildlife on an African safari? Search for your perfect safari here. Or let us build one just for you. We donate a portion of every safari sold to selected conservation efforts at ground level.
As the series reaches its 10-year milestone, its legacy is visible not just in books but on the ground: safer landscapes, empowered communities, and wildlife given a fighting chance. Margot reflects:
“The project has grown far beyond what I imagined when I started. The community it has created, the momentum for conservation – it’s humbling and a true privilege. This book reminds us of what could be lost if we don’t act and supports those on the frontlines protecting our planet’s wildlife.”
10 Years of Remembering Wildlife is a call to action, a testament to resilience, and a tribute to the species that cannot speak for themselves.
Below, enjoy a selection of photos from 10 Years of Remembering Wildlife:
Photographer Pedro Amaral says: “This photo was taken on January 1, 2022, in Uganda’s Bwindi Impenetrable Forest – an unforgettable way to begin the year. A solo trip, long delayed by the pandemic, turned into a leap of faith: three days, three gorilla treks. That morning, rangers offered me the chance to visit a distant gorilla family alone, which meant a longer, more demanding hike. I didn’t hesitate. For a full hour, I observed the group in silence, captivated by the young gorillas and their playful energy. Their carefree behaviour reflects a larger conservation success: mountain gorillas are the only great ape whose numbers are increasing.” Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, UgandaPhotographer Griet Van Maderen says: “I was drawn to desert lions after meeting Philip Stander from the Desert Lion Conservation Project, who introduced me to their incredible story. These lions, uniquely adapted to survive Namibia’s harsh Skeleton Coast, are among the rarest in the world, with only about 70 left. Philip’s dedication inspired me to follow their journey, witnessing their resilience firsthand. Over the years, I observed their evolving hunting behaviour – how Alpha, the mother, rediscovered seal hunting and passed it to her daughter, Gamma. Capturing this rare moment on the beach was not just about photography but about documenting their survival and raising awareness.” Skeleton Coast, NamibiaPhotographer James Gifford says: “Instead of focusing on the negative aspects of rhino poaching, I wanted to convey a sense of hope – a new beginning almost – as if these were the first rhinos being forged in a fire of creation. Shooting into the sun, the effect of the backlit dust created a blurred shadow image, adding to the ethereal atmosphere. Botswana’s multi-decade rhino relocation project had been one of the continent’s success stories until the Covid outbreak, when the lack of tourists and watchful eyes precipitated a sharp spike in poaching incidents, which drastically reduced overall population numbers.” Central Kalahari Game Reserve, BotswanaPhotographer Lance van de Vyver says: “In this rare and powerful scene, a pride of lions stumbled upon a wild pangolin – an armoured survivor of Africa’s nocturnal world. Mistaking it for a plaything, the lions spent 14 relentless hours toying with the rolled-up creature, unable to penetrate its tough scales. Although the pangolin was unharmed by the lions’ teeth or claws, a testament to its incredible natural defences, sadly it did eventually succumb to heat and stress.” Tswalu Kalahari Reserve, South AfricaPhotographer Morkel Erasmus says: “We were fortunate to be the first people to see a litter of 17 painted dog pups emerge from their den for the very first time to meet the rest of the pack… it is a morning I will never forget.” Greater Kruger, South AfricaPhotographer Tom Way says: “In extreme years of drought, elephants travel from afar to seek refuge under the towering Mt Kilimanjaro, whose snowmelt gives life to the lush swamps within Amboseli National Park. Elephants travelling into the park from the northwest have to cross Lake Amboseli, which is bone dry unless there are extended rains.” Amboseli National Park, KenyaPhotographer Daryl Balfour says: “These were two of three young male lions, brothers, whom we followed frequently in the Maasai Mara a number of years ago. This evening, after tracking them across the Purrungat Plains on a dark, gloomy afternoon, two of them posed perfectly atop a termite mound as the sun popped out for a brief few moments of glorious golden light at the end of the day.” Maasai Mara National Reserve, KenyaPhotographer Tom Mason says: “I created this image of a Temminck’s ground pangolin whilst working in Namibia with the Africat Foundation, at their reserve in Okonjima. The reserve provides a safe haven for pangolins, with the foundation monitoring and tracking individuals to understand more about their movements and behaviour. Working closely with the researchers, I joined them on multiple nights to walk with the pangolins as they foraged on the reserve through the early hours. It’s with great thanks to the team at Africat who made this possible. To create this image, I worked with a slow shutter speed and a very small amount of rear-sync flash, to show the movement of this wonderful species as it moved through the undergrowth, following alongside with the research team to get myself positioned ahead of the pangolins’ movements.” Okonjima Nature Reserve, NamibiaPhotographer Nelis Wolmarans says: “The image is of the late mountain gorilla silverback named Munyinya. He was the dominant silverback of the Hirwa family, and the image was taken in Rwanda’s Volcanoes National Park. Munyinya originated from the Susa family. After several skirmishes with the dominant silverback of the Susa family, Kurira, he left to start his own family in 2006. Munyinya died in February 2020 from a respiratory illness, although he had also suffered a lightning strike in February 2020 that killed other members of his group. Munyinya’s death was followed by his group’s leader, Uburanga, taking over the leadership of the Hirwa family.” Volcanoes National Park, RwandaPhotographer Torie Hilley says: “One very early morning, we found African wild dogs on the road, and they looked like they had just woken up to start their movement. We pulled to the side and got out of the car (in Mana Pools, you are allowed to be on foot) to photograph the dogs coming towards us. They didn’t disappoint. We gave them their space, but they chose to approach and then passed us very calmly and casually. It was an incredible moment to capture the pack coming straight at me. A moment I will never forget.” Mana Pools National Park, ZimbabwePhotographer Chad Cocking says: “A light at the end of a dark tunnel. During lockdown, with no tourists around, I came upon this pangolin early one winter’s morning. I waited patiently for it to unfurl itself, but when it did and realised I was not a threat, it slowly got up and walked off into the bush… not a bad way to start the day!” Timbavati Private Nature Reserve, South AfricaPhotographer Shem Compion says: “The scent of rain is even detectable for us humans. For elephants, it’s a driving force and also a guiding one. In Amboseli, after months of drought, elephants are lured by good rainfall.” Amboseli National Park, Kenya
About10 Years of Remembering Wildlife
10 Years of Remembering Wildlife is the 10th book in the celebrated Remembering Wildlife fundraising series, which has raised more than £1.2 million GBP (€1.55 million USD) for conservation projects since it began in 2016.
The aim of the creators is to make the most beautiful book ever seen on the particular species they cover. These books, in turn, raise awareness of the plight facing the species featured, and funds to protect it. Each book is full of images generously donated by many of the world’s top wildlife photographers, with 94 contributing this year. All profits from the sale of this book will be donated to projects working to protect pangolins in the wild. Read more and order the book here: www.rememberingwildlife.com
Check out more epic wildlife photography galleries here:
Scott Ramsay’s Spirit of Africa explores the continent’s essence through powerful images, moving stories & a call to protect her wilderness. Check out his gallery here
Stunning high-definition camera trap images reveal Nouabalé-Ndoki’s hidden creatures, including golden cat, leopard and palm civet. Check out these epic photos here
High in the misty hills above Freetown, the Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary has become a beacon of hope for Sierra Leone’s most iconic species. Here, 123 rescued western chimpanzees live in safety, their stories a testament to both the brutality of human exploitation and the extraordinary power of compassion. Tacugama is more than a refuge – it is a symbol of resilience, a rallying point for conservation, and a glimpse into the future of chimpanzee tourism in Africa.
It was still early as I wound my way up the narrow, forest-lined road into the hills above Freetown, Sierra Leone’s capital city. The city’s bustle faded behind me, replaced by the hum of cicadas and the faint sound of water – perhaps a small stream or a distant waterfall. Then, just as the mist began to lift from the canopy, I heard it, a chorus of whoops and pant-hoots rising from the trees. I had arrived at Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary, home to 123 rescued western chimpanzees.
From the viewing platform near the nursery, I watched as young chimps swung between ropes, wrestled in the grass, and sprawled in the morning sun. It was a scene of energy and playfulness, but also of survival. Every chimp here carries a story of loss, and every one of these lives is a testament to the work being done, by some very committed individuals, in this small corner of Sierra Leone.
Playful antics masking stories of survival and resilience
Chimpanzees – a species under threat
Sierra Leone’s forests are disappearing at an alarming rate. Since 2000, the country has lost an estimated 35% of its forest cover, and in some areas, more than 80% has gone. These forests are home to the critically endangered western chimpanzee, a subspecies found in only a handful of West African countries.
In the 1970s, there were an estimated 20,000 chimpanzees in Sierra Leone. By 2008, only 5,500 remained. Some had lost out to agriculture, logging, and the development of roads and infrastructure. Others had fallen victim to the bushmeat trade or been trafficked as illegal pets, usually in appalling conditions.
Each rescued chimp embodies the wider struggle of Sierra Leone’s dwindling wild populations – and their future hope
The beginning of Tacugama
In 1988, Bala and Sharmila Amarasekaran were travelling through the Sierra Leonean countryside, 250km from Freetown, when they saw an emaciated young chimpanzee tied to a tree. “The first moment he looked at us and hugged us, we knew we couldn’t leave him there. We knew if we left this little guy behind, he would die,” Bala recalls. They paid $20 for him, took him home, and named him Bruno.
What they thought was a single rescue quickly becomes something more. One rescued chimp soon became seven, all of whom were housed in a makeshift shelter in their Freetown garden. In dire need of space, Bala and Sharmila begin lobbying for land to build a proper sanctuary. After six years of persistence, they were finally granted 40 hectares in Sierra Leone’s Western Area Peninsula National Park, a narrow chain of hills and pristine rainforest in the heart of the Freetown peninsula. In 1995, Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary was born.
Healing begins here: chimps scarred by snares and trauma find safety within Tacugama
Building a chimpanzee refuge
As news of Tacugama spread, more chimps began arriving, some surrendered voluntarily, others confiscated under Sierra Leone’s Wildlife Conservation Act. Many bore the scars of their past: missing hands from snares, deep lacerations from abuse, or a fearful mistrust of humans after being torn from their mothers. Tacugama became a haven for them all, providing them with a second chance at life.
Within two years, the sanctuary had 24 chimpanzees, all of whom had been rescued from desperate situations. Bala and his team continue working through the challenges of building facilities in the forest, all the while navigating the country’s political instability. Over the coming years, they would steer Tacugama through Sierra Leone’s 11-year civil war, military coups, the Ebola crisis, and the Covid-19 pandemic; never ceasing in their efforts to rescue and protect chimpanzees.
A baby chimp delights in play with bubbles: an enrichment activity used to stimulate curiosity and development
A national symbol
Renowned primatologist and zoologist Jane Goodall visited Tacugama in 2006, lending her global influence to raising the sanctuary’s profile and championing its conservation work. Her support helped inspire a movement that, after years of advocacy by Tacugama, finally led, in 2019, to the chimpanzee being officially declared Sierra Leone’s national animal and the new face of the country’s tourism.
It was a celebratory moment for Tacugama. “This was great for us,” says Aram Kazandjian, Tacugama’s development manager. “The government prioritised chimp protection. Being the national animal meant it was prohibited to kill, sell, eat, or keep them at home.” But as Bala tells me, this was not the end of the battle. It was the start of a new challenge: turning symbolic protection into lasting change. “It took us 25 years to get them declared the national animal,” he says. “But now it’s about taking pride in that and seeing how we can carry this legacy forward and protect the species”.
In Tacugama’s clinic, a caregiver cradles three youngsters – from those orphaned to those born in the sanctuary, each are now held in safety
Beyond the sanctuary
While Tacugama provides lifelong care for over 123 chimpanzees, its mission extends far beyond the sanctuary’s fences. Through the Tacugama Community Outreach Program (TCOP), the organisation works in seven of Sierra Leone’s districts, promoting sustainable land use, discouraging hunting, encouraging coexistence between people and wildlife, and most importantly, fostering a national conversation about conservation – all initiatives designed to help protect wild chimpanzees, so that more don’t end up at the sanctuary.
Programmes involve practical measures, such as planting cash crops like cocoa, coffee, and cashews in buffer zones, to provide income for communities, while reducing pressure on forests. In addition, education programmes in local schools and villages aim to instil pride in protecting chimpanzees and their habitats.
But getting local communities to buy into chimpanzee protection takes patience. For people struggling to feed their families and send their children to school, conservation is often a luxury they can’t afford.
From forgotten victims to national icons, the chimps embody a country’s evolving identity
Precious, Little Prince, and the cost of survival
Despite these efforts, the need for rescues continues. In the nursery, Precious, a female estimated to be less than two years old, was found after poachers killed her family. She carries a pellet lodged in her chest, likely from a stray bullet aimed at her mother.
Another youngster, Little Prince, arrived after being kept by a Freetown social media influencer. Before that, he’d been found clinging to his dead mother’s body, which was caught in a hunter’s trap.
These two youngsters are fortunate to have found a home at Tacugama, but their lives will never be as free and wild as they should be. Since 1995, Tacugama has rescued and rehabilitated more than 200 western chimpanzees. These sad stories are a stark reminder of what Bala calls “the grim equation”: for every chimpanzee that reaches the sanctuary, eight to ten will have died in the wild – the 123 chimps currently at Tacugama may well represent the death of at least 1,000 others.
A rescued youngster undergoes a careful health check – vital care that gives Tacugama’s chimps a second chance at life
Present crisis: A sanctuary closed in protest
In May 2025, Tacugama made international headlines by closing its gates to tourists in protest at unchecked deforestation and land grabbing in the sanctuary’s buffer zone.
Tacugama occupies land that was once “community forest” – land that could be used freely by anyone under traditional laws. However, in 2012, the land on which the sanctuary is situated, along with a surrounding buffer zone, was designated a national park. This status prohibits private land development. Despite this, illegal construction and logging continued, eroding the sanctuary’s buffer zone and encroaching dangerously close to its boundaries. “Within the national park boundaries, you will find a range of both completed and incomplete structures – from permanent residences to commercial outlets and entertainment facilities like bars. Many of the buildings are still under construction, but a significant amount of land clearance has already taken place,” says Sidikie Bayoh, Tacugama’s communications officer.
Sierra Leone’s weak rule of law, combined with its population growth and the demands of a burgeoning metropolis, is gnawing at Tacugama’s edges. Attacks in the form of arson, illegal construction, vandalism and threats, all steadily intensified until there was no choice but to close the sanctuary, until law and order could be restored. As Bala puts it, “It’s really threatening the sanctuary’s existence… because it’s too dangerous when people come close to a wildlife preserve like this.”
Sanctuary under siege: encroaching construction threatens the chimps’ last refuge
Government response and future outlook
After months of petitioning, Bala has finally gained some traction, even meeting with the country’s president, Julius Maada Wonie Bio. “The president was furious when he saw the pictures I showed him,” Bala says, “But the real issue here is that there are already policies in place, the government already creates departments to address this. There are already people being paid with taxpayers’ money to prevent land encroachment… They should be ashamed. I shouldn’t have to go to the president for something like this,” he continues, shaking his head in despair.
While Sierra Leonean authorities have acknowledged the problem, there is frustration at the slow pace of enforcement. The government launched a crackdown, installing boundary markers, engaging local communities, and conducting raids on illegal logging operations. But follow-up was lacking, and the loggers and other trespassers returned.
Tacugama’s closure is not silence – it’s a cry for help to save both forest and species
Why Tacugama matters, NOW
Tacugama is more than a refuge; it’s a bellwether. As one of West Africa’s most established chimpanzee sanctuaries, it has become a symbol of Sierra Leone’s potential for wildlife protection, ecotourism, and national pride.
Sanctuaries like Tacugama are the frontline of triage, rescuing victims of the pet trade and snares, rehabilitating the rehabilitatable, and keeping the conservation crisis visible. Their education, policy advocacy and community programmes reduce the flow of orphaned chimps and safeguard the forests that wild populations depend on.
Many travellers come to Africa with dreams of trekking through forests to see chimpanzees in the wild. But those same forests are shrinking fast, and the chimpanzees that depend on them face mounting threats from poaching, trafficking, the pet trade, and habitat loss. This is why chimp conservation, and awareness of their plight, matters so deeply to anyone passionate about primates. Sanctuaries like Tacugama play a critical role in rescuing victims, educating the public, and fighting for stronger protection of both species and forest. The fact that Tacugama’s own buffer zone is under threat from encroachment, even within a protected national park, is a stark reminder of how urgent this fight has become
Tacugama’s closure is not an act of defiance, but a desperate appeal. Its fate rests with those willing to protect its forests and defend the ideals on which it was created. For now, the sanctuary remains quiet – home to chimps, but empty of visitors – still fighting for survival, and for the hope of opening its doors again.
Eyes that tell a story: a rescued chimp stares out, a reminder of what’s at stake
What can you do for chimpanzees?
For safari enthusiasts, supporting chimp conservation isn’t only about where you can trek for chimps today; it’s about ensuring there will still be chimps to meet tomorrow. You can make a tangible difference by backing organisations that defend habitat, curb trafficking and invest in community livelihoods—work that reduces the very pressures creating sanctuary orphans. When you do book chimp trekking elsewhere in Africa, choose operators that follow strict primate-welfare protocols (limited group sizes, minimum viewing distances, no contact or feeding, health screening/masking where required) and that direct fees into conservation and community benefit. Ethical choices upstream translate into fewer rescues downstream. Consider pairing any future trekking plans with a contribution to sanctuary and landscape protection funds. The most meaningful chimp encounter is the one your choices help make possible.
A mother chimp gently cradles her infant, a glimpse of tenderness in the sanctuary’s forest
A story of hope
In a country often internationally associated with its hardships, Tacugama is a symbol of resilience for both people and wildlife. The image of Bruno, the first rescued chimpanzee, now appears on the national passport, a reminder of how far the sanctuary has come since that day in 1988.
And while the challenges remain immense, Tacugama has shown that determined, sustained action can make a difference. For nearly three decades, its small but dedicated team has been working to ensure that Sierra Leone’s chimpanzees have a future.
As Bala puts it: “We can’t save every chimpanzee, but we can change the story for this species in Sierra Leone. And that’s worth everything.”
Further reading
How DRC’s endangered chimpanzees end up in a billionaire’s Indian zoo: Controversy erupts over wild chimpanzees trafficked from DRC to India’s Vantara Zoo using suspect CITES permits. NGOs demand global action. Read more here.
Boozy chimps + Great Migration debate + wild dog hotspots
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From our editor – Taryn van Jaarsveld
It turns out that our primate ancestors enjoyed cheeky tipples long before humans raised their first glass. New research has found that wild chimpanzees in Côte d’Ivoire and Uganda consume the alcohol equivalent of a daily bottle of lager: from eating naturally fermented fruit.
This finding fuels the so-called “drunken monkey” hypothesis: that our own fondness for a sundowner may be an inherited taste from primate ancestors who learned that overripe figs and plums pack both sugar and spirit. But the chimps aren’t getting drunk. The alcohol levels, while measurable, aren’t enough to impair survival or cause hangovers. Instead, scientists suggest the behaviour strengthens social bonds as the chimps gather to enjoy the fallen fruit.
So next time you sip a cold one, raise it to the original foragers. And if you’d like to see these fruit-ferment aficionados for yourself, join us on an Africa Geographic chimp-trekking safari – where the encounters are intoxicating, but the drinks are strictly from a bottle.
This week, safari guide Adam Bannister tackles the Great Migration debate – beyond the river crossings to the survival of East Africa’s golden goose – and we spotlight Africa’s six best wild dog hotspots for your next safari
Taryn van Jaarsveld – Editor, Africa Geographic
Did you know? Your African safari choice makes a difference
We donate a portion of the revenue from every safari sold to carefully selected conservation projects that make a significant difference at ground level. YOUR African safari choice does make a difference – thank you!
Our stories this week
GREAT MIGRATION DEBATE
The Great Migration is more than river crossings. Adam Bannister talks overtourism’s risks & calls for ethical, conservation-first safaris
WILD DOG SAFARIS
Longing to see African wild dogs? Here are the six best spots to see painted wolves in Africa – perfect for your next safari with us
The perfect bush and beach trifecta. A classic Tanzanian bush and beach safari that immerses you in iconic locations with time-honoured luxury camps. This is an unforgettable 10-day sojourn that blends the untamed beauty of Tanzania’s northern safari circuit with the tranquil allure of its pristine beaches. You’ll journey through Tarangire National Park to the awe-inspiring panoramas of the Ngorongoro Crater, the sweeping plains of Serengeti National Park, and the sun-kissed shores of Zanzibar.
3 countries & 3 iconic parks in one safari! Experience the thrill of the wild with a luxury safari that takes you from the heart of Timbavati in Greater Kruger to majestic Victoria Falls and the breathtaking Chobe Riverfront. Drift along the Chobe River as hundreds of elephants drink and play nearby, and watch a leopard mother and her cubs in total serenity
AG safari guests, Teresa and Joan from Ireland, went on a dream South Africa trip to Madikwe and Cape Town:
“Magical trip to South Africa. What a fabulous time we had in South Africa, booked seamlessly through Ro and Linda at Africa Geographic.
Our trip was to Madikwe Game Reserve, where we stayed for 3 nights. The lodge was very welcoming – beautiful place to stay within the park – and the food was so varied and delicious. The game drives exceeded our expectations… we had many close-up views of the animals. A shout out to our safari guide Ashley, who shared all his knowledge of the animals (and he was a really polite gentleman). And of course, to Heidi, the lodge manager, who had a lovely birthday cake for me on my 60th birthday.
Our internal flights to get to Cape Town ran very smoothly, and we were then picked up punctually and stayed at the Queen Victoria Hotel in Cape Town for 3 nights. What a lovely place! We visited all the ‘to-do’ sites there, including Table Mountain, Boulders Beach and Robben Island. A big thank you to Lloyd, whom we booked for a day to drive us around, through AG. All in all, a fabulous itinerary made to our liking. Thank you, AG: I would highly recommend them. Teresa and Joan.🐾🌍x”
Planning an African safari can be overwhelming – but it doesn’t have to be. Wildlife photographer Andrew Macdonald shares what makes an Africa Geographic safari truly extraordinary. (03:26) Click here to watch
A sighting of African painted wolves (wild dogs) is one of the most exhilarating safari experiences and a guaranteed highlight for guests. From their frenetic hunts to playful pack time, these lithe and athletic predators present true poetry in motion. But, unfortunately, they are also one of Africa’s most endangered carnivores.
Looking for the best place to see them in the wild? Here’s a list of our top six favourite wild dog destinations:
The wild dogs of Mana Pools National Park rose to prominence as the star characters in the BBC series, Dynasties. Yet, for those in the know, the national park and surrounds have long been recognised as one of the best places in Africa to see these charismatic canids.
