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How often have you seen self-appointed experts claim that there are ‘too many’ elephants and that we have an ‘elephant problem’?
No scientific evidence – just generic claims based on casual observation or vested interests. And that chorus line is repeated again and again – and usually followed by wild speculation to do with dead trees and habitat carrying capacity. After a while, of course, the accumulated opinion becomes ‘fact’. And then often we hear about the need to kill even more elephants than we are losing in any case to poaching, habitat loss, human-wildlife conflict and trophy hunters (those large-tusked elephants). My colleagues have put together the best factual summary about this controversial issue that I have read. Ever. Next time you bump into the ‘too many’ or ‘problem’ arguments please paste the link below into the discussion. Prepare yourself though for the usual backlash when facts butt up against beliefs 😉
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
In our first story below, we take a deep dive into the vexing question of the so-called ‘elephant problem’. It is a convoluted story, and there are no blanket management regimes applicable to all areas where these great pachyderms occur. The situation is made more complex by commentators, armchair naturalists, ecologists and peanut galleries weighing in with preconceived ideas and deeply held ideologies not based on science. To look after our elephants, we require minds as dynamic as the ecological systems of which elephants are the principal architects.
One would have thought that by 2021, three decades after the advent of democracy in South Africa, the government would have made sure that the socio-economic development potential of conservation areas would be maximised. Well, our government in its limitless capacity for ineptitude, corruption and apparent cruelty, has allowed a 8,000 ha piece of prime Greater Kruger go to waste while the people living on its borders suffer unnecessarily. Our second story below is the first part of our look into the sad tale of the Mthimkhulu Game Reserve.
After all that heaviness, let’s go on safari. Our third story below is a celebration of one of the most iconic safari destinations in Africa – the Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania. Travel is opening up so max out your credit cards, cash in your investments and come for some wilderness healing in Africa. Our safari team is on standby for your enquiries.
Some two million years ago, a volcano roughly the size of Mount Kilimanjaro exploded dramatically and collapsed in on itself. Millenia later, its caldera’s ancient walls in what is now the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) are still intact, encircling and cradling one of the most biodiverse and precious wild spaces in Africa. The effect is almost cinematic, creating an impression of motionless time, sheltered and protected from the unrelenting advance of human development.
People and wildlife share the swamps, grasslands, forests, and savannas of the NCA in Tanzania; a spectacular wilderness that offers wild marvels, breath-taking scenery and complex insight into human history at every turn.
Quick facts
The NCA covers a massive area of 8,292 km² (829,200 hectares) in northern Tanzania. It is situated on the Serengeti National Park’s south-eastern boundary and is also contiguous with Maswa Game Reserve to the west, the Loliondo Game Controlled Area to the north and the Lake Natron Game Controlled Area to the north-east. It is part of the much larger Serengeti-Mara ecosystem and, while the Great Migration essentially follows a circular route, the northwest of the NCA is considered its starting point.
The Crater is the area’s flagship tourism feature, but the NCA also encompasses several smaller craters, forests, gorges, mountains, lakes, and wetlands in a smorgasbord of ecological variety. Wildlife aside, the secrets of humanity’s ancient histories are enfolded within Ngorongoro’s unique landscapes, and to many, this is the ‘cradle of humankind’. Some of the most famous paleoanthropological sites in the world are found in Olduvai Gorge, while Laetoli is home to literal footprints of hominid history.
Somewhat unsurprisingly, given the exceptional biodiversity and historical value, the NCA is a designated World Heritage Site. However, under Tanzania’s national law, it is neither a national park nor a game reserve. It is managed independently by the Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority as a parastatal organisation.