What makes Mana a particularly fabulous destination for viewing painted wolves is that it offers walking safaris aplenty. Regular encounters have ensured that the painted wolves are unusually comfortable with people on foot. It is important to remember that this is a privilege, not a right, and the African painted wolves should be treated with absolute respect. Keep noise to a minimum, set up a comfortable distance and enjoy the magic of this truly unique experience.
Zimbabwe’s Hwange National Park also hosts a large wild dog population. Hwange ranks among Africa’s premier strongholds for painted wolves, with an estimated 200 individuals spread across more than 30 packs. The sheer scale of the park and its diverse habitats provide excellent conditions for these wide-ranging predators, making sightings a rewarding possibility for patient safari-goers. Adding depth to the experience, the Painted Dog Conservation Centre on Hwange’s fringes offers visitors the chance to learn about one of the continent’s longest-running wild dog protection initiatives, from rehabilitation to groundbreaking research.
The low-angle photographic opportunities in Mana Pools, Zimbabwe, are difficult to rival
2. Northern Botswana
Most of Northern Botswana, including Khwai Private Reserve, Chobe National Park, and the Okavango Delta, is prime habitat for wild dogs and a vital population stronghold for these carnivores. The combined landscape of protected areas provides these ever-moving hunters with the space they need. As the river systems ebb and flow, painted wolves charge across the flood plains to chase down their abundant prey. Read more about our CEO, Simon Espley’s, incredible experience searching for wild dog pups in Okavango Delta here – “my best wild dog sightings ever”.
A pack photographed in Khwai Private Reserve, northern Botswana
3. Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa
Since their translocation to Madikwe Game Reserve in 1994, African painted wolves have become the unofficial mascot of this arid, malaria-free reserve tucked away in northern South Africa, close to the Botswana border. Though their path to success has not always been easy, the wolves are now well established, and the sparse Madikwe vegetation makes it easier to keep an eye on their antics.
The frenzy after the hunt in Madikwe Game Reserve
4. West and Central Zambia
Home to the largest painted wolf population in Zambia, Luangwa Valley (including both South Luangwa National Park and North Luangwa National Park) stands out as a conservation success story where these tie-dyed predators are concerned. During the dry season, Luangwa’s multitudinous herbivores gather around the life-giving Luangwa River and painted wolves take full advantage of the buffet on offer. The floodplains set the stage for thrilling displays of athleticism as the energetic canids hurtle after antelope or reaffirm their pack bonds with a game of tag and tumble.
Beyond the Luangwa, Zambia offers two more compelling destinations for painted wolf enthusiasts. In Kafue National Park, wild dogs are staging a quiet comeback, with three packs now thriving since the original pair was introduced – a testament to the dedicated work of the Zambian Carnivore Program. Sightings here are still a matter of good fortune, but each encounter carries the thrill of witnessing a population in recovery. Further west, the vast grasslands of Liuwa Plain now host a reintroduced pack, roaming alongside the park’s famed hyenas and cheetahs. Lions were once absent from Liuwa but have since begun to return, though not yet in full force – a dynamic that has created space for painted wolves to re-establish themselves in this remarkable ecosystem.
A wild dog on the banks of the Luangwa River above a colony of carmine bee-eaters
5. Greater Kruger, South Africa
Bucking the overall population trend, the Kruger’s painted-wolf population is not declining and may even be steadily increasing. In Kruger National Park, use the sighting boards in camp and chat to park guides to get up-to-date information on recent reliable hotspots. Alternatively, a stay at one of the private reserves and lodges in Greater Kruger during the denning season (typically winter: June until August) will ensure unbeatable sightings of the pups emerging to take in their new world, much to the joy of the rest of the pack.
Feeling playful in Kruger National Park
6. Laikipia, Kenya
Known for its exclusive safari experiences and exceptional record for protecting endangered species, vast Laikipia county is almost entirely covered by private and community conservancies, creating a large habitat for painted wolves to roam.
The Kenyan conservancy model gives its visitors glorious freedom, allowing any visit to be tailored to specific interests. Want to tag along with a research team tasked with monitoring the painted wolves? Though not always a guaranteed option, Laikipia is an excellent place to start.
Never a dull moment
Given their fast-paced lives, keeping up with painted wolves can present something of a challenge, but the reward is well worth the effort involved. With their boundless vitality, astonishing altruism and unmistakable wet-dog smell (with a tinge of something vaguely goat-like), there is never a dull moment when African painted wolves come bounding by.
Resources
New DNA analysis reveals surprising prey in African wild dog diets, reshaping our understanding and informing vital conservation strategies. Read more about the surprising secrets of African wild dog diets here
Tsavo’s African wild dogs face major threats. Tsavo Trust & Painted Wolf Foundation are working to save these painted dogs. Here’s how they are doing it
The Great Wildebeest Migration is one of the most extraordinary wildlife events on Earth: over a million wildebeest, accompanied by zebra and gazelle, moving in a continuous cycle between the Serengeti and the Maasai Mara. It is a story of survival and renewal, of predators shadowing prey, of grasslands being grazed and replenished. It is about the balance of an ecosystem that has shaped life in East Africa for centuries.
And yet, in the way we market and consume it today, the migration is often reduced to a single spectacle: wildebeest river crossings. If we are not careful, we risk treating this natural marvel as a one-off attraction rather than a fragile, living system – and in doing so, we could kill the golden goose that has nourished both wildlife and communities for years.
How the media changed the story
For decades, visitors celebrated the scale of the migration itself: the sound of hooves rolling across the plains, the dust clouds on the horizon, the predators waiting patiently at the edges. The wonder lay in the abundance – in witnessing one of the last great movements of animals on Earth.
But mobile phones, cameras, and marketing campaigns changed the story. River crossings, with their plunging wildebeest and ambushing crocodiles, are cinematic. They became the easy sell for glossy brochures and television documentaries, and today for social media. Tour operators began building itineraries around them, knowing that images of wildebeest hurling themselves off cliffs were enough to persuade travellers to part with their money.
River crossings are dramatic, but the Migration is far more than this single perilous moment
The danger is that we have narrowed the migration into a single moment. Guests come to Serengeti National Park and Maasai Mara National Reserve seeking one dramatic scene, and investors build lodges to service that demand. Too often, crossings are treated as entertainment rather than as what they truly are: moments of life and death.
The economics of the Great Migration
The Migration is not just an ecological marvel – it is also an economy in itself. Tens of thousands of people depend on it for their livelihoods: from guides and drivers to camp staff, lodge owners, and communities offering spare rooms. Many people have invested their savings in safari vehicles or in building modest camps to capture some of the tourism demand. I believe we often underestimate the knock-on effect of how many families are completely dependent on tourism – especially in East Africa.
This reality makes the problem complex. On one hand, we cannot simply strip away those opportunities or pull the rug from beneath people who have invested their lives in tourism. On the other hand, the uncontrolled growth of camps and vehicles is placing enormous pressure on the phenomenon that sustains them.
There is also an uncomfortable contrast between operators. Some camps genuinely invest in conservation and community: they employ and train local people, channel funds into protection programmes, and even secure land for wildlife. Others, however, operate as little more than roadside hotels, offering beds but contributing little to the wider ecosystem. Fancy lodges with polished marketing campaigns and high-end interiors can sometimes fall into this category too – their glamour and branding may impress guests, but in reality, they are no more supportive of conservation than the simpler roadside options.
Even good management can be undermined. The Mara Triangle, for instance, has invested heavily in upgrading its infrastructure and maintaining roads. But this has drawn more and more vehicles from outside its borders, all coming to benefit from these improvements. By raising standards, the Triangle has inadvertently attracted an unsustainable burden of extra traffic.
This is the heart of the challenge: the migration has become such a vast economy that everyone wants a piece of it. That is understandable. But it is also shortsighted. If we continue to exploit it without restraint, we risk destroying the golden goose itself.
In preparing this piece, I reached out to eight local Maasai guides to hear their perspectives. All chose to speak anonymously, a decision that is telling – there is a fear of repercussions for voicing criticism. Yet each of them echoed the same sentiment: the current scale of overtourism is eroding the heart of the migration. They spoke of how the experience has been degraded, not only for wildlife but also for visitors, and how the once-proud reputation of ecotourism in the Mara is being chipped away. Their words were sobering and a reminder that those closest to the ground often see most clearly the direction in which things are heading.
Enforcement and accountability
One of the most urgent problems is the weakness of enforcement. Fines, too often, are toothless. I have witnessed guests offer to pay fines on behalf of guides – essentially encouraging them to break the rules.
The conversation goes like this:
“How much is it to drive off-road here?”
“We are not allowed.”
“Yes, but if you did, how much would they fine you?”
“10,000 Kenyan Shillings.”
Okay, great. Drive off-road, and we will pay for it if they stop us.”
I have heard this exchange on many occasions. It exposes a failure in the system. If fines are so low that they become part of the cost of doing business, they will never serve as a deterrent. What is an extra US$80 or so on top of a trip that would have cost thousands? Heavy penalties – financial AND professional – must be introduced. Guides must realise that breaking the rules is not an option.
The false Great Migration fixes
In conversations about overtourism in the Mara, a few simple “solutions” are often put forward. Raise park fees. Cap visitor numbers. Ban new developments. On the surface, these sound appealing. In practice, they are not straightforward.
Take the issue of raising park fees. Two years ago, the cost to enter the reserve rose sharply, from US$80 to US$200. We were told this would reduce numbers. It has not. Cars still crowd the crossings; the only change is that visitors now pay more, and the public knows management is collecting greater revenues.
Imagine if fees rose again, to, say, US$500 per person per day. (Keep in mind it currently costs US$1,500 for a permit to view gorillas in Rwanda for a single hour!) Lower-end lodges and camps would potentially collapse overnight. A whole tier of travellers would be priced out. Worse, conservation would risk becoming elitist. Local communities, whose support is vital to the survival of wildlife, could be locked out of landscapes they have protected for decades.
Long lines on the move: raising park fees hasn’t eased crowding. Vehicles, not visitors, drive the pressure
Even the current structure is flawed. Fees are charged per person, but the pressure at crossings comes from vehicles. A car carrying one guest takes up just as much space as a car carrying nine. The system should always have been based on vehicles, not individuals.
And what of development caps? In principle, they are desperately needed. But consider the families who have already invested in cars and modest accommodation. They cannot simply be shut down. Yet, if new camps keep sprouting unchecked, the cumulative pressure will push the Mara past the point of no return.
None of these fixes is as clean as they first appear. The problem is more complicated, and pretending otherwise risks worsening the situation.
Towards real solutions
Solution 1: Capped vehicle entry
A broad cap on vehicle numbers entering the Mara could help, but the reserve is vast. The real strain lies at bottlenecks, not across the entire landscape. A more nuanced approach is needed. The challenge is how such a carrying capacity would be determined in the first place – and whether it could be enforced fairly. The Mara’s boundaries are porous; there are no fences, and it is a poorly kept secret that vehicles have not always entered or exited through official gates. If a capped system were ever to work, it would require rigorous planning, robust monitoring, and genuine commitment to control access. There is also the real question: if the park fee was raised to US$500, US$1,000 or even higher, where would that massive increase in revenue end up?
Solution 2: Viewing platforms and hides
Another idea that surfaces regularly is to construct fixed viewing points, hides, or even grandstand-style platforms, much like those at a golf tournament. The suggestion is that vehicles would park at a distance, and visitors would then walk – perhaps even through tunnels – to these structures, where they could watch the crossings in relative order and safety.
On paper, it has some appeal. But in practice, it is fraught with problems. There are at least 20 recognised crossing points along the river, many with multiple entry and exit spots. To cover them all would require a significant number of platforms. If a crossing happened just out of sight of one, visitors would miss it entirely. The Mara River is unpredictable, its water levels rising and falling throughout the season. Any hide would need to be constructed at considerable height to avoid flooding, which would demand steel, concrete, and large-scale infrastructure.
Even if designed to be discreet and aesthetically sympathetic to the landscape, such structures would still need to accommodate hundreds of people at a time. The resulting human footprint – both visual and physical – would be immense. While the concept is often put forward with good intentions, I do not believe it is a workable or desirable solution for the Mara.
Solution 3: Premium crossing permits
Another proposal is to introduce a premium ticket for access to river crossings. While this might reduce congestion, it risks creating more problems than it solves. Large operators would almost certainly buy up tickets well in advance, dominating the system. A black market could emerge, with permits being sold at extortionate prices on the eve of guest arrivals. In such a scenario, little of the money would reach conservation; middlemen would pocket most.
Solution 4: Controlled crossing points
The most promising approach may be to regulate crossings directly – not by charging extra, but through careful management and oversight. Access could be granted on a first-come, first-served basis, with vehicles guided into predetermined viewing zones. Each crossing point could be mapped and assessed to determine how many cars it can sustainably handle, ensuring that every vehicle present has a fair and unobstructed view.
This simple change would remove the incentive for dangerous behaviour. At present, much of the chaos arises from the limited number of good vantage spots. Vehicles race to secure them, turning crossings into something resembling the start of a rally. By designating parking areas and controlling numbers, that tension would disappear.
Some gentle landscaping might be required – trimming long grasses, levelling sandy banks, or clearing bushes – but this is a minor and reversible impact compared to the benefit of restoring calm and order. Natural barriers such as logs, rocks, or trenches could also protect the wildebeest entry and exit points.
This is not just an idea. I submitted such a proposal to the Mara Conservancy, which in turn forwarded it to Narok County. The concept remains simple: restore order at crossings, cost visitors nothing, and demonstrate that patience and ethics can be rewarded.
These four solutions are by no means the only options. They are simply those I hear most often discussed, and the ones I have personally considered in detail. There are undoubtedly other creative and practical approaches worth exploring.
A screenshot from a proposal document that was recently sent to the Narok County suggesting how one could integrate ‘Solution Four’ with near immediate effect into the Maasai Mara.
Alongside longer-term structural solutions, there are also immediate steps that could make a significant difference. First, only accredited and registered professional guides should be allowed to conduct safaris in the Mara, ensuring a higher standard of behaviour and accountability. Second, a portion of the increased park fees should be directed towards employing and equipping far more rangers – with vehicles, cameras, and the authority to hand out substantial fines. During migration season, especially, a visible and empowered ranger presence is essential. Finally, every visitor to the Mara should be asked to sign a simple but powerful code of conduct, one that makes clear that respect for wildlife is paramount. A model exists in the Palau Pledge, where visitors to the Pacific Island nation sign a promise in their passports to act responsibly and preserve nature for future generations. Such a pledge in the Mara would help shift expectations from the moment a safari begins. In Palau, you cannot enter without signing this pledge to protect the natural environment. Shouldn’t the Mara ask the same of its visitors?
Integrating local access
Another potential step is to guarantee a capped number of places for Kenyan residents each day, at a reduced rate. This would ensure that local people remain connected to their own wildlife, while international visitors continue to provide the bulk of funding. Done properly, this could be a win-win: inclusivity without undermining financial sustainability.
A cultural reset, transparency and trust
Finally, there must be a shift in how we view wildlife. Safari is not a right, but a privilege. Crossings are not “content” to be consumed and shared; they are moments of life and death. Guests should also be encouraged to spend time with the herds away from the river, immersed in the sheer magnitude of life unfolding across the plains.
A lack of trust underpins all of this. Where does the money go? Park fees generate millions of dollars, but how much reaches conservation on the ground? How much reaches local communities? And – though this must be asked gently – how much ends up with individuals?
These questions are not accusations, but they must be addressed. Transparency would transform perceptions. If visitors knew how their fees were spent, they would be far more willing to pay, more patient with restrictions, and more supportive of conservation strategies. The same is true of lodge approvals: who decides, and why? Openness would build confidence; secrecy only fuels suspicion.
The role of guests
Guests play a crucial role. By choosing camps that actively support conservation and employ local people, they can help ensure that tourism strengthens the ecosystem rather than simply extracts from it. Camps that invest in land, training of people, and protection of wildlife deserve to be supported over those that do the bare minimum.
Guests should also set expectations with their guides early in their trip. Make it clear that tips will be based on knowledge, interpretation, and respect for nature – not on reckless driving, racing between sightings, or forcing proximity at crossings. Guides should be rewarded for their patience, knowledge, storytelling, and ethics, not for taking risks.
And here’s a radical thought – what if lodges simply paid their guides higher salaries and scrapped tipping altogether? Imagine an industry where the incentive to impress came from stable, sufficient pay and professional pride, not from the chase for the biggest end-of-trip envelope. Of course, tipping is far too deeply embedded in safari culture for this to ever happen, but it’s worth noting that the pursuit of tips is one of the root causes of the bad behaviours we see on the ground today.
Every choice a guest makes matters. The type of camp, the questions asked, the behaviour expected – all contribute to shaping the future of the Mara.
Zebra and wildebeest on the march. Guests can shape the future by choosing camps that truly support conservation
A call to act
The Great Wildebeest Migration is under pressure. In recent years, the herds have spent less and less time in the Mara – a fact that individually everyone knows, but collectively no one appears to acknowledge or talk about. Climate change plays a role, but so too do human factors: fences, frequent burning, vehicle congestion, and the sheer density of camps along migratory routes.
We cannot kill the golden goose. We must nurture it. We must accept that change is needed, even if it is uncomfortable.
The question is not whether action should be taken. It is those who will be bold enough to make the decisions. Years ago, management admitted that the Mara was at a breaking point. Since then, numbers have grown, crossings have become more chaotic, and more large camps have been built; the only meaningful change has been a US$120 hike in park fees. That is not enough.
Above it all, the solution must come from within. Outsiders like myself can advise, support, and share ideas, but for real traction, change must be led by the Maasai community – the custodians of this landscape. Their voices, leadership, and authority are essential if the Mara is to find a sustainable future.
Who will be bold enough to make the difficult decisions? What will it take before action is truly taken?
The Great Migration is a global treasure, and protecting it requires courage and honesty. It will mean facing uncomfortable truths, regulating where regulation is overdue, and choosing long-term sustainability over short-term gain. If we fail, the cost will be irreversible – for wildlife, and for the people who depend on it.
The true wonder of the Migration lies in the endless sweep of life across the plains: not just the river
Adam Bannister is a South African-trained biologist, safari guide, author and storyteller who has spent nearly two decades immersed in some of the world’s most iconic wild places, from the Sabi Sands and Maasai Mara to the deserts of Rajasthan and the forests of Rwanda and Peru. With a passion for training guides, Adam works across Africa and India to help guiding teams unlock their full potential, combining science, storytelling and presence to elevate the guest experience. His strength lies in translating complex natural phenomena into meaningful, memorable moments in the field. Read more about Adam here.
The vast Serengeti in northern Tanzania is home to an extraordinary amount of wildlife and plays host to the greatest show on Earth – the Great Migration. Read more about Serengeti National Park here
To cull or not to cull in Madikwe? + Nyungwe crimsonwing quest + Volcanoes meet gorillas
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From our CEO – Simon Espley
There is a tiny bird that has never been photographed in the wild other than when accidentally netted during biodiversity surveys.
I have been on numerous adventures to the misty highland forests it calls home to catch a glimpse of this gorgeous avian eye candy, but alas, it has evaded me SO FAR. I also co-founded an NGO that sponsored and managed two years of netting research in their prime habitat in collaboration with Uganda Wildlife Authority – also to no avail.
Shelley’s crimsonwing – Cryptospiza shelleyi – is a species of forest finch occurring in the highland forests of the Albertine Rift in East Africa. It is classified as endangered due to habitat loss and is likely to have a small, severely fragmented and declining population.
One paradisiacal location to search for this special bird is Nyungwe National Park in Rwanda. Oh, and it is also one of Africa’s best chimp trekking destinations, and hosts 13 primate and 337 bird species, including 29 Albertine Rift endemics! AND NOW African Parks has opened a new lodge deep inside this primordial forest – Munazi Lodge – the only lodge inside the national park.
Meanwhile, as I am writing this, a giraffe and her adolescent youngster are nibbling new buds on the trees at our garden fenceline, and a drongo is dive-bombing insects disturbed by these gentle giants. Life is good.
Finally, Leo Tolstoy famously stated, “One of the first conditions of happiness is that the link between man and nature shall not be broken”.
Good news is scarce in the vulture world – which makes this discovery worth celebrating. For the first time ever, conservationists have confirmed a hooded vulture nest with a chick in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. This marks the southernmost breeding site yet recorded for the critically endangered species, expanding our understanding of its range – and bringing fresh hope for the species!
The find came during aerial surveys in Zululand and adds to other small but significant wins for Africa’s vultures, including more nests of lappet-faced vultures and growth in some white-backed colonies. With threats like poisoning, power line collisions and traditional medicine hunting still pressing, every chick is a victory.
This week, we bring you news on Madikwe’s elephant dilemma, written by an expert on the matter, Roger Collinson. There are tough conservation choices ahead. We also take you on a journey into Rwanda’s iconic Volcanoes National Park, home to gorillas and grandeur.
Did you know? Your African safari choice makes a difference
We donate a portion of the revenue from every safari sold to carefully selected conservation projects that make a significant difference at ground level. YOUR African safari choice does make a difference – thank you!
Our stories this week
TO CULL OR NOT TO CULL
Madikwe faces an elephant crisis that forces conservation discussions about culling, hunting and tourism. Expert Roger Collinson writes
VOLCANOES NATIONAL PARK
Volcanoes National Park is a leading gorilla trekking destination in Africa. This volcanic landscape offers stunning scenery & biodiversity
This is the luxury safari you’ve been dreaming of. Experience the ultimate Southern African adventure. A seamless blend of cosmopolitan Cape Town, the culinary magic of Franschhoek, and the wild beauty of Botswana’s Okavango Delta.
Be prepared for the drama and the wonder of the vast open plains. Step into the wild heart of Tanzania as the Great Migration sweeps across the vast Serengeti. Encounter endless herds, prowling predators, golden savannahs and dramatic big skies on this unforgettable safari adventure.
Africa Geographic is proud to announce our newest conservation campaign: partnering with the Ingwe Research Program to protect Hoedspruit’s leopards. These secretive neighbours quietly share our landscapes, but their survival is under serious threat – seven lost their lives on local roads last year alone.
This vital project tackles the urgent issue of road fatalities and works to implement life-saving infrastructure and signage. Ingwe’s broader work also builds the most comprehensive leopard database in the region, equipping conservationists and communities with the knowledge to reduce human-wildlife conflict.
We support this campaign because it addresses one of the most pressing challenges facing leopards today: surviving in landscapes increasingly shaped by people. Together, we can change this story.
Witness an incredible 25-year journey of love, dedication, and ecological triumph. Samara, a passionate conservation undertaking in South Africa’s Great Karoo, has painstakingly rewilded 27,000 hectares of degraded land, bringing back lions, elephants, and cheetahs after over a century of absence. (06:38) Click here to watch
Sir Attenborough was, as always, spot-on in the narration of his encounter with the mountain gorillas of the Virunga Mountains. Shortly after the ad-libbed but apt summation of his emotional journey, a young gorilla called Poppy grew tired of exchanging glances and attempted to divest him of his shoes. The now-famous scene was filmed in Volcanoes National Park in Rwanda.
Today, Volcanoes National Park is renowned as one of the leading gorilla-trekking safari destinations in Africa – a place where, against so many odds, the critically endangered mountain gorilla has flourished. And while the gorillas may be the stars, visitors are equally likely to find themselves blown away by the breathtaking scenery and astonishing biodiversity of this volcanic landscape.
Volcanoes National Park and the Greater Virunga Ecosystem
Tucked in Rwanda’s north-western corner on the borders of Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo, the 160km2 (16,000 hectare) Volcanoes National Park protects the vital Rwandan portion of the Virunga Mountains. The Virunga range consists of eight major volcanoes, of which five are in Volcanoes National Park. With Uganda’s Mgahinga Gorilla National Park in the north and Virunga National Park in DRC to the west, Volcanoes National Park is part of the Greater Virunga Ecosystem. This trio of countries acts as the guardians of just over half of the world’s remaining mountain gorillas living on the forest-swathed slopes of the imposing volcanoes.
All five of the Virunga volcanoes on the Rwandan side have long since retired from spewing lava (though there are two active volcanoes in the range in neighbouring DRC), but their presence in the park is no less dramatic for their dormancy. Mounts Karisimbi, Bisoke (Visoke), Sabyinyo, Gahinga and Muhabura are the products of ferocious geological forces that shaped this section of the Albertine Rift. The resultant rich volcanic soils laid the necessary groundwork for the astonishing floral (and therefore faunal) lifeforms on display. In addition, scientists believe that much of the eastern Congo basin was an ice age refugia, which explains the unusually high number of species and levels of endemism. These refugia are geographic regions that escaped the worst of the glacial conditions, allowing for the survival of plant and animal species.
Naturally, the visual impact of the jagged mountains looming like teeth is also somewhat breathtaking, though this can be at least in part attributed to the altitude. The park’s highest point is the peak of Mount Karisimbi (4,500 metres), and most of the park lies at over 2,000 metres above sea level – not high enough to cause altitude sickness but something that certainly takes some getting used to for unacclimatised visitors.
The significant altitudinal range within the park has also contributed to considerable variation in vegetation types, changing from tropical and bamboo forest types at lower altitudes to montane forests and Afroalpine shrublands at the highest points. Thickets, grasslands, marshes, and small lakes extend between each volcano. This medley of geological and climatic factors has conferred significant biodiversity and conservation importance to Volcanoes National Park. Of course, the park’s gorilla residents (and the work of dedicated primatologists) first put it on the safari map.
The rich volcanic soils of the Rwandan Virunga volcanoes, protected in Volcanoes National Park, set the groundwork for diverse and unique floral and faunal lifeformsThe tropical and bamboo forests of Volcanoes NP are home to famous gorillas and golden monkeys, drawing tourists from across the globe
Gorillas in water droplets suspended in the atmosphere
Close encounters with gorillas like the one experienced by Sir Attenborough all those years ago are no longer permitted. Visitors are obliged to keep their distance and attempt to move away from the gorillas if approached. Wearing masks is also mandatory for trekkers, to protect the critically endangered mountain gorillas from human-borne diseases. This is an important measure taken to ensure the safety and health of the gorillas. Nevertheless, those who go gorilla trekking in Volcanoes National Park will find their encounters meet or, more frequently, exceed expectations. The strain of an early start and arduous hike (that may go on for hours along slippery, twisting mud paths through stinging nettles) rapidly evaporates when one looks into the unfathomable brown eyes of one of our closest relatives. Though few have the eloquence of David Attenborough to describe the experience, adjectives like “spiritual”, “profound”, “soul-stirring”, “humbling”, and “magical” are thrown about like confetti by those able to find them. Others find that words fail them.
Twelve gorilla families in Volcanoes National Park are habituated for tourism (other troops are habituated solely for research purposes). These are the Susa, Igisha, Karisimbi, Sabyinyo, Amahoro, Agashya, Kwitonda, Umubano, Hirwa, Bwenge, Kwisanga and Muhoza families. Only eight tracking permits are issued per group per day, so time spent with the gorillas is incredibly intimate. Furthermore, a percentage of the permit prices are fed back into surrounding communities to develop infrastructure and improve livelihoods. This culture of sustainable tourism is rapidly becoming a proud (and successful) tradition of Rwandan conservation.
For the true gorilla devotee, it is well worth visiting Kwita Izina – an annual naming ceremony for newborn gorillas modelled off a Rwandan tradition of naming children. Conservation champions are honoured with the opportunity to bestow a name upon one of the tiny bundles of primate joy, every one of which is of vital importance to the future survival of the species. Since 2005, 437 gorillas have been named in this way, and the ceremony includes live music, dancing and, of course, essential conservation talks. A well-timed visit allows additional opportunities to speak to gorilla conservationists and park staff. The ceremony usually takes place in September to coincide with World Gorilla Day.
What Dian Fossey would have thought of this ceremony will forever remain a mystery. However, no discussion of the gorillas of Volcanoes National Park would be complete without mention of the Karisoke Research Centre and her work. Though Fossey was a controversial figure, her devotion to her gorilla subjects was absolute, and she eventually gave her life to the fight for their conservation. The abandoned Karisoke Research Centre and Fossey’s final resting place remain popular attractions, though they are only accessible on foot after a relatively strenuous 90-minute hike.
Twelve gorilla families in Volcanoes National Park are habituated for tourism, though limited permits are issued per group per dayGorilla trekking in Volcanoes National Park always meets expectations
As remarkable as they are, visiting Volcanoes National Park is not just about the gorillas. In terms of the primates, few people realise that the park is also home to troops of habituated golden monkeys. These charismatic monkeys are almost as scarce as their gorilla cousins and are only found around the Virunga region. With their handsome facial mane, auburn capes of fur, and perpetually surprised expressions, the golden monkeys are the perfect photographic subjects, and their antics are endlessly entertaining.
A pair of golden monkeys share an intimate moment
The forest is also home to forest elephants. However, there are probably no more than 50 individuals wandering the park, and they are generally skittish, unwelcome as they are in the surrounding human villages. The best chance of encountering one is on the hike to the old Karisoke Research Centre. Buffaloes occasionally venture into the forests, and smaller ungulates like bushpigs, giant forest hogs, black-fronted duikers, and bushbucks flourish in the dense vegetation.
Like Nyungwe National Park in southern Rwanda, Volcanoes National Park offers some of the best birding in East Africa. High levels of endemism and the challenges of forest birding make this one of the most electrifying places to search for the feathered specials that keep eager birders awake at night. This bird-watching haven has over 200 different recorded species, including 17 Albertine Rift endemics. At the top of Mount Bisoke (more on that later), scarlet-tufted sunbirds flit from lobelia to lobelia, while further down, Shelley’s crimsonwings do their utmost to evade the avid attentions of teamAG (and pretty much everyone else). Bright scarlet flashes draw the eye to African pittas and Rwenzori turacos, and handsome francolins make up for their comparatively drab appearance with an impressively loud voice (a family trait). Rwenzori double-collared sunbirds, African green broadbills, Rwenzori batises… the list goes on. Even novice (or dare we say disinterested?) bird watchers will find the excitement infectious.
For those wanting to learn more about the bird and mammal offerings in Rwanda, Christian Boix’s (Africa Geographic travel director and one of Africa’s top birding guides) book Wild Rwanda is the region’s most authoritative “where to find” birds and mammals guide. Its Volcanoes National Park section will be an invaluable tool to set you on the right track to target your most coveted Albertine Rift endemics and learn about this volcanic gem.
Volcanoes NP has much to offer outside of gorilla trekking, including forest birdingL’Hoest’s monkeys can be seen in the park on primate trekking experiencesBuffaloes occasionally venture into the forestsA trip to the twin lakes of Burera and Ruhondo
Pathways through the mist
For those whose legs have forgiven them their trespasses (like a few hours chasing gorillas up a mountain), Volcanoes National Park is a hiker’s paradise. The truly brave can opt for an overnight route to the top of Mount Karisimbi, the highest point in the park. The name ‘Karisimbi’ translates as ‘white shell’ – so-called due to the white cap of cloud that often covers the summit. Equally challenging is the hike to the top of Mount Muhavura to look out across the twin lakes of Burera and Ruhondo (separated by an ancient lava flow). Many visitors choose to explore the almost alien-like Afroalpine vegetation and crater lake at the top of Mount Bisoke (often, but not always, in search of the red-tufted sunbird).
These hikes depend on a certain level of physical fitness, must be booked in advance, and are always conducted in the company of a park-provided guide.
Hiking volcanoes calls for moderate fitness, with endurance and leg strength to manage hours of uneven, often steep terrain at altitudeMisty mountain tops are a common sight in Volcanoes National Park
Explore & stay
The only visitors allowed in the park overnight are those who have booked multiple-day hiking excursions. However, there are many accommodation options ranging from budget hotels to ultra-luxurious lodges on the park’s periphery. The park is open year-round, though the “best time” to visit is from June until September, the long dry season. Though the highest rainfall levels occur from March to May and again in October and November, this is an equatorial region, and rain is possible at any time. And, naturally, the famous mists do more than just hide the gorillas. Consequently, it is essential to waterproof all electronics and photographic equipment, and a good pair of non-slip, waterproof walking boots are vital.
The region’s magic doesn’t end at the park boundaries, and those with an extra day or two can opt to learn more about ancient Rwanda culture at Buhanga Eco-Park. Here the kings of old undertook a series of kingship rituals before being crowned in the park’s caves. Cave systems are extensive around Volcanoes National Park, and since it was first opened in 2014, the 2km trail through the 60-million-year-old Musanze Cave has become increasingly popular.
In Rwanda – the “Land of a Thousand Hills” – the steep, forested slopes of the five in Volcanoes National Park are indisputably among the country’s most unique offerings.
Would you like to set out on a Volcanoes National Park adventure? Our safari experts will be with you every step of the way as you plan and book your safari.
The Madikwe elephant dilemma has become a lightning rod for opinion, often loud and polarised. Much of what’s been written is deeply rooted in emotion. This is not unusual: conservation stirs deep feelings. But when complex challenges are reduced to single-issue arguments, the results can be damaging. In this op ed, Roger Collinson attempts to step back from that noise and offer perspective: the kind that comes from five decades of lived experience in the spaces where conservation, tourism, and hunting overlap – sometimes neatly, often not. Collinson reflects on Madikwe’s unique and remarkable origins, the shifting dynamics, and the economic realities that must be part of the conversation.
Madikwe Game Reserve is one of South Africa’s great conservation success stories. Established in the early 1990s on exhausted cattle farms, it was envisioned not as a nostalgic return to wilderness, but as a bold experiment in land-use transformation – one designed to uplift neighbouring communities through tourism. In just three decades, it has grown into a Big Five destination of global renown, supporting more than 30 lodges, thousands of jobs, and an economy worth hundreds of millions each year to the North West Province.
But with success has come pressure. Madikwe’s elephant population, reintroduced at the reserve’s inception, has expanded from just 250 founding animals to an estimated 1,500–1,700 today. The impacts on vegetation, tourism, and neighbouring communities have become increasingly difficult to ignore. And now, the reserve stands at a crossroads: should managers reduce the herd through culling or find alternative solutions? The question has ignited fierce debate far beyond the fences of the park.
The question of elephant management at Madikwe is not a moral contest between good and evil. It is a practical, multifaceted challenge that requires a carefully considered response. It demands clear thinking, ecological insight and value judgements, not emotional slogans. We need to understand population dynamics, vegetation trends, tourism carrying capacities, and the needs of local communities. We need proper modelling of future scenarios and potential trade-offs. Most of all, we need collaboration among all relevant stakeholders, provincial authorities, reserve managers, ecologists, community representatives, and tourism operators.
Madikwe’s elephant population has reached 1,500–1,700
The urgency of these questions was underscored in June 2025, when Africa Geographic revealed that trophy hunting may soon return to Madikwe. AG reported that a North West Parks and Tourism Board tender proposed the hunting of 25 Madikwe elephants, two black rhinos and ten buffalo in Madikwe, alongside ten elephants and five buffalo in Pilanesberg. Lodge operators warned of reputational damage, and investors decried a lack of consultation. Officials, meanwhile, defended the move as a legally sound attempt to “bring balance” between ecological realities, economic imperatives and community interests.
The subsequent surge of media commentary on Madikwe’s elephant dilemma has been disheartening. What’s being presented, whether through social platforms or traditional media, tends to reduce the issue to a false binary: “To cull, or not to cull?”
There’s no shortage of emotion, sensationalism, and often misinformation in these arguments. What is sorely lacking is context, specifically, the ecological and management realities of Madikwe itself. Reactive discourse tends to ignore complexity. Instead of engaging with the full range of ecological, social, economic, and reputational factors involved, it forces us to choose sides in a simplified, polarised argument. That’s not just unhelpful, it’s dangerous.
With five decades in conservation and tourism, I’ve learned that complex questions rarely have simple answers. I write not as someone “for” or “against” culling, but as a practitioner who has worked across both hunting and tourism. My career spans drafting South Africa’s first trophy hunting legislation in the 1970s to facilitating joint ventures between communal conservancies and professional outfitters in Namibia today. I’ve helped shape the management of reserves such as Madikwe, Pilanesberg and the !Khamab Kalahari Reserve in South Africa, and Etosha Heights in Namibia – areas that began with hunting as their economic model but later transitioned to tourism when conditions shifted. In each case, the decision was pragmatic, not ideological, based on evidence of what best served conservation and communities. These evidence-based processes were guided by the growing performance of tourism in delivering socioeconomic benefits, park revenues, and broader conservation outcomes. This included the fact that the conflict between hunting and tourism operators had reached an unmanageable state, despite zoning. That same perspective informs my views on culling in Madikwe.
My concern is this: in emotionally charged climates, decision-makers are pressured to act quickly, to be seen to “do something.” They are now stuck between a rock and a hard place, damned if they cull, and damned if they don’t. But rushed decisions made without complete understanding can cause more harm than good. What’s at stake here isn’t just the elephant population. It’s the long-term viability of Madikwe as a conservation and tourism destination. It’s the livelihoods of neighbouring communities. It’s the North West Province’s tourism economy. And it’s South Africa’s reputation for rational, evidence-based conservation on the international stage.
Yes, over Madikwe’s 30 years of existence, mistakes have been made. There has been neglect. But equally, the reserve has achieved remarkable things, economically, socially, and ecologically. There is little to be gained by finger-pointing or dwelling on the past. What matters now is how we meet today’s challenges.
What Madikwe elephant data tells us – not the hype
We’re living in an age where emotion often drowns out evidence. Nowhere is this more obvious than in some of the commentary surrounding the Madikwe elephant issue. Some organisations have warned of the exaggerated narratives causing harm. One that made me shake my head in disbelief described Madikwe at its inception as some kind of Garden of Eden and claimed it has now become “a barren wasteland struck by a nuclear bomb where vegetation has been decimated, biodiversity is collapsing, and animals are perishing due to starvation”.
Another asserted that leopards are on the verge of extinction in the reserve, apparently starving to death because there are no longer any large trees for them to hoist their prey into. The narrative continued that vultures, secretary birds, and many other species appear to be all teetering on the edge.
Vultures gathered in Madikwe
Let me be clear: Madikwe’s large trees are still standing, although their number has been reduced. Guests are still spotting leopards. And the so-called “vanishing species” are, in fact, still very much present: sightings are being reported regularly. For example, rare and endangered species, such as black rhinos, show no signs of decline (and have actually shown an increasing trend), and the populations of other large herbivores and predators have remained stable over the past six years. Yes, the elephant population did experience nutritional and drought stress, but the number that succumbed to this was 4% of the total. Unfortunate, but far from a “catastrophe”. Thus, the media’s hyperbole that carcasses are strewn throughout the reserve is somewhat exaggerated. These mortalities were predominantly in the juvenile or older age classes, as would be expected with successive years of fire and drought-stressed systems. Nevertheless, it should serve as a wake-up call: elephant numbers may now be reaching a level that could lead to repeat events if wise heads don’t intervene with balanced, well-informed solutions that avoid collapsing the tourism economy.
What bothers me most, though, is when these opinion pieces misuse the language of science to lend weight to emotional arguments. One widely repeated claim is that the carrying capacity for elephants in Madikwe is 250. Well, I know exactly where that number came from: it came from me. Certainly not from science in the way the term is being misused now. When elephants were first introduced into Madikwe in the early 1990s, I suggested a starting figure of 300. In the end, only 250 were brought in. That number wasn’t an ecological ceiling; it was a precautionary starting point. My recommendation was always that this founding population should be allowed to grow naturally, with the proviso that changes in vegetation and broader ecological indicators be closely monitored over time. That is the essence of adaptive management. You don’t fix a number in stone; you respond to what the ecosystem is telling you, over years, not weeks. This has been my conservative approach to reintroducing wildlife species, including large predators and herbivores, to the many rewilding projects I have been involved with over the past 50 years.
Unfortunately, that advice was not heeded, and the elephant population has continued to grow, despite concerns being raised along the way. As a result, we now face a set of very difficult decisions around the question: to cull, or not to cull? Or perhaps more importantly, if to cull, then how should this be approached both strategically and technically?
The idea of a fixed “carrying capacity” comes from an outdated view of nature that assumed ecological balance was static. It is, however, not. Today, we understand that ecosystems operate more like a pendulum than a set of scales.
There is no doubt that, based on vegetation monitoring results, fixed-point photos, and Google Earth imagery, the growth of the elephant population (from 250 to an estimated 1,500–1,700 over 30 years) has had a marked impact on the structure and composition of vegetation – especially with the reduction of large tree species. But this doesn’t necessarily mean Madikwe’s ecosystem is ruined or that the original vegetation state from 30 years ago is ideal for our objectives. This is discussed in more depth in the sections below.
The founding objectives of Madikwe
Madikwe’s founding objectives were distinct from those of most Southern African reserves. Based on a comparative land-use study, the creation of a Big Five reserve was identified as the most effective strategy for driving socioeconomic upliftment in a region marked by poverty, drought, and underdevelopment. Unlike reserves focused on ecological restoration, Madikwe was established primarily to benefit the surrounding Barokologadi community (also known as the ba Ga Maotwa and Bahurutshe communities) through tourism.
The goal was never to recreate a “natural” or “pristine” landscape; such concepts are no longer widely accepted by contemporary conservation professionals. This is because most ecosystems are never held in a static state and instead are shaped by ongoing environmental changes and, more recently, human influences. Such terms are subjective and fall outside the realm of scientific management.
Thus, the reserve, essentially reclaimed cattle land, was by no means a Garden of Eden at the time of its founding, and to maintain a “pristine” state was, by default, never one of its objectives.
Thus, against this background, assessing vegetation change over time is a complex task. The desired state of Madikwe’s vegetation cannot be determined solely within the realm of science. The founding objectives, centred on tourism-driven development, must remain a significant consideration, which in turn requires careful value judgments around tourism, socioeconomics, biodiversity, and sustainability. This does not mean that biodiversity considerations are entirely ignored. Instead, the conservation of rare and endangered species, such as the black rhino, cheetah, wild dog, and vultures, receives special conservation attention.
Conservation of endangered species such as the cheetah is a priority in Madikwe
In short, the idea that Madikwe has crossed some hard limit at 250 elephants is biologically unsound.
The desired state of Madikwe vegetation – historical vs future facing
Determining the desired state of the vegetation is the starting point of decision-making in this case. But this process also involves many subjective elements and value judgments, given the land use and landscape changes that have taken place in this area in the past 200 years.
Historical accounts from the 1800s describe Madikwe as an open woodland teeming with wildlife, including elephants, rhinos, and lions, amid sparse human settlement. Explorers like Holub and Cummings noted lush vegetation and grassy glades, though some, like Cornwallis Harris, recorded droughts where soil was bare of grass and “dust bowl” conditions. Frequent fires and elephant activity likely maintained this openness in high-rainfall years.
By the late 1800s, elephants and other large game had been hunted to extinction. The region was subdivided into farms, and by the early 1900s, as Herman Charles Bosman observed, degradation had set in due to overgrazing, bush clearing, drought, and fire exclusion. This worsened in the 1970s and 1980s under Bophuthatswana’s grazing leases.
A study, undertaken over 10 years in the 1970s, 30 years before the founding of Madikwe in 1993, recorded a steady thickening of the woody vegetation. At the time of the reserve’s founding, before Madikwe elephants were reintroduced, I clearly remember the north-east quarter was characterised by dense bush and eroded soils – mainly Sekelbos (Dichrostachys cinerea). This state is what I observed again when I visited Madikwe in December 2024, at the end of the drought. This negates claims in recent articles that this is a symptom of the unrestricted growth of the elephant population.
Madikwe elephants take a dip in the water, mid rainy season
Thus, against this background, deciding on the desired vegetation state for Madikwe is a complex task, but it is fundamental to resolving the dilemma “to cull or not to cull?” This is laden with value judgments and cannot be determined solely within the realm of science. The founding objectives – centred on tourism-driven development – must remain a significant consideration, which in turn requires careful judgments around tourism, socioeconomics, biodiversity, and sustainability. Furthermore, the objectives cannot simply be amended to suit current narratives or agendas.
From the above written accounts of the landscape and land use, this has changed considerably over the past 200 years, with a reduction of open grasslands and an invasion of woody plants. But after the introduction of the elephant, there has been a marked reduction in large trees and at the same time, thickening up of the bush. There is a tendency amongst some conservationists (and those that have joined the debate by proxy) to hold the notion that the first written descriptions of the landscape, or at minimum, the land neighbouring Madikwe, which is free of elephants, are what should be regarded as the “pristine” or “ideal” state for the reserve.
The reserve was by no means in a “pristine” condition when it was founded, and maintaining a “pristine” state was, by default, never one of its objectives. In any case, what is a pristine or benchmark state? Is it the state that early explorers and hunters encountered when exploring the area, as recorded in a vegetation survey undertaken some 30 years before Madikwe was established, or when the reserve was established? Given that it is beyond the realm of science to answer these questions, the only sensible way to address them is to refer back to the stated objectives and strategies of the reserve upon which it was founded and consider the trade-offs that should be made. For example, suppose a less wooded vegetation state enhances tourism and hence socioeconomic benefits: In that case, it may be expedient for value judgment-based decisions involving tradeoffs between socioeconomic objectives and biodiversity considerations
Madikwe elephant population management – logistics and ethics
Only once an agreement is reached on the “desired vegetation state” can advisors and decision makers apply their minds to the future management of the elephant population and a sequence of other questions that will follow. First and foremost, there is the fundamental question of whether or not a reduction of the elephant population is required to achieve a desired vegetation state. If the answer to this is a definitive “yes”, then what method should be used: lethal or non-lethal? How many Madikwe elephants should be removed, over what time frame, and with what consideration for age and sex ratios? Just as crucially, how will this be done in a way that minimises the negative impact on tourism and thus on the socioeconomic effects on neighbouring Bakgalagadi and Bahurutshe communities and the broader economy and reputation of the North West Province?