Clockwise from top left: elephant bulls meander through the flowers; a successful morning hunt for a caracal; a lion’s breath on a chilly Ngorongoro morning; a cheetah cub enjoying breakfast
The brief, recent history
In the mid-20th century, Ngorongoro was proclaimed part of the Serengeti National Park, but this was met with considerable backlash from local Maasai pastoralists, who had already been excluded from vast swathes of their homelands to make way for protected areas. Ngorongoro was born of a compromise between conserving history and biodiversity while recognising the value of the land to the Maasai people and neighbouring tribes. This unique multiple-land use area was the first of its kind in Africa, and the experiment has proved largely successful. However, burgeoning human populations have necessitated certain policy changes.
These Tanzanian conservation areas are recognised for their ecological importance, historical significance, cultural value and utility for traditional land uses.
A black rhino strolls across the crater floor
The Crater
At 264km2 (26,400 hectares), Ngorongoro Crater is the largest intact caldera in the world, surrounded by a heavily forested rim that rises some 2,300m above the grasslands below. The crater’s centre is dominated by the seasonal Lake Magadi (also spelt Makati), fed by the Ngoitokitok spring and the Munge River. Courtesy of a complex geological history, the alkaline lake is mineral-rich, and every year, lesser flamingos are attracted to its salty, shallow waters during the breeding season between October and December.
Given the extraordinary biodiversity, it is only to be expected that the wildlife on offer is equally varied and exciting. Almost all of Africa’s most iconic animals, including the Big 5 and beyond, shelter in this geological cradle. Visitors to the crater have the highest chances of seeing one of the region’s fabled black rhinos, which are otherwise notoriously difficult to spot. The crater’s black rhino spend their evenings hidden in the yellow-green fever-trees of the Lerai Forest but descend to the open plains during the day. Though hit hard by poaching in the last century, the numbers have been bolstered by translocated black rhino from South Africa, and each rhino is now individually monitored and protected.
The crater is also rumoured to be home to the highest lion density in Africa, possibly by creative marketing teams. Regardless of this speculation’s veracity, it is highly unusual to visit the crater without encountering Africa’s largest cat. Their fiercest competition, spotted hyenas, are also present in large numbers and are the subjects of a decades-long research project. Keep an eye out for these misrepresented predators lurking along the banks of Lake Magadi, waiting for the opportunity to charge through the shallow waters and snatch up an unsuspecting flamingo.
Massive flocks of flamingos in Lake Magadi
Souvenirs of history
Olduvai (or Oldupai) Gorge is a steep-sided ravine, named for the Maasai word “oldupai”, which means the “place of the wild sisal” in reference to the plants which dominate. The archaeological research in Olduvai Gorge, nearby Lake Ndutu and surrounding sites, has yielded a timeline of our evolution as a species. It traces the progression from scavenging/hunting to stone tools and the eventual progression to iron. The scattered fossils, tools and bone fragments reveal the gradual development of communal societies and social complexities that would eventually define our successes (and failures) as a species.
Bone fragments of Homo habilis (approximately 1.9 million years old), Paranthropus boisei (about 1.8 million years old), Homo erectus (1.2 million years old) and, eventually, Homo sapiens (17,000 years ago) have all been found around the gorge.
Just 45km south of Olduvai, the discovery of several sets of footprints preserved for close to 4 million years settled the archaeological debate about whether bipedalism or large brain size evolved first. Famed archaeologist Mary Leakey and her team excavated the Laetoli footprints, which are tentatively believed to have belonged to Australopithecus afarensis. This discovery has been interpreted as proof that early hominids were bipedal long before the evolution of the human brain. Somewhat whimsically, the footprints were discovered by Andrew Hill, who was visiting Dr Leakey at the time. He dodged an elephant dung missile lobbed by a colleague, fell over and found himself staring at history preserved in solidified volcanic ash.
The footprints have since been covered over to prevent damage by erosion, and none of the active archaeological sites is open to tourist visitors. However, as one of the largest onsite museums in Africa, the Olduvai Gorge Museum offers curious tourists the opportunity to view the footprints’ casts and read about their interpretation. Founded by Mary Leakey in the 1970s, the museum sits on the gorge’s edge and showcases many of the paleoanthropological artefacts from the area.