Based on the many opinions I have encountered over the past two years, the recommended population reduction may be as high as 1,000 elephants, or perhaps even more. It is clearly impossible to achieve this in a single operation or calendar year. Any reduction would need to be phased over several years, with contraception applied in combination with lethal or translocation methods.
Indeed, as far back as the late 1990s, it was recommended that elephant contraception be used as a management tool. This option was revisited on at least two further occasions, yet unfortunately, no follow-up action was taken. The result is that the population has now grown too large for immunocontraception alone to be an effective management tool.
An elephant family gathers at a Madikwe waterhole
With regard to contraception, a statement from the Confederation of Hunting Associations of South Africa (CHASA), titled Parliamentary oversight has a chance to do the right thing still claimed that elephant immunocontraception is highly controversial, posing “considerable risks to both individual elephants and the population as a whole”. Notably, this advocacy statement from CHASA fails to mention the numerous peer-reviewed publications and successful outcomes of contraception programs currently implemented in 50 reserves over the past thirty years.
When recommending a combination of management approaches, I never envisaged that the population would grow to the present estimate of 1,500 or more. Unfortunately, that advice was either not heeded or not fully understood. As a consequence, the elephant population has continued to increase despite concerns being raised over time. Although there are many opinions that the elephant population, together with the entire Madikwe ecosystem, has already gone over the cliff, this has not yet happened. In my opinion, it could be claimed to be teetering on the edge. It is thus critical to make calm and wise decisions to rescue it from the impending abyss – in whose depths we may find the collapse of Madikwe tourism as well as the local socioeconomic situation.
Tourism versus trophy hunting in Madikwe
Currently, 31 tourism lodges operate within Madikwe, along with three community-based lodges located just outside the reserve – but directly linked to its tourism value chain. Together, they offer around 740 beds. This is perhaps one of the highest densities of tourist beds per hectare in South Africa. The combined annual direct economic contribution of these operations to the local economy is conservatively estimated at between R500 million and R700 million. This figure includes payroll, operational costs, VAT, direct taxation, and ongoing lodge refurbishments and expansions.
To give just one example: preliminary socioeconomic data indicate that Madikwe has created approximately 1,000 direct jobs for people from neighbouring communities, with a combined annual take-home payroll of R100 million. That’s real income supporting real families at the household level.
In contrast, while annual income from trophy hunting has not yet been precisely calculated, early estimates based on proposed quotas suggest it would be significantly lower than the revenue and more sustainable job creation generated by tourism – even if hunting were to be allowed inside the reserve. Furthermore, there is a misconception that the price listed for a trophy is the revenue that will go directly to the North West Parks and Tourism Board or the neighbouring communities. What seems to be misunderstood is that a significant portion of this fee goes to the professional hunter to cover their considerable operating cost. Thus, only a portion of the prices listed on brochures is actually received by the North West Parks and Tourism Board. In an ideal world, much of this revenue would be allocated to managing Madikwe instead of paying head office salaries and other costs. The same should apply to concession fees paid by tourist lodge operations.
Above all, any intervention must avoid undermining Madikwe’s tourism appeal: It is tourism, not controversy, that sustains both the reserve and the livelihoods it supports.
Preserving Madikwe’s tourism appeal is paramount
When the recent tender was released to the hunting fraternity, inviting them to apply for hunting rights in the Madikwe and Pilanesberg areas, Madikwe’s quotas were listed as 25 elephants, two black rhinos, and several buffalo. This caused considerable controversy, and as a result, the North West Parks and Tourism Board temporarily withdrew Pilanesberg and Madikwe from the tender invitation. Consultation processes are planned over the coming months before any final decision on trophy hunting in Pilanesberg and Madikwe is made.
What must be clearly understood is that trophy hunting of 25 elephants is not a solution to the “cull or not to cull” dilemma, or indeed, to reduce population levels. On the contrary, allowing trophy hunting in Madikwe carries extremely high risks and is likely to have a far more damaging impact on tourism and the reserve’s socioeconomic benefits. To put it bluntly: to hunt in Madikwe is to gamble away many hundreds of millions in tourism revenue for only a few million in return from trophy hunting. Notwithstanding this financial consideration, if the quota of the 25 trophy-hunted elephants mentioned for Madikwe is confined to adult bulls, alarm bells should be ringing as to how disruptive this may be to the social behaviour of the entire Madikwe elephant population. Experience elsewhere demonstrates that this disruption may pose a danger to tourists visiting the reserve.
Poorly planned hunting could disrupt the social behaviour of the entire Madikwe elephant population
In view of the above, if the notion of trophy hunting in Madikwe comes back on the table it needs to be backed by a thorough plan on a range of logistical consideration and how it can be carried out with most importantly quotas, hunting lodges, zonation between hunting and tourism activities, a Code of Conduct, strict rules and, most importantly, a cost benefit analysis of tourism versus hunting. This cost-benefit analysis is the essential starting point of any tourism versus hunting discussion/debate.
While concerned and effective groups have hailed the recently appointed provincial elephant management task team, there are also others less optimistic about the efficacy, transparency and selective inclusion of this task team. Of most significant concern is the lack of feedback to the public and slow progress of this task team; and many are comparing it to the many never-ending Commissions of Inquiry that South Africa has seen. Given the urgency of resolving the current elephant dilemma, it is disappointing that the team is still at the “talk shop“ level and nowhere near providing recommendations and operational procedures for implementation. At this rate, it would seem that decisions and implementations may not be done before the next drought arrives. There are also concerns that specific expertise is not represented in the task team panel. These include, most notably, animal welfare organisations, economists, veterinarians, and individuals with longstanding and successful experience in elephant contraception endeavours.
Final thoughts on the Madikwe elephant dilemma
If interventions such as contraception or even culling had been implemented when first proposed in the late 1990s, the situation today would likely look very different – especially considering that elephant populations can double every 10 to 15 years. A plan was presented, but it appears that the North West Parks did not act on it. Had action been taken then, the reserve would have saved millions in management costs. Instead, the problem has compounded, and any response now – whether culling, contraception, or relocation – will come at a far greater price.
The logistical challenges are immense. Removing a thousand elephants from a 50,000-hectare reserve is not a straightforward task. Even without tourists, the practicalities, how to move them, how to dispose of carcasses, are daunting. Attempting it in one year is impossible; even two years would likely be insufficient. Phased removal is essential, and without concurrent contraception, births will continue, keeping the gap between birth rate and offtake stubbornly wide.
The economic implications are equally stark. The opportunity cost is enormous: not just the direct cost of a mass cull, but what is lost in tourism revenue, jobs, and reputational damage over decades. Hunting, for example, might generate perhaps R100 million, but little of that reaches the reserve itself. Tourism, by contrast, brings in close to a R1 billion annually, sustaining livelihoods and communities. To gamble that steady income against short-term, limited gains is, in practical terms, reckless.
Even with careful phasing, reducing the population at this scale may be impossible without significant disruption. Lodges may need to close temporarily or even permanently. Tourism could be halted. The consequences ripple far beyond economics: herd dynamics would be thrown into chaos, and the broader ecosystem would be destabilised.
Tourism brings in close to R1 billion to Madikwe annually
That being said, culling may now be the only realistic option, but it will demand extraordinary planning. Only a clever, meticulously conceived plan could reduce Madikwe’s elephants without simultaneously collapsing tourism. Otherwise, the reserve faces the classic dilemma: damned if they do, risking tourism, jobs, and reputation; damned if they don’t, risking uncontrolled elephant growth and ecological degradation.
This is the result of decades of inaction and neglect. It is not an easy choice, and it is not one to be taken lightly. It will be interesting to see the imminent report by the Madikwe elephant task team and what its purpose is.
Considering the range of issues involved – briefly outlined here but examined in more depth in my full report – the matter still requires a stronger team of experts to provide decision-makers with practical solutions.
Roger Collinson has worked at the intersection of conservation and tourism for more than 50 years. He began his career with the Natal Parks Board in the 1970s and 1980s, where he helped draft South Africa’s first trophy hunting legislation and was later named South African Conservationist of the Year by PHASA.
With over three decades of experience in research, protected area planning, management, and development, Collinson has worked across South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Namibia, Madagascar, and Lesotho. He has served as both a hands-on manager and a technical advisor to governments, NGOs, and private sector organisations in wildlife conservation, tourism, and community-based natural resource management (CBNRM). As Director and Executive Chairman of Bop Parks (the National Parks Board of Bophuthatswana – now North West Parks and Tourism Board), he oversaw the development of Pilanesberg National Park and Madikwe Game Reserve – both recognised with national and international awards. His academic background includes a B.Sc. in Zoology and Entomology, a B.Sc. Honours in Entomology, and an M.Sc. from the Institute of Natural Resources, University of Natal. Over his career, Collinson has played a key role in planning and managing various reserves. Today, he works in Namibia, facilitating joint ventures between communal conservancies and professional hunting outfitters, often navigating the transition between hunting and tourism. His experience informs his balanced perspective on complex issues such as culling, trophy hunting, and land-use decisions.
Further reading
Trophy hunting to return to Madikwe & Pilanesberg? AG broke the news that hunting may return to Madikwe & Pilanesberg, targeting elephant & buffalo in both parks, & rhino in Madikwe – per a tender from the North West Parks and Tourism Board
Madikwe Game Reserve is a malaria-free safari haven and conservation success story that benefits people, wildlife and the ecosystem
Are sustainable safaris real? + Victoria Falls + wild Madagascar
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Meanwhile, bushveld temperatures are spiralling upwards as we transition into summer and hope for good early rains. Wahlberg’s eagles are back from their wanderings, fat geckos have reappeared under every wall-light fitting, mozzies irritate at night, and tall knobthorn trees are replacing their scented white blooms with vibrant green crowns. Life is good.
Discover wild Madagascar on this connoisseur safari that takes you deep into Madagascar’s remote corners, where rare wildlife and rich local culture await. Explore the Ifotaka Community Forest with the Antandroy tribe and search for Verreaux’s sifaka and white-footed sportive lemurs. Then head northwest to Namoroka’s surreal tsingy landscapes, home to 10 lemur species, flying foxes, tenrecs, fossa, and the elusive aye-aye.
A luxury safari in Zambia, where comfort meets extraordinary wildlife encounters in Lower Zambezi and South Luangwa National Parks – two of the country’s top safari destinations. Indulge in bespoke service, breathtaking landscapes, and intimate wildlife experiences, all while enjoying seamless luxury and discreet, attentive hospitality. This safari is an unforgettable journey and the ultimate safari escape.
Good news from Zambia: leopards and wild dogs are thriving in Kafue National Park. Where do the baby sea turtles of the western Indian Ocean go after their frantic dash into the surf? For decades, scientists called it the “lost years”: when hatchlings vanish into the sea and reappear on the beaches where they were born years later, with no clues to where they’ve been.
Thanks to a new computer model, we may now have answers. Researchers “released” thousands of virtual hatchlings into digital currents of the Mozambique Channel to predict where they go. The results? The model suggests that green turtles cruise up East Africa, hawksbills island-hop near the equator, while loggerheads and leatherbacks loop around southern Africa. If we know where young turtles travel, we know where they’re most at risk, and where conservation efforts should focus. Protecting nesting beaches is only half the battle. The real challenge is safeguarding their watery highways across the high seas.
This week, we bring you a fresh look at sustainable safaris – and take you to Victoria Falls, where thundering mist meets magic, and unforgettable safari romance. Check these out below!
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Our stories this week
SUSTAINABLE SAFARIS
Victoria Falls is the world’s largest waterfall: a breathtaking African safari destination of myth, magic & romance
VICTORIA FALLS
Victoria Falls is the world’s largest waterfall: a breathtaking African safari destination of myth, magic & romance
African safari: Our safari guests say…
AG safari guests, Steve and Anne from the UK, went on a dream Southern Africa trip to Victoria Falls, Khwai and the Garden Route:
Southern Africa Trip of a Lifetime – ”Ben from AG made this trip to Southern Africa seamless and fantastic. This was my wife’s turn at a ‘trip of a lifetime’ and AG delivered. All the transfers and hotels were fantastic and allowed us the freedom along the Garden Route to get to the places we wanted to go. We needed the expertise of southern African safari experts for this, and Ben delivered.”
Soil is vital for plant growth, supports biodiversity, filters water, and keeps ecosystems balanced. But in Kenya, worsening droughts have left the soil damaged and dry, threatening both nature and local communities. But one surprisingly simple method being implemented by the Maasai community is transforming barren lands into thriving ecosystems. (10:13) Click here to watch
The rivers of Africa are her lifeblood. Streams trickle down the mountains and gradually unite to form some of the most spectacular and biodiverse waterways, carving gorges across the continent. Nothing, not even geography, can hold them back as they tumble off cliffs and through dramatic ravines. As the largest waterfall in the world, Victoria Falls needs little introduction.
Even to the uninitiated, the name conjures images of breathtaking vistas, verdant vegetation, thrill-seeking and water thundering down into gorges, releasing spray that can often be seen kilometres away. The falls are also officially known as Mosi-oa-Tunya or “The Smoke That Thunders” in the Lozi language of the area – a name that perfectly captures the almost mystical atmosphere of this World Heritage Site. Victoria Falls is a place of myth, magic, and romance.
The world-famous Victoria Falls marks the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe, where the mighty Zambezi River gathers its strength and tumbles off a fractured basalt plateau into a series of dramatic gorges 100 metres below. Though not the tallest waterfall (on land, this title is held by Angel Falls in Venezuela), at an impressive width of 1,708 meters, the Victoria Falls creates the single largest continuous falling curtain of water in the world. At the height of the rainy season, five hundred million cubic meters of water hurtle over the edge every minute, sending up clouds of rainbow spray. From there, the river is forced through a narrow and twisting path between walls of steep rock – a churning tumble of Grade V rapids ideal for thrill-seekers looking to test their nerve.
The mighty Zambezi River widens to plunge over the Victoria Falls. Zimbabwe is on the left bank, Zambia is on the right
Zambia lies on the northern and eastern sides of the falls (topographically slightly higher), while Zimbabwe is situated south and west. The neighbouring cities of Victoria Falls on the Zimbabwean side and Livingstone on the Zambian side are thriving tourism hubs easily accessed by road, rail or air. Upstream of the falls, the Zambezi River flows across an almost flat basalt plateau in a shallow valley teeming with wildlife and dotted with sedate luxury lodges away from the bustle of the central tourism regions. The Victoria Falls Bridge connects the two countries – a 1905 marvel of engineering that spans the Second Gorge, designed as part of Cecil Rhodes’ Cape to Cairo Railway vision.
The mighty Zambezi River
Zimbabwe or Zambia?
For those new to Victoria Falls, the first question is usually where to stay – the Zimbabwean or the Zambian side? Fortunately, crossing over to either side is a relatively painless process that requires a simple visa purchase and can be easily accomplished on foot. While both sides offer spectacular views of the falls and most activities, there are subtle differences between the two towns and certain attractions that can only be accessed from one or the other side.
Victoria Falls is the smallest of the two towns and is almost entirely tourism-based, with many backpackers, cafes, lively bars, and colourful local markets. The falls are just two kilometres away. Livingstone is slightly larger and offers a more city-like feel and a better representation of authentic local life. It is situated somewhat further from the falls, but the Zambian side is known for its stunning accommodation options along the riverside.
The Falls as seen from the Zimbabwean side
Around two-thirds of Victoria Falls is situated on the Zimbabwean side, which means more viewpoints are accessible from this side. It is also slightly lower than the Zambian side, and during the dry season (see below), water still flows even if the Zambian side has dried up completely.
However, the lower water levels at the start of the dry season open up the seasonal chance to visit Livingstone Island and Devil’s Pool, which are only accessible from the Zambian side. Livingstone Island is often touted as the point at which David Livingstone first set eyes upon Victoria Falls. However, given that the island sits right on the edge of the largest waterfall in the world, one has to imagine that he had an inkling before then.
Devil’s Pool is accessible during the low-water season
Whatever the case, the island is still a historical landmark and marks the site where Livingstone reeled out a length of calico weighted with a bullet to measure the height of the falls. From there, courageous visitors can swim out to either Angel’s Armchair (June-August) or the more famous Devil’s Pool (late August-December). Here, thousands of years of erosion have excavated a deep pool, with a thick rock wall right at the edge of the falls that allows tourists to take daredevil photographs without being carried over the edge by the current. It is vital to accompany experienced tour guides to these attractions, as rigorous safety measures and an intimate knowledge of the river are essential.
A rainbow over the falls.
Adrenaline capital of the world
Devil’s Pool is just one of the many adventures on offer in Victoria Falls that have marked it as the “adrenaline capital of Africa”. The rapids below the falls are classified as Grade V and present some of the best white water rafting in the world. Adrift on inflatable rafts, armed with just a plastic oar and a lifejacket, visitors throw themselves at the river’s mercy, safe in the knowledge that expert guides are on hand to assist as necessary. Nothing is quite as humbling as experiencing the sheer power of a churning river (especially while underneath it), but the calm stretches also allow for peaceful moments of quiet appreciation of the exquisite gorge views. White water rafting is only possible at certain times of the year – depending on the rainfall. It is guaranteed during your August safari and in September, but the season may extend between June and September.
White-water rafting can be done during August and September
Suppose rafting alone is not sufficient to fill one’s adrenaline quota. In that case, there are several other anxiety-inducing options, including bungee jumping or swinging off the Victoria Falls Bridge, cable gliding/ziplining, abseiling, skydiving and microlight flights. After all that excitement, it is essential to decompress with a more sedate activity like a sunset cruise, a train trip with canapes and cocktails or even the time-honoured tradition of a High Tea in a historical setting.
Microlighting over the Falls in full mist
Seasons and water levels
The Falls are usually at their most dramatic from late February to May, when the most water tumbles into the chasm below and a curtain of spray hovers over the Falls. The flip side of this is that there is a chance that the rainbow-lit spray may partially obscure the Falls. After months of dry weather, the falls begin to reduce in size and reach their lowest levels towards the end of the year when bare rock faces are clearly visible, particularly on the Zambian side. This, too, presents different opportunities for visitors, allowing them unobscured views of the falls and the opportunity to go rafting.
At certain times of the day, the mist from the waterfall catches the light at just the right angle, creating arched rainbows. Viewed from the forest amidst clouds of butterflies and accompanied by the cries of trumpeter hornbills, the effect is like something out of a fairy tale. Possibly even more magical are the lunar rainbows, visible for three nights a month.
A Victoria Falls trip offers the perfect escape for almost every traveller, from the solo adventurer and budget-strapped student to families with children and romantic couples. There is a vast range of hospitality options, from shared accommodation in backpacking establishments to ultra-luxurious lodges on the Zambezi banks. The lively towns are filled with historical and cultural experiences.
Two small national parks protect the falls and their surroundings: the Mosi-oa-Tunya National Park on the Zambian side and its twin, the Victoria Falls National Park, on the opposite side of the river. Neither are ‘Big 5’ reserves, but they are teeming with wildlife. Elephants are everywhere in Victoria Falls (and should be treated with the requisite respect and caution).
Elephants are abundant in and around Victoria FallsSpotting rhinos a hop, skip and jump away from the Falls
Visitors can spend time tracking rhinos on foot in the Mosi-oa-Tunya National Park. Those searching for a more traditional safari experience (and large predators) can visit the nearby Zambezi National Park in Zimbabwe or travel further afield to Hwange National Park, or Botswana’s Chobe National Park. Upstream, canoe safaris navigate between hippos and crocodiles while admiring elephants feeding on the banks and searching for the nearly 470 bird species found in the Victoria Falls region.
Comfortable shoes with sufficient traction are always good, especially for the slippery paths around viewpoints or descending into the gorge. Waterproofing for all equipment is essential, especially when water levels are high.
Dawn over Victoria Falls from a footpath on the Zimbabwean side
Epic experiences at Victoria Falls
With a smorgasbord of natural, cultural, and gastronomic delights on offer and only a few days to enjoy them, deciding how best to spend one’s time can be something of a challenge! Check out our comprehensive list of things to do at Victoria Falls here, or see a few highlights below.
Guided tours of the Falls
A guided walking tour of the Falls is one of the most rewarding ways to experience this natural wonder. Led through the rainforest by an expert, you’ll not only witness the spectacle from the best viewpoints but also gain insight into the history, geology, and ecology of the area. Guides point out birdlife, trees, and seasonal highlights that often go unnoticed, while the dense spray, at times falling like rain, adds to the exhilaration. Raincoats are provided during high-water months when the vapour rises thick and heavy.
The ‘Flight of Angels’
For a perspective that even David Livingstone could only imagine, helicopter flips, aptly called the Flight of Angels, offer panoramic aerial views. Specially designed bubble windows give passengers unobstructed vistas of the Zambezi River snaking toward the edge, the curtain of water tumbling into the Batoka Gorge, and the rainbow mist that rises hundreds of metres into the sky.
The Flight of Angels – a helicopter trip over the Falls to enjoy them in their full glory
Zambezi sunset cruises
Upstream of the falls, the Zambezi takes on a calmer, more reflective character. Sunset cruises drift between islands and sandbanks as the sky turns gold and crimson. Hippos surface with grunts, elephants wade in the shallows, and birds skim low over the water. Sundowners and snacks complete the ritual, making it one of the most relaxing ways to end a day of adrenaline.
Sunset cruise over the Falls
Cultural encounters
Beyond the natural drama, Victoria Falls offers memorable cultural experiences. The Boma Restaurant in Zimbabwe blends food with theatre, where guests dine on venison and traditional dishes while dancers, drummers, and storytellers bring local culture to life. Meanwhile, the craft markets and galleries brim with sculpture, textiles, and carvings: handmade works that carry the stories of the region’s artisans.
Enjoy the electric atmosphere while dining at The Boma
Whether you come for the thundering spray at its peak or the adrenaline of low-water adventures, Victoria Falls offers an ever-changing spectacle. Each season reveals a different face of this natural wonder, reminding travellers that no two visits are ever quite the same.
Resources
Victoria Falls is one of Africa’s most popular tourist destinations – for good reason. Here’s our ultimate Victoria Falls to-do list: Things to do in Victoria Falls
They say that tourism is one of the best ways to pay for nature conservation. But is this always the case? When planning a safari to Africa, it is essential to remember that how we travel can be just as impactful as where we travel. Safari tourism has helped protect mountain gorillas in Rwanda and Uganda, and supported endangered African penguin colonies in South Africa; however, it has also placed a strain on ecosystems when not managed properly. Overcrowding at Wildebeest Migration river crossings, proposals for large-scale lodge expansions in the Maasai Mara and Serengeti, and poorly sited developments along migration routes show how quickly a positive force can tip into harm. As Africa’s safari destinations grow in popularity, travellers are increasingly faced with a choice: will their journeys contribute to conservation and community resilience, or will they inadvertently add pressure to already fragile systems?
There is a complex balance between tourism, conservation, and overtourism. Responsible decisions by travellers, operators, and policymakers can help ensure that nature truly benefits from our presence. To safeguard Africa’s protected areas, we would do well to heed the warnings from overtourism elsewhere, learning from the missteps on other continents to better reflect on – and improve – our own approach
In Bali, Indonesia, tourism can sometimes be a liability rather than a benefit. Sixty-five percent of Bali’s freshwater supplies are funnelled to tourism. A hotel room in Bali consumes up to 800 litres of water daily, whereas the Bali residents use only 200 litres of water per person per day. The impacts of tourism also ripple into culture – residents have complained about tourists’ disrespectful treatment of spiritual ceremonies, particularly the water cleansing Melukat ceremonies. Tourists have co-opted these ceremonies as opportunities for social media content, rather than as moments of inner reflection and peace.
Moving to colder climes: Antarctica, a sensitive environment with fragile ecosystems, received more than 100,000 tourists in the 2024 tourist season. This is a system where the risk of introducing invasive plant species is high, and where vegetation can take years to recover from just a single footprint. Each tourist arrival accounts for an average of 83 tons of snow loss, as the black soot emitted by cruise ships hastens melting by absorbing sunlight. Regulating tourism is tricky because the Antarctic Treaty is the only governance entity and operates on a consultative basis. There is currently no science-based regulatory framework in place to protect the Antarctic from the increasing impacts of human activities.
Clearly, the forces driving tourism can result in negative consequences if not properly managed.
This leads us to the question: how do we manage overtourism?
It’s not as simple as ‘cutting down the number of tourists’ visiting a protected area (or scenic hotspot or natural wonder). Money plays a big role in the equation, and at first glance, more tourism means more money. For years, conservationists have been advocating for ecotourism as a sustainable financial mechanism to fund and maintain nature and protected areas, and it has, indeed, succeeded in many instances. Some examples include gorilla tourism’s contribution to the protection of mountain gorillas and their forest habitat in Rwanda and Uganda, and how ecotourism has supported the conservation of the African penguin in South Africa (Michler 2024).
Globally, tourism generated a record US$1.6 trillion in 2024, and in Africa, the travel and tourism market is projected to reach a market volume of US$35.98bn by 2030. But this could potentially lead to environmental harm. For example, in January 2024, when the Serengeti National Park reported plans to increase the number of lodges in the park by 250% and the number of permanent tented camps by 300%, the UNESCO World Heritage Site authorities threw up their hands in horror. They asked the park about the potential environmental impacts of “the increasing density of… tourism infrastructure… on the wildebeest migration”. “And the Serengeti is not alone in facing such pressures. Elsewhere in East Africa, similarly troubling developments are underway. In the Maasai Mara, plans for a Ritz-Carlton hotel to be built in an established migration pathway appear to be moving forward.
Clearly, lines need to be drawn in the sand. Who decides where to place the lines, and how do they make their choice?
Existing measures to curb tourist numbers
Governments and other authorities have imposed bans on tourists and introduced restrictive measures to protect places of significance. In the Galapagos Islands, Ecuador, tourism is regulated by rules such as walking on marked trails, guided visits to protected areas, and prohibiting private yachts at key natural sites. In Okinawa, Japan, visitor numbers to Iriomote Island are capped at 1,200 per day to protect endangered species.
In Africa, the drive to prevent overtourism is also present.
Mokoro safari in the Okavango Delta. Botswana’s high‑value, low‑volume helps prevent overcrowding in sensitive areas like the Okavango Delta
In Botswana, the National Ecotourism Strategy, launched in 2002, established a high‑value, low‑volume (HVLV) tourism model. This intentionally limits tourist numbers while encouraging higher per‑visitor spending. The goal is to minimise environmental impacts while maximising revenue for conservation and local communities. By focusing on fewer but higher‑paying visitors, Botswana avoids overcrowding in sensitive areas like the Okavango Delta, supports conservation funding, and preserves wilderness quality.
In Namibia’s Dorob National Park, situated along the country’s central coast, tourism activities are strictly regulated through zoning and permitting. Recreational uses like powered flights, commercial operations, structure-building, and wildlife disturbance (feeding, hunting, chasing, etc.) are prohibited unless with a permit from the Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Also in Namibia, Communal Wildlife Conservancies, legally recognised under the Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) framework (since the mid-1990s), allow local communities to manage land and wildlife. Communities partner with tourism operators to offer guided tours, lodges, and safari services, while wildlife revenues fund community development projects. By distributing the economic benefits of tourism directly to communities – and giving them a stake in maintaining healthy wildlife populations – this model disperses tourism pressure more evenly across landscapes and promotes sustainable stewardship. This zoning and permitting scheme helps preserve fragile habitats, such as breeding areas for birds, and curtails reckless tourism that could damage ecosystems or lead to overtourism hotspots.
In Kenya’s Maasai Mara, park fees have increased as a means to curb overcrowding at wildlife sightings. Yet, this has not prevented chaos at some river crossings.
These measures have sometimes been implemented when the crowds have already had negative repercussions, and they require heavy regulation, which bears further costs. Is there a way to do things differently? Tourism is more than just tourists, so evidently, we need to look at the bigger picture.
What is tourism, and why does it sometimes become too much? The travel and tourist industry can be defined as “…essentially the renting out for short-term lets of other people’s environments, whether this is a coastline, a city, a mountain range, or a rainforest.” The crunch comes when the costs exceed the income, such as when costly externalities occur (for example, tourists littering the beach). When this happens, few prosper and many lose. Extending the beach-littering example, there are many cases where hotel owners happily collect accommodation revenue, but do not pay for the beach to be cleaned up, basically externalising the costs to the public purse.
Interestingly, the label of “overtourism” often comes first from the people who are being affected by the consequences, such as local communities. Therefore, to some degree, the categorisation of overtourism has been in the eye of the beholder. Not surprisingly, local communities often raise the red flag because they are recipients of the impacts, whether this is the inconvenience of their town being overrun by tourists or their parks’ vegetation being trampled flat by increasing foot traffic. The takeaway from this is that tourism needs to be done hand in hand with local people. However, the flow of tourists is also subject to broader forces beyond local stakeholders. For example, once destinations gain popularity, they tend to remain in high demand, even when they are already under pressure from overtourism, making it difficult to tip the scale toward lesser-known alternatives.
Is the concept of “tourist carrying capacity” a useful one?
There is comfort in numbers, and many have tried to pin down the ‘tourist carrying capacity’ of a place or park. Yet such calculations are often built on shaky assumptions and imprecise methods. For one thing, different carrying capacity assessments of the same area yield varying numbers, and, as Spencely (2022) notes, land does not have an inherent carrying capacity.
Carrying capacity does not take into consideration that what a park manager values from the land may differ significantly from what a resident values. Therein lies the crunch. How many tourists are too many, and when do you know that tourism impacts have crossed a threshold? When does Plant Species A’s population decline by 31,45%? When does the mayor of the town tell the residents to stay indoors to make room for the tourists? When do tourists use more water than residents do? How do you create one number that meets all of these criteria?
Tourism impact is not always directly related to numbers; it is often more linked to the behaviour and actions of tourists (Spencely 2022). Perhaps the question needs to be flipped: Will the destination use tourism or be used by it?
A systemic approach to overtourism
Instead of asking how many “too many” is, we could ask, “What are the desired conditions?” (Spenceley 2022). Overtourism management (aka crowd control) needs to encompass context, communities, visitor experience and the entire travel chain. It’s possible to turn tourism management on its head to become more proactive – by intentionally providing a suite of tourism opportunities and diversity of settings to maximise experiences, whilst minimising impact. This doesn’t sound very easy, but there are tools in the tourism toolbox that can guide this type of proactive, holistic approach. Take, for example, how the Interagency Visitors Management Council (IVMC) manages visitor use in the California State Parks in America through the use of a ‘Visitor Use Management Framework’ (VUMF). This Framework provides a planning process for the IVMC to find a way to maximise benefits for visitors while proactively preserving the environmental, social and managerial conditions that they prefer. They used the framework to develop clearly defined and transparent outcomes to be achieved and how these will be monitored. And by its very nature, a VUMF integrates the values and preferences of all the constituents (managers, travel agents, tourists, communities). These values are considered just as important to sustainability as the remediation of the biophysical impacts. In other words, there is shared commitment and accountability.
The IVMS Council needed a defensible, transparent decision-making process, and the four building blocks of the VUMF provide this. In a nutshell, the framework integrates (a) identifying desired conditions for resource, visitor experiences, and facilities, (b) understanding how visitor use influences the achievement of those goals, (c) developing and implementing strategies to manage visitor use, and (d) monitoring, evaluating, and adjusting management actions. Frameworks could be considered an ‘antidote’ to relying on the reactive strategy of using ‘tourist carrying capacity.’ Instead, the sweet spot of sustainability lies in the inclusion of all roleplayers’ needs, values and the shared responsibility of setting intentional goals and desired outcomes. The VUMF has been used by many other US parks and in many protected areas and tourist destinations around the world, including in Costa Rica, Belize, Chile, and Mexico. Other frameworks include the Visitor Impact Management (VIM), Visitor Activity Management Process (VAMP), the Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) and the Visitor Experience and Resource Protection (VERP) (see Spencely 2022 for a review).
So, what is the tourist’s role in responsible safaris?
If you visit Africa’s beautiful nature reserves and protected areas, then you too can contribute to sustainable or responsible tourism:
You could opt to travel in green season, rather than peak season – reducing pressure on the ecosystem you are visiting.
You could take responsibility for your behaviour and decisions while travelling. For example, tourists to New Zealand are encouraged to commit to the Tiaki Agreement, which promotes caring for New Zealand’s nature and communities, inspiring visitors to form a deeper connection with the place, and to reflect this in their attitudes and behaviours.
You could support initiatives that prioritise local needs.
You could offset your travel carbon footprint.
Overtourism is not just a distant problem – it is a challenge we face here in Africa’s most treasured landscapes. From the Serengeti to Kruger National Park, the choices of travellers, operators, and policymakers determine whether tourism becomes a force for protection or a source of pressure. By travelling responsibly, supporting sustainable destinations, and respecting local communities and ecosystems, each of us can help ensure that Africa’s wildlife, landscapes, and cultures continue to thrive. The future of these iconic places depends on thoughtful decisions today – because true adventure is only meaningful when it leaves the world better than we found it.
When planning your African safari, who you travel with matters. Choosing a responsible tour operator ensures your journey supports conservation, uplifts local communities, and avoids the pitfalls of overtourism. By selecting destinations that prioritise sustainability over volume, you can experience Africa’s wild beauty in a way that protects it for generations to come. Check out our safari ideas here, or let our travel experts plan the perfect African safari for you by clicking here.
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From our CEO – Simon Espley
DO YOU KNOW how difficult it is to do good?
You will know by now that we donate a portion of the proceeds of every safari we craft for our guests to projects that make a difference at ground level for people and wildlife.
One such chosen project has been sponsoring lion research collars in the greater Hwange region. These free-roaming lions face huge pressure – from poaching, loss of prey base and habitat, to human-wildlife conflict and trophy hunting. These collars enable researchers to better understand lion movements and help keep roaming lions away from villages in this vast, unfenced landscape, thereby reducing loss of human lives and livelihoods. Local people are gainfully employed doing the research and responding by chasing the lions away from villages when the GPS collars trigger an alarm. It’s a win-win.
The collars are, unfortunately, ineffective at protecting the lions against trophy hunters with low or no ethical standards. Witness the hullabaloo surrounding the legal but deeply unethical killing of Blondie and a string of other Hwange pride males over the years.
Our support for local conservation projects comes at a cost to them. We insist on mutual respect, transparency, and exemplary ethical standards. This is not negotiable or up for debate.
And so I regretfully announce that, for now, we have shifted our geographical focus for sponsored lion research collars away from Hwange. We will continue to support lion research elsewhere via our donations, and we are now actively engaging with other research teams. I will keep you posted.
YOUR safari choice does make a difference – thank you!
Explore the majesty of the mighty Zambezi River and Victoria Falls, and then head into the heart of the raw wilderness of South Luangwa National Park, Zambia – the birthplace of walking safaris and one of Africa’s leopard hotspots. Your last stop is Nankoma Island on Lake Malawi, where you’ll enjoy sun-soaked adventure and ultimate relaxation.
A luxury safari in Zambia, where comfort meets extraordinary wildlife encounters in Lower Zambezi and South Luangwa National Parks – two of the country’s top safari destinations. Indulge in bespoke service, breathtaking landscapes, and intimate wildlife experiences, all while enjoying seamless luxury and discreet, attentive hospitality. This safari is an unforgettable journey and the ultimate safari escape.
Good news from Zambia: leopards and wild dogs are thriving in Kafue National Park. This, according to Musekese Conservation, a nonprofit monitoring wildlife in the Musekese-Lumbeya section of the park. Camera-trap surveys in the area identified 95 individual leopards. At densities of up to nine leopards per 100km², some sections of the park rank among the most leopard-rich landscapes in Southern Africa. And if that’s not good news enough, wild dogs have also rebounded in Kafue – from a single pair to three active packs, with a brand-new pack spotted this year. Lions remain scarcer, but their numbers are slowly climbing too.
These results highlight what determined protection and conservation partnerships can achieve: a landscape where wildlife has a real chance to flourish again.
This week, we bring you a double dose of wild: a deep dive into Mozambique’s Maputo National Park, and fresh insights into the secret dining habits of African wild dogs.
Did you know? Your African safari choice makes a difference
We donate a portion of the revenue from every safari sold to carefully selected conservation projects that make a significant difference at ground level. YOUR African safari choice does make a difference – thank you!
Our stories this week
MAPUTO NATIONAL PARK
Discover Mozambique’s Maputo National Park – a wild mosaic of elephants, dunes, forests, reefs, and turtle-nesting beaches
WILD DOG DIETS
New DNA analysis reveals surprising prey in African wild dog diets, reshaping our understanding of hunting behaviour
Collaring Kruger’s lions
Ten lions in Kruger National Park are currently part of an exciting project aiming to provide insight into how lion pride behaviour differs in fenced and open systems. Nelson Mandela University researchers (NMU), vets and teams from the Southern African Conservation Trust (SACT) fit satellite-tracking collars on the lions.
This vital project aims to compare various behaviours between open and fenced systems by:
Testing the effect of pride strength on territory size;
Measuring territory infringement;
Testing the pride’s aggressive response during territory infringements;
Comparing stress levels of prides; and
Comparing the ratio of prey resource availability to home range size.
You can help in this important study by sponsoring a collar in full or by donating any amount – large or small – to support this critical conservation project. Learn more here.
WATCH – AFRICAN SAFARI INSPIRATION:
A poignant short documentary exploring how SANParks uses different types of K9s as part of their approach to combating poaching in Kruger National Park. (21:28) Click here to watch
Mozambique, a country celebrated for its vivid coastlines and vibrant cultural tapestry, is home to one of the most important ecological treasures in Southern Africa: Maputo National Park. Stretching across the country’s southern tip, near the borders of South Africa and Eswatini, the park forms the heart of the Maputaland Centre of Endemism – a globally recognised hotspot of biodiversity and ecological importance, and one of the 36 most biologically diverse and endangered regions in the world
Born from the merger of two distinct reserves – the Maputo Special Reserve (Reserva Especial de Maputo) and the Ponta do Ouro Partial Marine Reserve – the park now protects over 1,700 km² of terrestrial and marine wilderness. It is also central to the Usuthu-Tembe-Futi Transfrontier Conservation Area, which reconnects fragmented habitats across international borders. The Futi Corridor links Maputo to South Africa’s Tembe Elephant Park, while the Ponta do Ouro coastline meets the iSimangaliso Wetland Park World Heritage Site in neighbouring South Africa.
Mozambican gem
Only a two- to three-hour drive from the capital, Maputo, this park offers both accessibility and adventure —a rare combination for those eager to immerse themselves in wild landscapes.
Buffaloes dot lush wetlands
Historically, the area was recognised as a game reserve as early as 1932, to protect the small herds of elephants that roamed the coastal plains. Over the decades, the reserve’s boundaries have expanded, and its status has been elevated, reflecting the growing awareness of its ecological significance worldwide. Today, Maputo National Park stands as a testament to Mozambique’s commitment to conservation, offering a sanctuary for an impressive array of flora and fauna, while also providing a haven for nature enthusiasts, conservationists, and ecotourists.
Maputo National Park’s landscapes of contrast
The landscape of Maputo NP is a vivid tableau of contrasts, where coastal dune forests give way to verdant grasslands, and dense thickets and towering fig trees fringe freshwater lagoons. The park’s topography is primarily flat, though interspersed with rolling hills, particularly in the inland regions, which offer panoramic views of the surrounding wilderness.
One of the most striking features of the park is its mosaic of ecosystems. The coastal zone, with its sandy beaches and mangrove swamps, transitions seamlessly into lush coastal forests, which are home to a myriad of plant species, including endemic and rare varieties. Inland, the park is characterised by grasslands, interspersed with patches of woodland, which thrive in the sandy, well-drained soils. These grasslands are punctuated by freshwater lakes and rivers, which support an abundance of aquatic life and provide essential resources for the park’s terrestrial inhabitants.
Maputo NP features a diverse array of wetlands, including swamps, freshwater lakes, coastal lagoons, and mangrove forests
The park’s connection to the Indian Ocean creates a dynamic interface where terrestrial and marine systems interlace. Offshore, the marine protected zone includes coral reefs, seagrass beds, and nesting beaches that sustain turtles, dolphins, and seasonal humpback whales.
The park’s tropical climate defines its rhythms. From November to March, rains fill rivers and lagoons, bringing lush vegetation and abundant birdlife. The dry season, April to October, offers easier wildlife viewing, as animals gather at dwindling waterholes.
Maputo NP’s experiences for travellers
Maputo National Park offers diverse attractions that cater to the discerning traveller who seeks both adventure and serenity. The park’s appeal lies not only in its natural beauty but also in the variety of experiences it offers.
Elephant Coast
The park’s emblematic elephants – once reduced to a fragile remnant during Mozambique’s civil war – have made a stirring recovery. Herds roam the coastal plains, often framed by the glittering ocean. Few wildlife experiences rival the sight of elephants against a backdrop of dunes and surf.
Elephants are a priority in Maputo NP’s conservation strategy
Lagoa Piti
Those who seek tranquillity and a deeper connection with nature, a visit to Lagoa Piti is a must. This forest-fringed freshwater lake is a sanctuary for birders and quiet seekers. With its mirror-like waters and diverse avian life, Lagoa Piti offers tranquillity and rare sightings in equal measure.
Ponta do Ouro
Renowned for beaches, diving, and dolphins, Ponta do Ouro is the crown jewel of Maputo NP. Diving enthusiasts are particularly drawn to this area, where the underwater world is teeming with life. The coral reefs are alive with kaleidoscopic fish, turtles, and rays. During the summer months, the waters off Ponta do Ouro become a migratory path for humpback whales, offering a rare opportunity for whale watching. Endangered loggerhead and leatherback turtles return to nest on the sandy beaches each summer.
Leatherback turtle hatchlings make their way to the water
Scenic drives and trails
Travellers can explore on self-drives or guided walks. A highlight is the coastal road from Ponta do Ouro to the mouth of the Maputo River, where the ocean, dunes, and woodland unfold in ever-changing panoramas. For the adventurous, hiking trails thread through woodland and grassland, offering close encounters with the park’s varied ecosystems.
The wildlife of Maputo National Park is as diverse as its landscapes. The park is home to a wide range of species, many of which are of significant conservation concern. The elephant population is perhaps the most iconic of the park’s inhabitants. These elephants, which are a key focus of the park’s conservation efforts, can often be seen in large herds, particularly during the dry season when they gather around the park’s water sources.
Maputo NP’s last census recorded over 12,000 animals now roaming the park, including recently introduced zebra to supplement the population
In addition to elephants, large mammals such as buffalo, hippo, and antelope, including nyala, suni, and red duiker, also roam. Some species remain elusive, rewarding the patient visitor with fleeting glimpses.
In recent years, Maputo NP has been the stage for one of southern Africa’s most ambitious rewilding projects. Since 2018, the Mozambique National Administration for Conservation Areas (ANAC) and Peace Parks Foundation have worked in partnership to restore the park’s ecological heartbeat after decades of conflict and poaching. By 2022, more than 5,100 animals had been translocated, including 11 species once locally extinct. Plains game such as kudu, giraffe, zebra, wildebeest, eland and buffalo were carefully sourced and released, creating the prey base and ecological diversity needed for a thriving system. The success of these efforts was reflected in the 2021 aerial census, which recorded over 12,000 animals now roaming the park, an extraordinary resurgence in a short space of time.
Building on this foundation, conservationists have begun to reintroduce predators to restore ecological balance. In 2022, five spotted hyenas were translocated from Mozambique’s Sabie Game Park to Maputo National Park, reviving a species once eradicated here. As nature’s consummate scavengers, hyenas play a critical role in recycling nutrients and keeping ecosystems clean. Their arrival signals a new chapter in the park’s revival: not only strengthening predator-prey dynamics but also laying the groundwork for the return of other carnivores, including cheetahs.
Spotted hyenas have been reintroduced to Maputo NP
Birdlife is particularly rewarding, with over 350 recorded species. Enthusiasts can search for regional specials such as Neergard’s sunbird, pink-throated twinspot, rosy-throated longclaw, Rudd’s and Woodward’s batis, African broadbill, and black coucal.
The marine section amplifies this richness: reefs teem with life, dolphins patrol the shallows, and turtle nesting grounds underscore the park’s global conservation importance.
A pod of dolphins along the coast of Maputo NP
Explore & stay in Maputo NP
Maputo NP lies about 100km south of Maputo. The journey takes 2–3 hours by road. A 4×4 vehicle is recommended, especially in sandy or wet-season conditions. International travellers can connect via Maputo International Airport.
When it comes to accommodation, there is much on offer. From luxury eco-lodges and tented camps blend into the landscape, to rustic campsites under the stars, the park caters for a range of tastes and budgets.
Knowledgeable local guides enrich the experience with ecological insights and help visitors uncover wildlife that might otherwise go unnoticed.