Walking in the steps of humanity’s history
Ngorongoro’s wildlife
While the geography and history of Ngorongoro are deeply fascinating, the main attraction for most is the spectacular wildlife – even beyond the crater.
From December to February, over a million wildebeest halt their almost ceaseless migration on the short grass plains of Serengeti and the Ndutu region of Ngorongoro to calve over a two week period. The resultant spectacle is a once-in-a-lifetime experience for dazzled tourists. Predators and scavengers of every description throw themselves into the wildebeest melee, dodging the sharp horns of defensive mothers to take advantage of the vulnerable calves. For Ngorongoro’s carnivores, this yearly glut increases their own offspring’s chances of survival while providing ample opportunity for inexperienced youngsters to practice their hunting skills. Fortunately, with over 8,000 calves born every day, it is not all death for the calves, and visitors can also soak up the joy of watching the wobbly, fawn-coloured calves find their feet and learn to run.
Quite aside from the adrenaline-inducing battles for survival, Ngorongoro is a paradise for keen birders. From the highland forests draped in orchids and lichen on the crater rim to the marshes and lakes below, the varied habitats of Ngorongoro make it a bird Eden for more than 500 species.
Some of Africa’s most scenically placed lodges line the rim of the ancient crater
Explore Ngorongoro
Want to go on a safari to Ngorongoro? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
So many are the exciting opportunities for Ngorongoro visitors that an article covering the basics reads like a checklist. If there is a drawback to a safari in the Maasai Mara or Serengeti, each day is focussed on exploring the largely open scenery in search of the more conventional sightings, which can translate into a kind of safari overload. In contrast, a safari through Ngorongoro can be interspersed with the many diversions and learning experiences.
For example, the Ngoitokitok spring is a popular picnic spot with visitors. Lunch can be enjoyed to the serenading of grunting hippopotamus bobbing about in the pool below the spring. Alternatively, the two smaller craters, Olmoti and Empakaai, can be explored on foot with an experienced guide and official NCA ranger. Not far from Olduvai Gorge, the gneiss inselberg of Naseru Rock protrudes sharply from the plains, and a trip to the neighbouring Lake Natron Game Controlled Area will allow visitors to see Ol Doinyo Lengai (“The Mountain of God”), an active volcano whose recent rumblings suggest that eruption is imminent. And while the craters are often bursting with eager tourists, the geologically fascinating Gol Mountains are more remote and less crowded for the adventurous traveller.
There are high-end lodges dotted about the Crater’s rim and surrounding areas, sporting spectacular views and luxurious facilities for the discerning (well-healed) tourist. July to October and December through until January are the area’s busiest tourist seasons. Still, the entire region is spectacular at any time of the year, and budget-strapped visitors can take advantage of the less expensive camping options during the quieter seasons.
For accommodation options at the best prices visit our collection of camps and lodges: private travel & conservation club. If you are not yet a member, see how to JOIN below this story.
There is so much more to experience in Ngorongoro than the traditional safari drives
Conclusion
Some 3.5 million years ago, a trio of our hominin ancestors took a stroll through some soft volcanic ash towards the local waterhole. They left behind a powerful reminder of our ancient, varied human roots. One can but wonder at the lives experienced by the people who left their footprints in the ash.
In many ways, this legacy has continued in the NCA. The multiple-land use policy recognises the intimate connection human residents have to land and its creatures. For tourists, the NCA presents an opportunity to dive back and reconnect with history, wild spaces and animals against the primordial backdrop of breath-taking Ngorongoro.
At a dinner party, round a campfire or in a pub, someone raises the topic of the ‘elephant problem’ in Southern Africa…
‘When are they going to do something about the elephants in Kruger? They just everywhere. They destroying the place, you must see. The trees are down, debarking everywhere, dead baby trees, nothing for the other animals to eat. I tell you, those elephants are outta control. Somebody needs to do something about them.’
Often, the speaker has just returned from a dry season visit to the Kruger National Park, where every artificial waterhole they’ve driven past has been attended by a herd or two of elephants, and the vegetation in the vicinity has been decimated. If they’ve been out at midday, the dust, oppressive heat and mangled bushes give the impression of their beloved park on the verge of desertification.
Does our after-dinner ecologist have a point? Do we have an elephant problem in parts of Africa?
There are many strongly held views and beliefs about elephants and how they should be managed. Many of these are not based on science but on casual observation, cultural norms, stories and ‘experience’ (all of which vary widely, inevitably coloured by myriad human biases).
Herds of elephants gather at artificial water points in the Kruger National Park, September 2018
For whom is there an elephant problem, and what is it?
For our after-dinner ecologist, there are simply too many elephants. A rural farmer living with elephants might agree locally. For elephant conservationists, the elephant problem is a lack of space for our remaining elephants, which have suffered alarming population reductions on an Africa-wide basis.
As many scientists and rangers have advocated for a while now [1],[2], we need to take a holistic view of elephants and their long term effects on an entire system while considering changing landscapes, human beings living with elephants, anthropogenic changes to the land and the elephants themselves. We’ll look largely at Southern Africa in this story, but many of the principles and ideas discussed apply anywhere elephants might live.
History
Let’s take a quick squizz at the history of elephants in the Lowveld of South Africa.
When the Sabi Game Reserve (roughly the southern half of the present-day Kruger National Park) was proclaimed, there were fewer than ten elephants left in the area. Voracious ivory hunting had denuded the area of these great creatures. While many thousands were killed for their ivory, many upped sticks and left the neighbourhood for fear of falling to our insatiable desire for their teeth. This situation had been escalating for a century or more until the herds that used to roam what is now the Kruger disappeared.
Elephants are a keystone species. In other words, if you take them out of an ecosystem, then that system will change. We do not have accurate records of the vegetation of the greater Kruger area prior to the arrival of the ivory hunters. When they arrived, they didn’t take particularly accurate measurements of the vegetation structure or pay too much heed to the composition of the grass sward as they blazed away.
The indigenous people of the area kept no written records of the vegetation, and accurate oral histories of ecology from 200 years ago are almost certainly impossible to come by. We can infer something about the historical extent of woodlands in southern Africa from paleoecology[3] – such evidence indicates that woodland extension and contraction seem to have been influenced by climate. Again, it is complicated to understand the relationships between elephants and woodlands in these times, nor is it possible to understand exactly what elephant numbers were. [4]
Elephants’ historical relationship with human beings is easier to understand. People kill animals and always have. We are the most effective predator the world has ever known (just ask the swathe of extinct species whose ghosts whisper in stories and travelogues). We do not tolerate wildlife that inconveniences us or threatens to kill us and our children. Meat is also an important protein source for human beings. This means that we have preyed on elephants from time to time for food and defence. So even before the colonists arrived with their guns, elephants would have avoided areas where human beings lived.
The point of this trip back through time is to illustrate that we do not know what the vegetation looked like before the colonialists started blazing away, mad with ivory and blood lust. This is important because this lack of knowledge has not stopped us from assigning dogmatic, ideal variables to how the vegetation should look and then attempting to manage the biggest architects of the system based on supposition and unscientific dogma.
A young elephant browses on a black monkey thorn (Senegalia burkei)
Where do elephants like to live?
Savanna elephants like to live close to water and far from people. They are most at home in savannas and will avoid thick forest and grassland devoid of trees. They need shade in the hottest parts of the day, mud for cooling down and a diverse range of plants to eat. They will graze where good grass is available and browse when herbaceous forage quality drops. When grass cover drops, elephants, especially bulls, have the greatest impact on woody plants.
Elephants are now constrained from moving through much of their potential range (they occupy just 17% of their potential range)[5] by fences and human habitation. They are no longer free to move through heterogeneous landscapes, suffering and enjoying the whims of climate-induced habitat change. Instead, elephants occupy smaller areas with insufficient space and heterogeneity of habitat for their numbers to stabilise naturally.