From November to March, rains fill the rivers and lagoons of Maputo NP
The best time to visit Maputo National Park is during the dry season, from April to October. During this time, the weather is generally cooler and drier, making it easier to spot wildlife, which tends to congregate around known water sources. The dry season also offers better road conditions, making it easier to navigate the park. However, for those interested in marine life, particularly turtle nesting or whale watching, the wet season offers unique opportunities, albeit with the challenge of heavier rains and more difficult driving conditions.
A wilderness reborn
Maputo National Park offers a rare combination of natural beauty, biodiversity, and a sense of wilderness that is increasingly hard to find. The park embodies Mozambique’s commitment to restoring wild places and reconnecting ecosystems fractured by conflict and human pressure. It is a park where elephants walk through dunes, forests echo with the calls of rare birds, and turtles return to ancient nesting grounds.
For travellers seeking authentic wilderness, rich biodiversity, and the thrill of exploration, Maputo National Park is a destination that lingers long after you leave.
Maputo NP is a wilderness reborn
Further reading
Ultimate bush and beach combo safari: Bush or beach? There’s no need to choose! We bring you the best combo safaris featuring epic beach & bush destinations for the ultimate African holiday
Limpopo National Park: Explore wild beauty, 4×4 trails, rare wildlife & local culture in Mozambique’s Limpopo National Park – part of a visionary peace park
Saving Mozambique’s last dugongs: How do we save the last dugong population on Africa’s east coast? African Parks and the government of Mozambique are building local understanding of the elusive dugongs of the Bazaruto Archipelago seascape
The Mozambique turquoise coast – from above: A gallery of seductive images of the Mozambique coastline – pack your bags and include your costume, beach towel and suntan lotion
The African wild dog (painted wolf) has a reputation as a relentless pack hunter, primarily targeting medium-sized antelope like impalas. But recent scientific sleuthing into their scat has painted a more nuanced picture of their dining preferences. DNA analysis has uncovered their surprising dietary habits, challenging long-held beliefs and offering fresh insights for conservation.
Africa’s iconic painted wolves, or African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus), are a species teetering on the brink, listed as endangered since 2012. With only an estimated 600 wild dogs left in South Africa, understanding their ecology and behaviour is essential for their survival. One crucial piece of this puzzle is their diet – what exactly do these highly social carnivores eat? A groundbreaking study by researchers from the University of Pretoria employed DNA metabarcoding, a technique that identifies multiple species within a single environmental sample, to analyse faecal matter from wild dogs across seven distinct landscapes. This method revealed a broader menu than previously documented, including a few unexpected prey species.
The study, conducted by Bridget C. O’Connor and the UP team, specifically focused on the largest wild dog population in South Africa, found within the Kruger National Park. The researchers utilised faecal samples collected across seven different landscape types in KNP.
Traditionally, diet analysis relied on methods like visually examining faecal matter, stomach contents, or direct observation of hunts. While these provided some insights, they often come with logistical limitations and reliability issues, leaving significant gaps in knowledge. But the new methods of DNA metabarcoding and stable isotope analysis (SIA) offer more reliable and accurate dietary predictions. SIA indicates an animal’s trophic level and general prey type, but typically cannot identify specific prey species. DNA metabarcoding, however, can pinpoint species-level diet details by matching DNA barcodes in samples to reference databases.
The usual prey suspects and surprising additions
Previous observations suggested that African wild dogs primarily prey on medium-sized ungulates, with impala (Aepyceros melampus) being their key prey species due to its abundance in most South African reserves, including Kruger National Park. Both the stable isotope analysis and the metabarcoding results from this study supported this existing understanding, identifying impala as the major prey species across almost all landscape types studied.
However, the DNA metabarcoding unveiled some unexpected additions to the wild dog menu, including Cape hares, francolins, and vlei rats. The presence of smaller prey species suggests that highly social, cooperative wild dogs may not always rely on coordinated pack hunts. Instead, individual members might occasionally embark on solo foraging missions, supplementing their diet with opportunistic catches.
Impala were identified as the major prey item for wild dogs in Kruger, as expected, but a few surprising prey items were also found
This contradicts the traditional view of wild dogs as “rate-maximising optimal foragers” that specialise in abundant medium to large ungulates and forgo opportunistic hunts, indicating a level of adaptability and resourcefulness that challenges the traditional view of their strictly cooperative hunting strategies.
Perhaps the most intriguing detections were those of spotted hyena and elephant DNA. However, this is not necessarily indicative of predation, but rather points to the complex ecological interactions and shared habitats that these canines navigate. Instances of wild dogs consuming elephant dung, perhaps to extract nutrients or target dung beetles, further exemplify their opportunistic feeding habits.
Insights for wild dog conservation
Understanding the full spectrum of the African wild dog’s diet is vital for effective conservation. Recognising their dietary flexibility informs habitat management and prey availability assessments, ensuring efforts align with ecological needs. As populations face threats from habitat fragmentation and human-wildlife conflict, insight is key for crafting protection plans. In this light, DNA metabarcoding is a game-changer, enriching knowledge of wild dog ecology and highlighting the potential of advanced genetic tools in research. Faecal samples provide a “short-term snapshot” of diet (up to four days), often more accurate for resolving landscape-specific differences than the “long-term information” from hair samples.
By unveiling hidden aspects of feeding behaviour, scientists can better predict how these predators adapt to environmental change. Precise knowledge of wild dog diet also improves nutritional protocols for captive populations and informs translocation decisions. In South Africa, many wild dogs belong to managed or free-roaming groups overseen by organisations such as the Endangered Wildlife Trust, which may hold them temporarily to aid translocations. This insight enhances conflict mitigation and provides clearer indicators of ecosystem health. The study also identified priorities for future research, including more comprehensive prey DNA databases, blocking host DNA amplification, and ensuring fresh samples for stronger results.
The study challenges the notion that wild dogs are strictly cooperative hunters
This research marks a significant step forward in our understanding of the African wild dog’s ecological role. By peering into wild-dog dietary habits through the lens of DNA analysis, researchers have uncovered a previously unappreciated level of dietary breadth and behavioural adaptability – moving beyond general assumptions to uncover the hidden truths of their daily meals. These detailed findings are crucial for ensuring the long-term survival of these magnificent predators in the wild.
Hope for African wild dogs?: Could we double African wild dog (painted wolf) numbers by 2050? With funding, collaboration and recovered territory, it’s possible.
The 6 top places to see painted wolves: Looking for the best place to see African painted wolves? We bring you six of our favourite spots to scout for wild dogs
Soul of the safari + best of bush & beach + 4 giraffes
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From our CEO – Simon Espley
Shhhhh, it’s a secret!
The soul of a safari is not about ticking off the Big 5 or witnessing Mara River crossings during the Great Wildebeest Migration, although those are indeed extremely special encounters to be cherished. It’s the moments in between (or in place of) these encounters that define a memorable journey.
Our treasured repeat safari guests often share with us the moments they remember for years as they go about their everyday lives on the treadmill of working life.
Our guests love watching predators converge on alates (flying termites) emerging after the first rains – from eagles to leopards, toads to chameleons – all gorging on those parcels of nutrition. Next time, try tasting the termites to see what the fuss is all about – delicious!
They relish the quickening of senses, that narrowing of focus, when walking near dense thickets and hearing oxpeckers chirring their alarm calls from above.
And they know the joyous freedom and fulfilment that comes from skipping an early morning game drive to stroll around the lodge gardens looking for birds before settling on the deck with a mug of coffee and freshly baked biscuits.
Our connoisseur guests enjoy the luxury of not seeing another human during a game drive, as often happens in remote areas off the beaten tourism tracks and outside of the busy peak safari season.
If you yearn to experience the true soul of a safari, start the discussion with one of our safari experts.
This essay was powered by a heady blend of pressed coffee and a bushveld dawn chorus. Bliss. Peace out
Sometimes, the smallest creatures carry the biggest weight. Case in point: the speckled dwarf tortoise(Chersobius signatus) – the world’s tiniest tortoise, and South Africa’s latest conservation celebrity.
Thanks to the Endangered Wildlife Trust, the Lokenburg Conservation Servitude has been registered on a farm in the Northern Cape, securing long-term protection for this pocket-sized reptile and its fragile habitat. Within Lokenburg, in the Bokkeveld landscape, special tortoise management zones will help keep pied crows in check, giving the tortoises a fighting chance.
What’s more, the Nel family, who’ve farmed Lokenburg for six generations, are showing how rooibos and livestock farming and biodiversity can thrive side by side.
Their commitment proves that conservation and community livelihoods don’t just coexist – they can actually strengthen each other. And thanks to this cooperation, South Africa’s smallest tortoise just scored one of its biggest wins.
This week, we bring the news that the IUCN has now officially recognised that there are four separate giraffe species, and not just one species with several subspecies. Plus, we bring you our list of the ultimate bush and beach combo safaris.
Did you know? Your African safari choice makes a difference
We donate a portion of the revenue from every safari sold to carefully selected conservation projects that make a significant difference at ground level. YOUR African safari choice does make a difference – thank you!
Our stories this week
ULTIMATE BUSH AND BEACH
Bush or beach? There’s no need to choose! Here are the top combo safaris featuring epic beach & bush destinations
FOUR GIRAFFES
The IUCN has confirmed that there are four giraffe species and not one – reshaping conservation across Africa
The IUCN has confirmed that there are four giraffe species and not one – reshaping conservation across Africa This luxury safari offers an unforgettable introduction to the stunning beauty of Kenya’s diverse landscapes and endangered species. Encounter rare Nubian/Rothschild’s giraffes up close, see the Big Five, find majestic rhinos – Africa’s unicorns – and unwind in luxurious accommodations amidst breathtaking landscapes. You’ll also engage in a range of activities, ranging from hiking to horseback riding, bush picnics and bush walks.
The perfect bush and beach trifecta. A classic Tanzanian bush and beach safari that immerses you in iconic locations with time-honoured luxury camps. This is an unforgettable 10-day sojourn that blends the untamed beauty of Tanzania’s northern safari circuit with the tranquil allure of its pristine beaches. You’ll journey through Tarangire National Park to the awe-inspiring panoramas of the Ngorongoro Crater, the sweeping plains of Serengeti National Park, and the sun-kissed shores of Zanzibar.
AG safari guest Aurore from the UK went on a brilliant family safari to Botswana:
“Sally-Anne helped us plan a trip in the Okavango Delta and did an excellent job at it. She listened carefully to our expectations and was able to offer an outstanding itinerary with a variety of landscapes and experiences, which was within our budget. Her knowledge of the area added huge value to the planning process. The execution was flawless with very enjoyable camps and straightforward transfers between camps, and we had a brilliant holiday. Would not hesitate to highly recommend.”
Spy cameras, disguised as dung and an egret, follow a baby elephant who strays from his herd and learns why it’s dangerous to be alone in the wild. (05:06) Click here to watch
The traditional combination of a bush and beach holiday is one of the most popular approaches to any trip to Africa – for good reason. Spending time on safari is undoubtedly the perfect balm for the soul. Yet the early mornings and exciting activities of a frenetic safari are best complemented by a few days of relaxing on one of Africa’s magnificent beaches.
But how to choose the best locations? Have a look at our list of the best bush and beach combos.
Greater Kruger, South Africa & the beaches of Mozambique
The Greater Kruger, South Africa’s premier safari destination, offers some of the best safari experiences on the continent, especially when it comes to seeing the Big 5. With a couple of spectacular sightings under one’s belt, the renowned beaches and azure waters of Mozambique are just a short flight away, offering the perfect Mozambique beach holiday
Here, visitors can recline on white sands (cocktail in hand) or take to the waters to enjoy the cornucopia of oceanic creatures in the Mozambique Channel. The beaches of Ponta Mamoli remain one of Mozambique’s best-kept secrets, despite their proximity to the South African border, while further afield, the islands of the Bazaruto Archipelago National Park protect some of the country’s rare marine mammals.
The extensive white beaches of the Bazaruto ArchipelagoGreater Kruger offers some of the best safari experiences on the continent
KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
KwaZulu-Natal province is one of South Africa’s most diverse regions, home to myriad habitats and animal life.
KZN offers many wild opportunities for experiencing the bushveld and wild animals, from verdant forests and wetlands to rolling savannas and grasslands. A number of wildlife reserves – including Big 5 parks such as Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park and Manyoni Private Game Reserve – offer a plethora of wildlife experiences. As an added bonus, its long stretch of coastline is lined by characterful and picturesque beaches with stunning year-round weather. The beaches of iSimangaliso Wetland Park are as wild and private as they come, neighbouring Mkuze Game Reserve offers ample wildlife viewing, and just further south, the Dolphin Coast lines the vibrant beach town of Ballito (with magnificent Salt Rock well worth a visit).
Spotting the Big 5 in ManyoniWhale watching off the coast of Isimangaliso Wetland Park
South Luangwa, Zambia & Lake Malawi, Malawi
Not so keen on the salty residues of the ocean? How better to wash away the dust and ease tired feet at the end of an invigorating walking safari in South Luangwa than in the crystalline waters of a freshwater lake surrounded by palm-tree fringed beaches?
An idyllic beach on the shores of Lake Malawi
Walking safaris in Zambia’s South Luangwa National Park offer the opportunity to experience enormous herds of elephants and buffaloes, as well as dazzling leopard sightings. After exploring the park, head to the extensive shoreline of Lake Malawi, with its tiny beach villages, resorts and lodges. The lake offers the adventurous tourist a plethora of opportunities to explore the waters – above or below the azure ripples.
South Luangwa is a vast wilderness and playground for tourists seeking an authentic safari experienceThe lengthy white beaches of Lake Malawi are lined with tiny beach villages, resorts and lodges
Not for nothing is this one of Tanzania’s most popular attractions, and electrifying wildlife experiences are all but guaranteed. So, why not dive into the embrace of the Indian Ocean, soak up the resplendent marine scenery and take a few days to reflect on a life-changing vacation in the privacy of intimate Mafia Island? And why not tick an experience with endangered sea turtles off your list while you’re at it?
A trip to the Serengeti – an essential destination for any avid safari-goer – is well complemented by a beach break to Mafia IslandSnorkelling to see whale sharks off the coast of Mafia Island (Check out @daniellamborn for more images)
The Tanzania tour: quieter safari circuits and an island paradise
Serengeti and Ngorongoro are spectacular for wildlife viewing, but they are not Tanzania’s only safari fare. Some of the less well-known national parks are equally exhilarating, and they are quieter and kinder on the pocket.
Spotting chimps in Mahale National ParkCheetahs in Ruaha National Park. Tanzania offers a robust safari circuit
Think Gombe and Mahale National Parks for chimpanzees, dry-season Katavi National Park, the predator extravaganza of Ruaha National Park or the wildlife smorgasbord in Nyerere National Park (incorporating Selous Game Reserve). From there, a short trip off the mainland will deposit fortunate travellers on the vibrant island of Zanzibar – an eclectic melting pot of cultures offering a beach holiday unlike any other. Try this epic Ruaha / Mafia Island bush and beach combo
The crystalline waters of Zanzibar beautifully round off a Tanzania safari
Take your pick, Kenya
Ah, Kenya, a country blessed with beauty and wildlife in abundance. Safari options abound in this land of plenty. Take in the iconic scenes framed by Mount Kilimanjaro in Amboseli National Park, search for black leopards in Laikipia County, or revere the giant red tuskers of arid Tsavo East and West National Parks. As if these wildlife delights were not enough, the Kenyan coastline is equally bestowed with impressive holiday destinations, from lively Watamu and Malindi to the more peaceful and reserved Diani and Lamu.
The otherworldly coastlines of MalindiKenya has much to offer the visitor seeking a diverse array of experiences, including: the majestic elephants of AmboseliSundowners on Kenya’s northern beaches
Maasai Mara, Kenya & Seychelles
No visit to Kenya is complete without a stop to appreciate the rolling vistas of the celebrated Maasai Mara at least once. Pack in over a million wildebeest and zebras trundling their way through during the Great Migration, and the scene is set for unforgettable Kenyan experience. And afterwards, why not travel a little further afield to the glorious islands of the breathtaking tropical paradise of Seychelles?
Combine the romance of the Seychelles (and peaceful Mahé Island as pictured) with the wide plains and epic wildlife sightings of the Maasai MaraEpic wildlife sightings of the Maasai MaraSunrise in the Maasai Mara
Greater Kruger and Cape Town, South Africa
Greater Kruger is such an epic and easily accessibly option that we had to name it twice. There are few holiday combinations more iconic than Cape Town and the Greater Kruger. Start at the southern tip of Africa, where the Mother City offers a rich mix of culture, history, fine dining, and dramatic natural beauty. From strolling along the vibrant V&A Waterfront to summiting Table Mountain or exploring the Cape Winelands, Cape Town is an adventure in itself.
Once the city lights fade behind you, fly north to immerse yourself in the untamed wilderness of South Africa’s Greater Kruger. Complementing a ocean meets winelands holiday with sightings of leopards, lions, and elephants makes for a world-class experience. The combination of cosmopolitan Cape Town and the raw bushveld drama of the Kruger makes this one of Africa’s most timeless safari-and-beach pairings.
The oceans of Cape Town are a must-visitExperiencing elephants on foot in Greater Kruger
Addo and Garden Route, South Africa
For a family-friendly bush-and-beach pairing, the Eastern Cape and its iconic reserves such as Addo Elephant National Park, coupled with the Garden Route, deliver in spades. The Garden Route’s dramatic coastline winds past lush forests, lagoons, and golden beaches, making it one of the most scenic drives in the world. Towns such as Knysna, Plettenberg Bay, and Wilderness offer plenty of opportunities to relax, hike, or paddle, while whale-watching and marine safaris add a salty twist to the journey.
At the end of the route lies Addo Elephant National Park and a collection of surrounding private reserves, where malaria-free safaris bring visitors face-to-trunk with elephants, lions, and more. This combination is particularly popular with families thanks to its accessibility, variety, and balance of relaxation and adventure – a safari experience wrapped in South Africa’s coastal splendour.
Experience the Big 5 in Addo Elephant National ParkAddo and surrounding reserves offer a quintessential safari experienceThe coastline of South Africa’s Garden Route
Final thoughts on your bush and beach combo safari
From the thrill of game drives and walking safaris to the restorative calm of palm-fringed shores, bush-and-beach holidays offer travellers a chance to experience Africa in its fullest expression. Whether it’s watching elephants in Greater Kruger before sinking your toes into the sands of Bazaruto, or combining Tanzania’s diverse wildlife with Zanzibar’s vibrant beaches, each pairing brings its own unique rhythm of adventure and relaxation. However you choose to blend the wild with the waves, one thing is certain – Africa’s bush and beach safaris promise a journey you’ll never forget.
For centuries, giraffes were thought to be a single species. Now, after years of debate and groundbreaking research, science has officially recognised four distinct giraffe species. This historic IUCN decision reshapes how the world will conserve Africa’s tallest giants.
The classification of giraffes has proved surprisingly contentious over the past few decades. For centuries, all giraffes were considered a single species, with nine subspecies officially recognised. However, groundbreaking research, significantly advanced by the Giraffe Conservation Foundation (GCF) and the Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (SBiK-F), has now confirmed what scientists have suspected for over a decade: there are not one, but four distinct species of giraffe, and seven subspecies. This has been formally recognised in a historic International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) decision. This landmark reclassification is set to reshape giraffe conservation efforts across Africa.
This isn’t taxonomy for taxonomy’s sake. Treating giraffe as four species sharpens conservation priorities, unlocking species-specific action where it’s most needed. As the Giraffe Conservation Foundation puts it, “each giraffe species faces different threats,” so management can now be tailored accordingly, and with more urgency.
A decade of giraffe discovery and debate
The journey to this pivotal decision began over a decade ago. In 2016, collaborative research involving the GCF and SBiK-F first suggested a four-species division based on genetic data. The data showed deep divergences between giraffe populations.
Dr. Axel Janke, a geneticist at SBiK-F and Goethe University, expressed surprise at the “large genetic differences in giraffe” given their seemingly limited morphological and coat pattern variations.
Research showed that these lineages diverged roughly 230–370 thousand years ago: Middle Pleistocene timing comparable to well-known mammal splits. One recent genome study even shows that reticulated giraffe carry ancestry from historical admixture between northern and southern giraffe ~200,000 years ago: ancient mingling that didn’t erase species boundaries.
This initial study, however, sparked considerable debate over the correct classification. Scientists have historically proposed anything from two to nine different giraffe species. The re-evaluation of giraffe taxonomy was critical, particularly as the IUCN had previously recognised only one giraffe species, albeit with nine subspecies, each with a separate conservation status.
And so, the IUCN Species Survival Commission’s Giraffe and Okapi Specialist Group (GOSG) Taxonomic Task Force, launched in 2024, embarked on an extensive review.
Prof. Janke and the SBiK-F, together with GCF under Dr Julian Fennessy, spearheaded a continent-wide genomic study that saw researchers collect tissue samples from giraffe populations across Africa, even in politically unstable and remote regions such as Chad, Niger, and South Sudan.
The scientific evidence was compelling, relying on multiple lines of investigation:
Extensive genetic data: Analyses of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA revealed large differences between several giraffe lineages – strong evidence of multiple species. These genetic divergences were profound, so much so that “the differences between giraffe species are as distinct as those between brown and polar bears,” according to Prof. Janke.
Morphological differentiation: Studies of skull structure and bone shape also showed notable differences across regions, complementing the genetic findings.
Biogeographic assessments: Researchers also considered the role of natural barriers, such as major rivers, rift valleys, and arid zones, which could have contributed to the evolutionary isolation of these distinct populations.
Natural barriers such as the Nile River, Lake Victoria, the Kunene and Zambezi Rivers, and climatic/phenological divides help explain why these lineages remained distinct over evolutionary time.
Together, these robust findings provided the scientific support needed to raise certain giraffe populations to full-species status, acknowledging their unique evolutionary histories. “To describe four new large mammal species after more than 250 years of taxonomy is extraordinary,” remarked Prof. Janke, “Especially for animals as iconic as giraffe, which roam Africa in plain sight”.
“This landmark taxonomic revision by the IUCN Giraffe and Okapi Specialist Group reflects the best available science and provides a globally standardised framework to inform conservation,” stated Michael Brown, Co-Chair of the IUCN GOSG.
The report officially recognises four distinct giraffe species, each with its own subspecies:
Northern giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) – With approximately 7,037remaining, this species is divided into three species: West African (G. c. peralta), Kordofan (G. c. antiquorum), Nubian (G. c. camelopardalis).
Northern giraffes in Niger (left) and Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda
Reticulated giraffe (Giraffa reticulata) – With around 20,091 remaining, this species currently has no proposed subspecies.
A reticulated giraffe in Samburu National Park, Kenya
Masai giraffe (Giraffa tippelskirchi) – Approximately 43,926 individuals remain, and the study suggests the recognition of the following as subspecies: Masai s.s. (G. t. tippelskirchi), Thornicroft’s (G. t. thornicrofti).