The Kruger National Park, although large by national standards, is long and narrow. East-West migration routes between the coastal plains of Mozambique and the Drakensberg in the west have been cut off entirely. As a result, the variety of foods and habitats available to elephants are greatly reduced. Where bulls (the most destructive feeders) would previously have spent much of their time feeding on the floodplain grasses of the coastal plain, they can no longer do that in the Kruger region. Likewise, access to such habitat has been reduced by fencing and human activity.
Elephants are lured to green croplands when times are tough, especially when cultivated fields are close to water sources. However, when the density of humanity or the land conversion attains a threshold, elephants will leave (thresholds change from place to place).
How do elephants affect vegetation?
The link between diminishing big trees and the presence of elephants is not as strong as it may seem [6].
There is no question that elephants break trees – debark, push over, stunt. But in the process, they provide habitat for other species, disperse seed, fertilise the landscape, and open up woodlands. In open systems, they seldom, if ever, destroy ecosystems irreversibly. They’re massive animals, so their effect on vegetation is obvious to the casual observer, but the effect of their absence really isn’t immediately obvious at all (yet it is no less profound[7]).
Research indicates that one to four percent of trees are destroyed by elephants each year in the protected areas of Southern Africa [2]. This level of loss may be supportable, but at the same time, it must be appreciated that this kind of utilisation will change the structure of the vegetation. It is also important to understand that elephants are not alone in their destruction of trees (from seedlings to much larger individuals – for example, there is evidence to suggest impala eat a far greater volume of tree seedlings[6]). The combined effects of other herbivores, fire, flood, drought and disease all contribute to tree survival rates.
Elephants have an especially noticeable effect on the vegetation along riverbeds. Much concern is expressed about the destruction of marula, thorn trees and baobabs in Southern Africa. (Elephants also tend to stunt mopane and combretum woodland). Little heed is given to three important factors here, however:
There is a natural die-off of hardwood species and prolonged decay and thus an accumulation of ‘destroyed wood’.
The rinderpest epidemic and over-hunting cut a swathe of destruction in the early 1900s, decimated wildlife populations and numbers didn’t recover for at least 50 years afterwards. Clearly, this lack of animals provided an opportunity for unusual woodland development, especially along the riverbanks. The current usage patterns and vegetation structure in these areas are likely more ‘natural’, and this is reflected in floodplains throughout Southern Africa[2].
Historically, where people lived (often along watercourses), they would have come into conflict with elephants (through defence or predation). This would have caused elephants to avoid areas of heavy human settlement. In turn, those areas occupied by human beings would have had vegetation that exhibited far less elephant impact than those further afield.
There is one other thing to bear in mind when considering elephants and their effect on vegetation. A cycle of vegetation change in line with elephant population change in natural areas is almost certainly longer than a human life span. In other words, even dedicated scientists assessing elephants are just seeing snapshots of a much greater cycle in nature (many scientists acknowledge this) that is very difficult to understand, much less manage for.
A young elephant bull debarks a marula tree (Sclerocarya birrea) in winter
The golden carrying capacity
In 1967, when elephant culling began in earnest in the Kruger National Park, wildlife managers were focused on maintaining a ‘natural balance’ of species. During the 1960s, 70s and 80s, controlling animal numbers was the primary focus of much wildlife management. [2]
The Kruger National Park aimed to maintain the elephant population at 7000. This number was based on a supposed carrying capacity of one elephant per square mile, but it is difficult to locate the exact science behind this number. Indeed, it seems rather conspicuous by its absence [8].
More than 70 000 elephants were destroyed in the attempt to maintain the golden carrying capacity in Southern Africa (mostly in Hwange) and, in so doing, protect elephant habitat and the species they shared those habitats with. With hindsight and much better science, it seems that the culling programme was rather simplistic.