Masai giraffes
Southern giraffe (Giraffa giraffa) – The most common, with around 68,836 remaining, it has two subscpecies: South African (G. g. giraffa), and Angolan (G. g. angolensis).
Southern giraffe
Why this matters for the conservation of giraffes
This isn’t just an academic exercise; it’s a critical turning point for conservation. Recognising four species offers a more nuanced understanding of the unique conservation threats and opportunities each of these distinct taxa faces across the diverse African landscapes they inhabit. As Dr Fennessy emphasised: “This recognition is more than symbolic… Each giraffe species faces different threats, and now we can tailor conservation strategies to meet their specific needs. It gives African countries and the global community the tools to act, before it’s too late”.
The IUCN will now assess each species separately for the Red List. This will also influence national and international conservation policies aimed at preventing giraffe decline. By understanding giraffe taxonomy more precisely, conservationists are better equipped to assess their status and implement effective strategies.
While the latest population assessments for these giraffe species showed current increases for northern, reticulated and southern giraffe, and a stable Masai giraffe population, IUCN assessments look at long timeframes (over a period of three generations or 10 years) and consider factors such as fragmented ranges, and ongoing threats such as poaching and habitat loss when assigning status.
Early signals suggest three of the four may qualify as threatened, reflecting declines and fragmentation that were easy to underestimate when numbers were pooled. This highlights the urgency of the situation. As Stephanie Fennessy, GCF’s Executive Director, profoundly stated: “What a tragedy it would be to lose a species we’ve only just discovered”.
The future of Africa’s giraffes
This historic decision underscores the importance of combining intensive fieldwork with cutting-edge genetics to drive real-world conservation outcomes. Taxonomy, as the GOSG reminds us, is an evolving science, and as new evidence emerges, classifications will continue to be reassessed.
For now, this landmark reclassification lays a crucial foundation for protecting Africa’s magnificent, long-necked giants.
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From our CEO – Simon Espley
Did you know?
Odzala-Kokoua NP (Congo-Brazzaville) is the most reliable of only a few places in the world where you can encounter both habituated and unhabituated gorillas?
What’s the difference? Some gorilla families have been habituated to meet small groups of tourists who pay for a trekking permit to spend time with them. Tourists trek in mountainous terrain to find these gorillas and wear masks during their one-hour encounter. On the other hand, it is possible to watch unhabituated gorillas and other wildlife such as forest elephants, forest buffaloes and bongos from an elevated covered tree house overlooking a forest clearing. For gorilla watching, there is no time limit to your stay; you can watch numerous gorillas as they come and go, there is no strenuous hiking involved, no masks to be worn and no trek permit payment.
A few weeks ago, one of our guests, a solo lady traveller, enjoyed both options and saw 50 western lowland gorillas in 14 days. She also saw chimpanzees, bongos, sitatungas, hyenas hunting red river hogs and plenty of forest elephants and forest buffaloes. There is no question in my mind that this is Africa’s most enticing safari offering right now, and that my team is best equipped to make this safari happen for travel connoisseurs. Email Stef to plan your gorilla odyssey.
Oh, just to remind you that Congo-Brazzaville is the small African country to the west of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The troubled region in the far east of DRC is more than 1,500km from Congo-Brazzaville, which is a peaceful and safe country to visit.
Some animals are so elusive they might as well be folklore, and the African striped weasel is one of them. A slinky little black-and-white ghost, it bounces across the veld in the dead of night, vanishing before most of us even realise it exists. Blink, and you’ll mistake this mysterious carnivore for a polecat. And rumour has it they hunt mole rats inside their tunnels – though we don’t know enough about them to be sure. In truth, most people will never lay eyes on an African striped weasel.
But this secretive carnivore is no myth. A new research project by PhD candidate Kyle Smith from the University of Pretoria aims to uncover how these little predators live, what they hunt, how they move, and where they persist. The biggest challenge? Simply finding them. That’s where citizen science comes in. Sightings, photos, GPS pins, even scat if you’re brave (or unlucky) enough to find it. So, if you’ve crossed paths with a striped shadow on four legs, now’s the time to speak up and report your experience.
This week’s stories take us from hard truths to hopeful horizons: a new study lays bare the risks of South Africa’s commercial lion farming industry, revealing its lack of conservation value, while in Namibia’s Kunene Region, long-awaited rains have brought renewal and fresh life to this remarkable desert landscape and its wildlife.
Did you know? Your African safari choice makes a difference
We donate a portion of the revenue from every safari sold to carefully selected conservation projects that make a significant difference at ground level. YOUR African safari choice does make a difference – thank you!
Our stories this week
KUNENE’S REVIVAL
Rains in Kunene spark hope: wildlife returns, communities rebuild, and conservancies lead recovery in this Namibian desert frontier
CAPTIVE LIONS
A new study of 160+ sources outlines the risks of South Africa’s commercial lion farming industry – warning it may fuel demand for lion body parts
Travel Desk – 2 African safari ideas
Bush & beach safari – 7 days – from ZAR62,790pps
This safari combines the adventure of a Big 5 Zululand safari with the warm waters and white sandy beaches of the KwaZulu-Natal coastline. Expect 5-star treatment all the way. From a luxury tented camp in a riverine forest on the Msunduze River in Manyoni Private Game Reserve, to luxurious living in a chic boutique beach guest house, this safari is a real treat. Enjoy exciting game drives, spa treatments, delicious dining under the stars, ocean swimming, and snorkelling.
Ultimate Kafue safari – 7 days – from US$5,590pps
This safari visits central and northern Kafue National Park, Zambia – teeming with predators and vast herds of lechwe, buffalo and elephants. You’ll explore the Kafue River, vast stretches of river valleys, and the swampy floodplains of Busanga Plains, which are brimful with big cats, their prey, and prolific bird life. Enjoy daily guided activities, including game drives, walking safaris, and boating. Free return flights between Lusaka and Kafue are included!
AG safari guest Louise, from Australia, went on a magical and life-changing solo adventure to Odzala-Kokoua National Park, Congo-Brazzaville:
“I wanted to go to the Congo Basin, but it was difficult to find travel info. I made an enquiry to AG and the next day Stefan phoned me in Australia from South Africa. He understood exactly what I wanted and soon sent a proposed itinerary with no ties attached. Stef handled everything down to the smallest detail.
When I ran into difficulty boarding my flight to Congo, Stef had no hesitation in assisting me, even though I had organised my own flights…. He stayed with me through the stressful process until I was cleared to board… and once in Brazzaville, I was taken care of right there in the airport… and it was plain sailing from there.
My trip was beyond belief. All the camps I went to were so nice. Imbalanga was amazing for the forest treks and the baï that is only a three-minute walk from the camp…. I was lucky enough to see two different groups of gorillas and a troop of colobus monkeys. I went there a couple of times a day…. When the primates were there, they were there for hours….
I then went to the Kamba camps…. I went on two gorilla treks: both very different experiences. The first was adrenaline-charged as there was a rogue silverback hanging around the group, causing some drama. The second was a lot more chilled but very, very cute. Lots of young ones and one particularly cheeky blackback. My guides, Dylan and Ben, were amazing and knowledgeable. They did everything within their power to make sure I saw the wildlife without disturbing them. I saw more forest elephant than I ever imagined. I even saw some rare creatures, be it ever so fleeting, including chimpanzee, bongo, and sitatunga antelope…. It was just amazing to be in the forest or on the river. I have done quite a bit of travelling, but this was the best trip ever. Being in the forest is magical…. I have been asked where I want to go next but the truth is, I just want to go back. No disappointments – not one.”
Western lowland gorillas, forest elephants, bongos, dwarf crocodiles, huge flocks of grey parrots & green pigeons – and much more. Odzala-Kokoua National Park in the remote northwest of Congo-Brazzaville is covered in forests, rivers, marshes, and swamps, and is an integral part of the Congo Basin. The most distinctive characteristic of the Congo rainforest is the forest baïs – island clearings in the sea of trees. Here, marshy areas rich in minerals and salts attract a plethora of wildlife. Odzala-Kokoua is one of Africa’s oldest national parks and the ideal destination for lowland gorilla watching. (05:27) Click here to watch
For more videos celebrating Africa, check out our videos here
After years of crippling drought, Namibia’s Kunene Region is stirring back to life. Desert-adapted wildlife is returning and local conservationists are working to secure a brighter future for people and nature alike. Gail Thomson returns to the region and is heartened by what she finds: desert wildlife rebounding, communities rebuilding, and recovery in this stark but spectacular region.
Namibia’s Kunene Region is home to famously desert-adapted wildlife that lives alongside the Ovahimba, Ovaherero and Damara people. This area is almost entirely covered by communal conservancies, many of which have been operating for over 20 years. The last ten years have been a challenging time for the people and wildlife sharing this landscape due to widespread drought.
During a trip in early March this year, my husband and I witnessed the effects of this multi-year drought, as the rocky desert landscape looked harsh and barren. This all changed with good rains in April and May 2025 – the best the Kunene has received in many years. We decided to organise another trip in July to see how the rains had transformed the landscape, and to find out how the wildlife and people in communal conservancies are faring.
What we found were signs of a new dawn for the region. Wildlife is starting to repopulate the area, while dedicated community conservationists are finding ways to support their recovery.
Kunene after the rains
Finding life in the desert
The key to understanding the Kunene is an expert guide. While anyone with a 4×4 vehicle can explore the Kunene Region on their own, few will see beyond the landscape to understand wildlife movements and human behaviour in response to the recent rains. We therefore met up with Boas Hambo, a local expert in the Kunene Region, to gain deeper insights.
Boas is part of a new generation of African conservationists who are bringing African perspectives and ideas to a field that non-Africans have historically dominated.
We approached the semi-arid Kunene Region from the west, via the stark true desert of the Skeleton Coast. While these gravel plains host many forms of life, not much of it can be seen while driving. Only after travelling inland for nearly 50km did we start encountering patches of yellow that could conceivably be grass. As we drove, the tiny tufts gave way to fully grown grass plants that had turned from green early in the wet season to their yellow winter form.
The grass was a welcome sight, clothing the red rocks in a gossamer cloak that thickened to a fluffy carpet in areas that received excellent rainfall. Such abundant grass is beautiful, yet it shows that there are few grazing animals left to eat it. Many cattle have died in recent years, leaving livestock-dependent communities destitute and hungry. “Milk is an extremely important part of the diet out here,” says Boas. “When we run out of maize meal, we survive on cups of milk from our cattle and goats.” But milk becomes scarce when the cattle are all dead, and goats and sheep are barely clinging to life.
Communities are heavily dependent on livestock – and drought threatens their survival
Unsurprisingly, wildlife numbers have been dropping each year during the drought and are now very low, according to annual game count figures. These game-count trends reflect both real population decreases and movement. “Each animal has a different way of dealing with the drought – for example, the Hartmann’s mountain zebras move into the inaccessible mountainous areas during drought in search of natural springs and grazing that is not accessible to cattle,” Boas tells us.
He also suggests that now that the drought has broken, the gemsbok will spend more time in the true desert to the west, where there is still grass and plenty of gemsbok melons – fleshy desert fruits that gemsbok love. Since the game counts take place by road and do not cover the coastal desert or the inaccessible mountains, it is difficult to say precisely how many gemsbok and zebras have died in the drought versus how many have moved.
Mountainsides lush after recovery
What we do know, courtesy of a giraffe-specific monitoring programme by Giraffe Conservation Foundation, is that giraffe numbers have remained stable during the drought years. As specialist browsers, the giraffes do not need grass, although they will benefit from fresh leaves after the rains. On our trip, we saw baby giraffes in nearly every herd we encountered, indicating that their population should grow. Surprisingly, giraffes do not need to drink water – although they drink readily when water is available, they can obtain all the moisture they need from leaves alone.
And Boas is optimistic: “I saw many more animals during the conservancy game count this year than in previous years, although the official statistics for the whole count aren’t out yet.”
Stark contrast: a giraffe before the rains……and giraffes after the rains
During our many hours on the road exploring, we got to know Boas’s backstory. Like many young Herero and Himba boys growing up in the 80s, Boas was sent to look after goats at an age when most urban children start attending primary school. Although he started school later than most, he seized his opportunity for education with both hands. As a teenager, he took a job with Integrated Rural Development and Nature Conservation (IRDNC).
Boas flourished with IRDNC and was promoted from general camp-hand to trainer of community game guards. After that, he worked with the Community Rhino Rangers Programme to counter the threat of black-rhino poaching in the communal conservancies. He now works for Conservancy Safaris Namibia, leading multi-day expeditions that explore the Kunene Region. As a result of his work, he has spent many hours on the road with numerous conservation stalwarts, including Garth Owen-Smith, Dr Margaret Jacobsohn and Russell Vinjevold – mentors who provided different perspectives and experiences on conservation and tourism.
Boas in a quiet moment along the river
During his varied career, Boas has followed desert-adapted lions for weeks on end, patrolled thousands of square kilometres to monitor and protect black rhinos, assisted conservancies to develop and implement natural-resource management plans, and introduced international guests to the vast wilderness he calls home. He has not forgotten his farming roots, however, and still keeps livestock near his home in Warmquelle, Kunene.
In short, there are few people alive today who possess such a deep understanding of local culture and farming practices, animal behaviour, practical nature conservation and the role of tourism in the Kunene Region. His perspective on the wildlife we saw and the conservation concepts we discussed enriched our journey and added meaning to our observations.
Elephants and lions in the famous Hoanib River
Unlike giraffes, elephants are heavily dependent on water and therefore greatly affected by the drought. In Kunene, the herds have been increasingly restricted to the dry riverbeds, where natural springs and artificial waterpoints quench their thirst. The giant Ana trees provide nutrient-rich pods, while riverine vegetation survives the drought better than outside the riverbed.
View from the Khowarib Community Campsite, located in the upper reaches of the Hoanib River. This water comes from a permanent spring that does not reach the lower parts of the Hoanib. Even the dry parts of the river support more vegetation during drought than elsewhere
The restrictions that drought places on elephant movement and nutrition nonetheless take a toll. Elephant calves suffer the most during drought. Half of the calves in this far western population died within their first year during 2023, according to a report from Desert Elephant Conservation. Female elephants that are barely meeting their nutritional requirements will not readily come into oestrous, and those that do have calves may not produce enough milk to sustain them.
On our trip down the Hoanib River, a stronghold for desert-adapted elephants, we saw some of the new babies of the season. “I counted 14 baby elephants in the Hoanib earlier this year,” says Boas, “it seems that we are now in a ‘baby boom ’ and I hope that this population will continue to grow.” These elephants are a key tourist attraction for the few lodges in the Hoanib Valley.
Spotting young elephant calves – an indication of recovery
That night, we camped outside the riverbed at one of the bush camping sites. This site is far enough away from the river to be safely out of the way of the wildlife – including hungry lions. During a drought, lions can benefit from staying in riverbeds and near waterpoints, knowing that their prey will have to come to them. When the drought breaks, however, lions find themselves in a precarious position. The prey species spread out to take advantage of the widespread grazing and natural water sources. When the overall population is as low as it is now, hunting becomes very difficult.
The lions have adapted to this situation in several ways, some of which are fascinating for research, while others are concerning from a human-lion conflict point of view. In the Hoanib River, the lions started specialising in giraffe hunting, which became the most common prey animal available. On our trip, we found the male lion known as “OB” feeding on a giraffe that he had killed the night before.
We heard this good news long before we found the lion, since we encountered Allu Jauire Uararaui – a human-wildlife conflict specialist for Integrated Rural Development and Nature Conservation under Russell Vinjevold – soon after entering the river valley. Boas and Allu are old colleagues, and Allu readily agreed to us following him to the lion and its kill. They have been watching this lion’s movements via its satellite collar for months, and were mainly concerned when it left the Hoanib and started roaming near human settlements. “This male lion is significant, since he is the only adult male left in this area”, explains Allu, “so I came out here to check that he was back in the riverbed and not out in the village lands.”
Managing these lions is a delicate balancing act, one which Boas and Allu know all about. Boas had followed the female lion known as “Charly” for a whole month while assisting a Japanese film crew. Tragically, she killed well-known Namibian businessman, Bernd Kebbel (who generously supported the conservation of desert lions), when he exited his tent during a night in the Hoanib River a few weeks before our visit. The authorities promptly euthanised the lion due to the danger she presented to both tourists and locals.
Besides the male lion we encountered and Charly, the other desert-adapted lions in the western Kunene have moved to the coast, where they hunt Cape fur seals and other marine life. Dr Philip “Flip” Stander documented the return of lions to the coast and currently focuses his research on how they are adapting to their new diet and surroundings. OB, the lion we saw, is now the pride male in the area, and he joins the lionesses regularly to mate. The current pair of cubs on the coastline is his.
“The lodges and tour operators want to see more lions, which is understandable,” Boas remarked, “yet there is not enough prey yet to support the lions – we need to focus on rebuilding the prey base, while still trying to keep the few remaining lions out of harm’s way.” If prey numbers increase and stabilise, then lions could be reintroduced from populations in the eastern parts of the Kunene, after consultation with the relevant conservancies.
Supporting Kunene conservancies at a critical time
After leaving our bush camp near the Hoanib, we headed north through Puros village, across the Hoarusib River and into Orupembe Conservancy – our destination: Etaambura Lodge – one of my favourite places to stay in Namibia. Etaambura is managed by Conservancy Safaris, and both are owned by five conservancies including Orupembe: Puros, Sanitatas, Okonjombo and Marienfluss.
Etaambura Lodge
Conservancy Safaris and Etaambura were founded by Garth Owen-Smith and Dr Margaret Jacobsohn (co-founders of IRDNC), together with friends who accompanied them on multi-day journeys through the region. Their primary purpose was to provide support for the conservancies. Their current community development and conservation efforts are supported through Jamma Communities & Conservation. Their community initiatives included the building of a school, and the ongoing school feeding programme for the village near Etaambura. The lodge also provides cash benefits to the community during the worst part of the drought.
A family of Monteiro’s hornbills that live near Etaambura
Boas’ primary mission on this trip was to initiate the new project called “Okamutenge”, the Otjiherero word for the small bag tied to the end of the stick that Ovahimba people carry when going on a journey. The Okamutenge Community Conservation Support project will assist the community game guards in doing regular anti-poaching patrols and community outreach visits.
“Now that the drought has broken, the conservancies can start rebuilding their wildlife populations – if they can ensure that poaching is kept to a minimum,” explains Boas. “Since the people living here have lost most of their livestock, the temptation to poach for meat is higher than ever.”
From the early days of the conservancy programme until today, the goal has been to stop poaching rather than catch poachers. This requires developing close relationships with the communities, creating awareness about the value of wildlife through tourism and hunting, and arresting perpetrators when necessary. Community game guards can do this work most effectively, since they know their area and are trusted by their people.
We accompanied Boas and Henry Tjambiru, the assistant lodge manager at Etaambura, to the Orupembe Conservancy office to meet with their game guards. Boas brought with him eight new pairs of boots and enough food for a 10-day foot patrol, marking the start of the Okamutenge project. He would deliver similar supplies to the Sanitatas Conservancy once we had left. If they secure more funding, their support will extend to Puros, Okonjombo and Marienfluss Conservancies.
During the meeting, he explained that Henry would provide transport into the area to be patrolled (either in Orupembe or Sanitatas), and the game guards would do the patrols and provide feedback. Boas would provide them with additional training before the first patrol to ensure they covered the ground efficiently and responded appropriately to suspected poaching incidents. The game guards were extremely grateful for the support, as their conservancy’s vehicle had broken down beyond repair; they had no other way of patrolling the far reaches of their large conservancy.
Hope for the future of Kunene
During our six-day trip into the Kunene, we drove through all of these conservancies and others around them. We saw giraffe and springbok herds throughout the landscape, and the elephants and OB the lion on the Hoanib River. We also encountered a gemsbok, zebra and ostriches (including one flock of young ones accompanied by three adults). Boas spotted a black rhino just before we joined him, even though we did not actively track rhinos.
A springbok herd in recovering veldWe encountered a flock of young ostriches with adults
A trip like this does not constitute a game count, but it is an indication of what tourists are likely to see on a Kunene Region expedition. “If we get another year or two of good or even average rains, we could recover our wildlife to near pre-drought levels,” says Boas. “We will need to look at strategically translocating some species into areas where they are currently depleted, but the most important thing we can do right now is to support the game guards and their conservancies.”
The wildlife in Kunene can rebound, provided that the conservancies keep functioning and everyone working in the region pulls in the same direction. Tourists visiting Kunene discover how communities are conserving this harsh, yet spectacular part of the planet – and in doing so are supporting their important work.
Western Namibia is a land of heat, sand, sea and remarkable biodiversity surviving against the backdrop of harsh but stunning scenery. Learn more about the land of ochre here
Gail is a conservation scientist who focuses on carnivore conservation and human-wildlife conflict.
She has a passion for creating public awareness of conservation through her popular writings. She has many years of field experience in Namibia , Botswana and South Africa working on human-carnivore conflict and wildlife monitoring projects.
* With thanks to Conservancy Safaris Namibia and Jamma Communities & Conservation for supporting this trip.
South Africa’s commercial captive lion breeding industry, a sector that has grown to encompass roughly 350 facilities holding nearly 8,000 lions, has long been a subject of debate. While proponents have claimed a role in conservation, new research presents a sobering challenge to this narrative, questioning whether the industry is in fact harming wild lion populations
Over the past three decades, a contentious industry has quietly been established in South Africa, steadily growing louder and more robust as it gained popularity. In the face of threats to wild lion populations, captive-lion breeding claimed to contribute to conservation.
Many claim captive lion breeding can reduce the pressure on wild lion populations by supplementing commercial demand for lions, their parts and derivatives. But there is also an alternative effect: captive-lion breeding can increase the demand for lions and their body parts, which essentially threatens wild populations.
A group of researchers from Blood Lions and World Animal Protection is attempting to put the debate to rest. Their latest research, including a systematic review titled Reviewing evidence for the impact of lion farming in South Africa on African wild lion populations, published in the journal Animals, highlights the urgent need for a shift in policy.
The comprehensive study entailed the review of 126 peer-reviewed articles and 37 public reports published between 2008 and 2023, in efforts to assess whether commercial captive lion breeding helps reduce pressure on wild lion populations.
The scale of the industry
South Africa’s commercial lion breeding industry has seen rapid growth since the 1990s, expanding to an estimated 7,838 captive lions, along with thousands of other big cats, across 342 commercial facilities for tourism, hunting and trade. To put this into perspective, in 2021, Four Paws estimated that the number of farmed lions in South Africa was four to five times larger than that of wild lions.
The captive lion industry primarily thrives on tourist entertainment like cub petting and walking with lions, as well as the commercial trade of lion body parts and derivatives.
Protecting wild range and behaviour is central. Evidence does not support captive breeding as a conservation tool
Investigating captive lion conservation claims
The central question investigated by the researchers was whether this commercial captive lion breeding provides a sustainable solution to reduce pressure on wild lion populations. Their comprehensive review yielded a concerning conclusion: there is currently no scientific evidence to substantiate the industry’s claims that commercial captive lion breeding protects wild lion populations.
On the contrary, the findings suggest that it may be driving demand for lion parts with potentially damaging consequences for the species in the wild. Dr. Angie Elwin, a contributing researcher and Head of Research at World Animal Protection, says, “Our review finds no clear evidence that South Africa’s captive lion breeding industry benefits wild lion populations.” Elwin continues, “…it could be doing harm by fuelling demand for lion parts. Given the precarious status of lions globally, any claims of conservation value should be treated with extreme caution. Lessons from tiger farming show that legal trade from captive animals has failed to protect wild populations and may even accelerate their decline. We risk repeating the same mistake with lions.”
A free-ranging pride takes a break on the plains. Continent-wide numbers are still on the decline
The evidence against captive lion breeding
The study evaluated the evidence against five key criteria to determine the potential benefits and threats of lion farming in a conservation context. Here’s what they found:
Cost-efficiency: Although captive hunts are generally cheaper than wild hunts, direct comparisons of overall profitability between wild and captive-sourced lion products are scarce. However, captive facilities boost profitability through diverse income streams, including selective breeding for rare traits like white lions and hosting paying international volunteers.
Genetic maintenance of captive populations: A significant knowledge gap exists regarding the genetic health and diversity of captive lion populations, primarily due to a lack of official records and comprehensive genetic analysis. While there’s limited evidence of wild lions being taken to stock captive facilities, the absence of a reliably maintained studbook system raises concerns.
Protection from criminal activity: The study revealed inadequate protection for wild populations from criminal activity linked to lion farm facilities. Evidence, though sporadic and often anecdotal, points to potential laundering of wild-sourced lion parts through captive facilities and a patchwork of inconsistent legislation across authorities. The direct link between lion farming and the poaching of wild lions remains largely unquantified.
Consumer preferences: While some captive-bred lion products, like those for trophy hunting, might be preferred for specific traits or guaranteed kills, the research indicates mixed preferences, with no clear evidence that farmed lion parts consistently substitute for wild ones. For traditional medicine, consumers often don’t distinguish between wild and captive sources, and lion bones are even passed off as tiger bones.
Market demand: The review suggests that rather than simply meeting existing demand, commercial captive breeding may actually be stimulating new demand. This includes the emergence of new markets, such as interactive tourism experiences (like cub petting) that create additional demand for breeding lions for revenue. Rising wholesale values for lion skeletons also point to increasing demand. The review notes that lion skeletons have historically been exported to East and Southeast Asia for traditional medicine markets; although the legal skeleton trade is currently halted following a 2019 court judgment, other legal and illegal channels persist, including trophies and live exports.
Current state of affairs
Importantly, the researchers note that South Africa’s wild lion populations are considered stable, due to intensive management on large protected areas and many smaller reserves. But continent-wide, lions remain Vulnerable and declining, with targeted poaching for body parts rising as an emerging threat.
One of the most damning results from the study was that researchers found insufficient data to effectively evaluate any purported conservation benefits of captive lion breeding. Instead, their analysis identified several “red flags” suggesting that lion farming could accelerate and facilitate commercial demand for lions and their body parts, potentially jeopardising wild populations. This contrasts with the 2018 assessment by the Scientific Authority of South Africa, which previously concluded that the export of captive-bred lion products did not negatively impact wild lion populations.
In July this year, Minister of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment, Dr Dion George, announced the imminent publiction of the Lion Prohibition Notice, which will prohibit the establishment of new captive lion facilities for commercial purposes. However, there is still a long way to go before a full prohibition of the commercial breeding and keeping of captive lions.
The driving force: Demand for lion parts
The review highlighted that while trophy hunting of captive lions has seen a decrease following events like the US boycott after Cecil the lion’s shooting, a parallel surge in demand for lion bones from Southeast Asia has taken its place. These bones are often passed off as tiger bones for use in traditional Chinese medicine products like tiger cake, tiger wine, and other “tiger” derivatives. The staggering profit margins, with a 60-fold increase between the South African skeleton sale value and the end consumer price, incentivise this trade.
The research identified several “red flags”, suggesting that captive lion breeding may:
Accelerate and facilitate commercial demand for lions and their body parts;
Increase opportunities for laundering poached wildlife through legal commercial trade; and
Operate within a patchwork of contrasting legislation across various authorities, creating legal loopholes and making fraud difficult to monitor
A caged captive lion cub. The conservation value of breeding remains unproven
Beyond conservation: Animal welfare and public health risks in the captive lion industry
The concerns extend far beyond the conservation impact on wild lions. The High-Level Panel report, released as a part of the Draft policy position on the conservation and ecologically sustainable use of elephant, lion, leopard and rhinoceros in 2021, led to the government’s decision to ultimately close the industry. These findings outlined that the captive lion breeding industry:
Damages South Africa’s eco-tourism and conservation reputations;
Lacks necessary transformation;
Is widely accused of animal welfare neglect and abuse; and
Poses public health concerns, including the risk of diseases like tuberculosis being transported through wildlife products.
A call for urgent action
The research underscores the urgent need for a shift in policy. The researchers and contributing organisations are calling on the South African government to take critical next steps based on these findings. Dr. Louise de Waal, Director of Blood Lions, emphasises the need for global caution: “We need to err on the side of caution globally, but in particular in lion range states, to refrain from facilitating further emergence of commercial captive predator breeding and trade.”
She highlights that this is especially relevant given the increased wildlife trafficking opportunities between Africa and Southeast Asia, partly fuelled by the expansion of initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative (a global infrastructure development strategy adopted by the government of China in 2013).
The new research adds significant weight to these arguments, urging the Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment to take critical next steps: to impose an immediate moratorium on the breeding of lions in captivity and to develop a structured and time-bound phase-out plan for the broader commercial predator industry.
While wild lion populations in South Africa are currently considered unchanging, these research findings highlight the significant and potentially detrimental compounding effects on already vulnerable lion populations and other large felid species across their ranges. The industry’s lack of transparency, coupled with identified knowledge gaps in consumer preferences, supply-demand dynamics, economic comparisons, genetics, and the extent of illegal activities, further strengthens the call for a definitive end to commercial captive lion breeding.
Reference
Green, J., Elwin, A., Jakins, C., Klarmann, S.-E., de Waal, L., Pinkess, M., & D’Cruze, N. (2025). Reviewing Evidence for the Impact of Lion Farming in South Africa on African Wild Lion Populations. Animals, 15(15), 2316. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15152316
Further reading
A new survey sheds light on the state of the lion population in the north of Kruger, revealing trends that could shape future conservation efforts. Read more about Kruger’s lion population here
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From our CEO – Simon Espley
What started as a stressful discovery evolved into one of my best wild dog sightings ever.
Recently, I was in Botswana’s Okavango Delta with one of our Botswana safari experts, scouting for lodges that meet our expectations of outstanding, responsible safari experiences. On the game-drive transfer from the airstrip to our remote bushcamp, we stopped at an active wild dog den, to find, to our horror, that it had recently been under siege by lions trying to kill the pups. The den entrance was caved in, leaving a tiny gap, and the claw marks above the entrance bore testament to the lions’ huge efforts to get to the pups. That must have been terrifying for those pups!
We sat for a while and tried to figure out what had happened to the pups and adults. During our contemplations, we heard faint, plaintive whining from deep inside the burrow – evidence that at least one of the pups was still alive. But where were the adults? Had the alpha female been killed defending her pups, and where were the lions? So many questions. Not wanting to influence what was an ongoing natural event, we left the scene as the daylight faded and headed to our bushcamp to wait out the night before returning in the morning. It was a long night.
Soon after first light, after a scrumptious but hurried breakfast, we returned to the den to find that the entrance had been opened up, and a confusion of tiny footprints suggested that at least some of the pups had survived and been moved by the adults. These were tiny pups, still suckling, so they could not have gone far. And the threat of lions, leopards and hyenas was always there, as evidenced by the number of times we encountered them over the next few days as our guides, Dix and Chocolate, pieced together the puzzle.
They are local bushmen, born and brought up here, and they learned and honed their skills as subsistence hunters. Their tracking skills are off the charts, and their granular knowledge of the area is extraordinary. We followed many lines of spoor, investigated what we thought were ideal den locations and reacted to countless bush signals alerting us to nearby predators.
I can’t begin to describe the relief and euphoria when, after hearing a wild dog contact call, we also heard the squeals of tiny pups. We followed those clues to find the new den, secreted away in a termite mound hidden by tall grass. What followed was many hours immersed in wonderment and awe, observing these incredible predators care for their 12 precious bundles of joy.
We watched the alpha female feeding her ravenous brood, adults disciplining wandering pups, den excavations with sand flying everywhere, pack member greeting ceremonies as they returned from their wanderings and even a successful impala hunt by some of the pack as others remained to guard the den. A highlight for me was confirmation that wild dogs do use sneezing as a voting mechanism to get the resting pack to wake up and go hunting. If you have doubts, watch my video below for proof.
The impala hunt was a typical wild dog strategic manoeuvre, spreading out in a long line and padding silently through the woodlands before splitting into groups to target specific opportunities. We followed one splinter group, losing them a few times in the woodlands, before Dix and Chocolate cracked the code and got us to the scene just seconds after four dogs took down an impala. As usual for these efficient hunters, within seconds of the distress bleat at the moment of attack, the impala had been eviscerated, and the dogs were gulping down choice bits. Gory for sure, but this is real, wild Africa doing her thing. Again, we benefitted from deep bush skills demonstrated by our guides.
I have spent countless hours in the company of painted wolves, and these few days rank as amongst my best encounters ever. I will return.
Our choice of lodgings on this occasion was an intimate (4 tents | 8 guests) bushcamp on the shore of a permanent channel in the Okavango Delta. This camp is old-school; meaning the focus is on authenticity and comfort rather than ostentatious designer decor, rim-flow pools and imported chefs. Of course, there is room for all comfort levels in this wonderful industry, but on this occasion, less is more.
Speaking of returning, how about joining us in 2026 to this part of the Okavango Delta for a deeply immersive safari to search for wild dogs, leopards, lions and much more? Please book early to avoid disappointment – start the discussion.
Some moments in nature feel like a wink from the universe – little reminders that we share this planet with remarkable, unpredictable wildlife. Over the past 20 years, wild orcas have been documented offering humans food. Fish, stingrays, seaweed, even seabirds: all presented, sometimes repeatedly, as if waiting for us to take the bait. Are they trying to make friends, start a cross-species cultural exchange, or gently manipulate us into… something? No one’s sure. But one thing is clear: these intelligent, social giants are as curious about us as we are about them.
This week, we’re diving into more wonders: South Africa’s rare Barrydale redfin and why it matters for the health of our rivers, plus nine extraordinary African safaris – with water at their centre – that prove rivers and lakes are as thrilling as any game drive.
Enjoy exploring Africa with us!
Did you know? Your African safari choice makes a difference
We donate a portion of the revenue from every safari sold to carefully selected conservation projects that make a significant difference at ground level. YOUR African safari choice does make a difference – thank you!
Our stories this week
9 WATER SAFARIS
Africa’s rivers, streams and lakes are her lifeblood. Here’s our list of some of our favourite water safaris on the continent
FRESHWATER CANARIES
Rare South African fish like the Barrydale redfin warn of our rivers’ decline – saving them means saving our freshwater lifelines
Travel Desk
TWO AFRICAN SAFARI IDEAS
Southern Africa mega safari – 19 days – from US$10,670pps
Be swept off your feet with wall-to-wall wildlife action on this iconic southern African safari. You’ll visit Greater Kruger to experience the Big 5 and rarer treasures. You’ll also visit South Africa’s mother city, Cape Town, and her winelands. Plus, you’ll experience the wilds of Khwai Community Concession and Chobe National Park in Botswana; and the majesty of Victoria Falls in Zimbabwe – for a once-in-a-lifetime adventure.
Best of Malawi’s safari parks – 10 days – from US$4,680pps
The best-of-Malawi safari takes you to the Big 5 havens of Majete Wildlife Reserve, Liwonde National Park and the rugged wilderness of Nkhotakota Wildlife Reserve. The three parks are managed by African Parks – a non-profit conservation organisation. These conservation success stories are what responsible travel is all about. Come and find out for yourself and make a real difference where it counts.
AG safari guests Jennifer and Tim from Switzerland went on a special mother-and-son safari to Zimbabwe and Botswana:
Unforgettable mother & son safari – How Africa Geographic & Stefan’s expert care guided us every step of the way: “Our journey began long before we set foot in Africa – with a simple online enquiry through Africa Geographic. Within seconds, I was contacted by Karen, who warmly invited me to chat about our hopes, preferences, and expectations… The very next morning, I received an email from Stefan, who would become our dedicated travel consultant for what would turn out to be the trip of a lifetime.
From that first message onward, everything flowed seamlessly. Stefan was thorough, responsive, and incredibly attentive. He answered every single question I had, no matter how detailed or specific, and remained kind, patient, and professional, never rushing me or pushing for decisions. We worked closely to craft our ideal itinerary, and I never felt anything less than fully supported. Naturally, I was a bit nervous when it came time to make the first payment… But Stefan’s transparent communication and genuine care gave me confidence and peace of mind. Even after our booking was finalised, Stefan stayed in touch over the months leading up to the trip, checking in and helping us feel prepared. And once the journey began, he continued to communicate throughout our travels, making sure everything was unfolding as planned…
I wholeheartedly recommend Africa Geographic to anyone considering an African adventure – no matter where in the world you’re starting from…. This was more than a vacation, it was a transformative journey. And Stef, from the bottom of our hearts: thank you.”
This short video offers a snapshot of Tsavo Trust’s work on the ground: protecting wildlife, supporting communities, and safeguarding Kenya’s iconic Tsavo ecosystem through aerial and ground operations, conservation partnerships, and sustainable development initiatives (06:11) Click here to watch
Every river has a character, and every waterway symbolises vitality. Life in Africa revolves around its rivers, streams and lakes, defining the essence of the wildernesses they flow through. A safari can be more than game drives, so why not opt for one of the continent’s numerous safaris on and around her waters, and explore Africa through its lifeblood?
Below is a list of our favourite iconic waterways that make for epic safaris.
Okavango Delta, Botswana: Water safaris by mokoro and boat
The swampy wildlife oasis of the Okavango Delta is one of the most extraordinary safari destinations in Africa, and a ride in a mokoro is an essential part of any exploration. These traditional dugout canoes cut silently through the wetlands’ many channels, propelled by expert guides’ poles. Aside from the peaceful immersion in one’s surroundings, this is the perfect way to encounter wildlife – from elephants to frogs and everything in between. In the deeper channels and lagoons, motorboat excursions open up even more of the delta, offering a different perspective and access to areas the mokoros cannot reach.
Glide by mokoro on the waters of the Okavango DeltaDeeper delta waters can be explored by motorised boat
Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe and Zambia: Rafting on Batoka Gorge’s white waters
At Victoria Falls, the mighty Zambezi River plunges 100 metres off a basalt plateau before being forced through a narrow and twisting path of Batoka Gorge. The rapids below the falls are classified as Grade V and are widely acknowledged as offering some of the best white water rafting in the world.
Adrift on inflatable rafts, armed with just a plastic oar and a lifejacket, visitors throw themselves at the river’s mercy. Nothing is quite as humbling as experiencing the sheer power of a churning river (especially while underneath it). And after the rather steep climb out of the gorge on somewhat shaky legs, a sundowner imbibed looking out over the “smoke that thunders” is a must! This is one of the most epic water safaris you’ll ever experience.
Clouds of mist over the Smoke that ThundersWhite river rafting on Batoka Gorge, Victoria Falls
Jinja, Uganda: Kayak the Nile
The Nile River is the longest in the world, and its journey begins at the edge of Lake Victoria as it spills out of the lake into a series of plunging rapids. Not much compares to the thrill of riding the tumbling waves, pitting skill against the tremendous power of the torrent. And there are plenty of long flat stretches of calm water to steady the nerves, recover the muscles and marvel at the beauty of rural Uganda.
If this sounds too much (or perhaps when one’s shoulders and arms have had enough), opt for an ice-cold drink on a sedate sunset boat cruise.
The raging waters of the River NileAdrenaline junkies can Kayak the River Nile at Jinja
Mambili and Lokoué Rivers, Odzala-Kokoua NP, Congo-Brazzaville: River cruise through the Congo Basin
In the heart of the Congo Basin, the Mambili and Lokoué rivers weave through Odzala-Kokoua National Park’s lush rainforest, offering a water safari unlike any other. A river cruise here means gliding past forested banks alive with movement – from the flicker of colourful birds to the stealthy ripple of a slender-snouted crocodile. Keep watch for breaching tiger fish, shy sitatunga antelope, water monitors, and troops of agile and grey-cheeked mangabeys. If you’re lucky, you might even glimpse the elusive De Brazza’s monkey or a forest elephant pausing for a drink. These tranquil waterways not only connect remote lodges like Camp Imbalanga but also provide one of the best vantage points for spotting the park’s rich wildlife without disturbing it.
Boating the winding waters of the Congo BasinAG’s Simon Espley and Brendan Taylor enjoy a boat cruise on the Mambili RiverSpotting a slender-snouted crocodile basking on a branch
Chobe River, Botswana and Namibia: Cruise on a riverboat
The Chobe River is Africa’s elephant Eden, its lush floodplains and surroundings home to the world’s highest density of these magnificent pachyderms. This corner of the continent is renowned for its water safaris. Explore the various channels and side creeks or meander peacefully, watching elephants snorkel and wrestle in the water. From predator to prey, the abundance of life on display along the riverbanks tinges any voyage with more than a hint of excitement.
Spot Chobe’s abundant wildlife from a riverboatSunset over Chobe
Lake Tanganyika, Tanzania: Float or dive lazy waters
Only two parks in Tanzania offer chimpanzee trekking: Gombe Stream and Mahale Mountains National Parks, and both are found on the banks of Lake Tanganyika. The terrain of these parks is mountainous, and if the chimps are particularly capricious, a trek might entail several hours of strenuous hiking. As such, there is no doubt that the only way to celebrate a successful day is to leap with joy into the cool embrace of the clear waters of the world’s longest freshwater lake. Sandy beaches are perfect for lazing the days away or soaking up romantic sunsets. Or, to make the most of water safaris to Lake Tanganyika (which hosts over 350 fish species), explore the waters by diving, snorkelling or kayaking.
The peaceful waters of Lake Tanganyika, on the edge of Gombe and Mahale National ParkExplore the waters by kayaking, diving and snorkelling
Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe and Zambia: Explore vast shorelines
The fertile shores of Lake Kariba and its fresh waters attract diverse birdlife and wildlife, including elephants, buffalo and various antelopes. Keep an eye out for lions and leopards too. Lake Kariba’s water safaris can be enjoyed in simple pleasure or luxurious style. Dozens of lodges perched on the water’s edge allow you to awaken to the copper glow of the sun rising over the endless lake. Spend the day admiring the scenery or watching elephants browse the shoreline of Lake Kariba. And at the end of the day, the calm waters are the ideal place to admire the starlit skies. There are plenty of opportunities to explore the shorelines from the water, whether on a catamaran cruise, motorboat or even a houseboat. For a wilderness retreat on the shores of Lake Kariba, visit Matusadona National Park, which is easily combined with safaris to Hwange National Park for a truly epic African safari.
Elephants enjoying the deep waters of Lake Kariba, Matusadona National ParkWhere the lake meets luxury – tranquillity on the shores of Lake Kariba, with endless viewsCruise Lake Kariba’s shorelines on a catamaran cruise or motorboat
Lake Malawi, Malawi: Barefoot safaris
Lake Malawi offers a plethora of fun for every intrepid safari goer, from the super active to the deeply relaxed. Across the shoreline of Lake Malawi, tiny beach villages and lodges offer many opportunities to explore the waters – above or below the azure ripples. Boat trips provide the perfect vantage to appreciate the lake’s blazing sunsets. Snorkel or dive beneath the surface to take in the fishy kaleidoscope darting around the rocks in the shallows. Sailing and kayaking are at the top of the list for those eager to investigate the various bays and coves along the shoreline. And for beach lovers, there is ample opportunity to lounge along Lake Malawi’s sandy shores and breathe in the crystalline waters, drink in hand.
Barefoot bliss alongside Lake MalawiSoft sandy beaches overlooking endless waters
Lake Ihema, Akagera NP, Rwanda: Birding and big game safaris from the water
Bordered by papyrus swamps and dotted with islands, Lake Ihema – Rwanda’s second-largest lake – is a sanctuary for aquatic birds and a prime spot for relaxed game viewing. Boat cruises here are unhurried affairs on this vast lake in Akagera National Park, which features the Big 5. Drift past pods of hippos, enormous Nile crocodiles, and buffaloes grazing at the shoreline. The air rings with the calls of fish eagles, kingfishers, and hamerkops, and the keen-eyed may spot jacanas tiptoeing across lily pads or even a rare shoebill in the reeds. Morning, afternoon, and sunset departures each offer their own magic – from soft dawn light catching a heron’s wings to fiery skies reflected in still waters. It’s the perfect complement to a northern Akagera game drive, rounding out your wildlife checklist with sightings only possible from the lake’s calm surface.
Boat cruises on Lake Ihema are unhurried affairsSpotting hippos from the boatElephants dip and sip in Lake Ihema
Travel in Africa is about knowing when and where to go, and with whom. A few weeks too early/late or a few kilometres off course, and you could miss the greatest show on Earth. And wouldn’t that be a pity?
Trust & Safety
Guest payments go into a third-party TRUST ACCOUNT - protecting them in the unlikely event of a financial setback on our part. Also, we are members of SATSA who attest to our integrity, legal compliance and financial stability.
We donate a portion of the revenue from every safari sold to carefully selected conservation projects that make a significant difference at ground level.
YOUR safari choice does make a difference - thank you!
We donate a portion of the revenue from every safari sold to carefully selected conservation projects that make a significant difference at ground level. YOUR African safari choice does make a difference – thank you!
WATCH – AFRICAN SAFARI INSPIRATION:
Want to experience South Luangwa yourself? We have 
About 10 Years of Remembering Wildlife
About Adam Bannister
Roger Collinson has worked at the intersection of conservation and tourism for more than 50 years. He began his career with the Natal Parks Board in the 1970s and 1980s, where he helped draft South Africa’s first trophy hunting legislation and was later named South African Conservationist of the Year by PHASA.
What’s more, the Nel family, who’ve farmed Lokenburg for six generations, are showing how rooibos and livestock farming and biodiversity can thrive side by side.
About Gail Thomson