For starters, the amount of artificial water provided for animals in Southern Africa does not appear to have affected the management approach to elephants – there seemed to be ignorance (willful or otherwise) that pumping water everywhere was increasing elephant numbers through better survival rates and decreasing emigration.
While the provision of artificial water may have been done with the greater good in mind, the results were dubious at best. As Professor Rudi van Aarde says: ‘the control of elephant numbers did little to address their impact. This is not surprising considering that impact is due to factors other than numbers alone…’[2]
Alan Savory, distinguished from many experts by his ability to admit to mistakes, was responsible for slaughtering 40,000 elephants in Zimbabwe during the 1960s. After that period in his life, he decided that elephants were not the problem and that culling them did little to improve the conditions of the rangelands where he worked.[9]
Elephants need water to drink and cool off…and enjoying playing in it too
Life’s most precious resource
Elephants seldom go further than ten km (pers. comm. Bruce Clegg) from water but ideally like to be within five km of water [2]. When food in the vicinity of water depletes, then elephants will move further afield. This movement creates stress, especially in drought times and has a negative effect on calf survival. Artificial water clearly removes this effect.
In the large protected areas of Southern Africa, water is concentrated in perennial rivers and, during the wet season, in annual streams and seasonal pans. This distribution of water means that during the dry winter, elephants (and other animals) will congregate along perennial water sources and spread out during the wet summer. Clearly, movement like this will allow a heterogeneous use of the landscape by browsing and grazing herbivores.
Up until 1994, more than 300 artificial water points blossomed in the Kruger. Unsurprisingly, the elephant population increased. This was great initially because wildlife needed to be nurtured – it was recovering from more than a century of pillage. But the maintenance of the water points into the 1990s was ill-advised. Likewise, the provision of water in Hwange National Park, Etosha National Park and Chobe National Park accentuated the impact on vegetation in the vicinity of the water. It intensified die-offs during droughts (and still does in some cases).[2]
It is not only elephants that benefit from the provision of artificial water. Wildebeest, zebra and impala (particularly the latter two) are highly dependent on water and will not stray far from it. When their numbers increase in the presence of artificial water, they outcompete some species and attract predators. More mixed feeders like impala mean a greater toll on tree seedlings. In the Kruger, this meant the demise of healthy sable, roan and eland populations and also the local extinction of brown hyena [10].
If we look at the private reserves on the western boundary of the Kruger, we see a patchwork of tiny properties with landowners all managing for their (or their tourists’) needs. All the little properties have numerous dams and pumped pans. Many are the times I’ve heard landowners bemoaning the fact that the elephants are pushing down trees but not making any connection to the fact that by pumping water, they are ensuring that the elephants don’t ever have cause to leave their land. Pumping water means that the most desperate times (droughts) – when trees are most likely to be pushed over for forage – are precisely the times when elephants will concentrate on their land.
Elephants use areas close to water much more intensively than they do areas further afield. If water is equally distributed across a landscape as it is in the Sabi Sands, for example, (compared with the Kruger where there are now large swathes of land without artificial water) then the impact of elephants will be uniform. Areas that might build up a bank of forage that could be used in times of drought are used intensively all the time with the consequence that die-offs from starvation during drought are that much more intensive in areas where water is provided.
Population numbers increasing or decreasing?
In much of Southern Africa, elephants have not been intensively managed. We’ve given them water in some places and provided anti-poaching. In South Africa, we have subjected them to far more intensive management through the provision of huge amounts of water, culling, translocations and fences. Population growth in South Africa is less variable and much higher than in areas where elephants are left alone, suggesting that our well-meaning intentions stimulated population growth.[2]
You might be surprised to hear that elephant numbers in Southern Africa are actually relatively stable. In northern Botswana, the elephant population has remained stable at around 130,000 animals for more than a decade. There is some debate over this number but it is possible discrepancies come from cross-border elephant movements. This is not to dismiss any concerns about their impact, but it does suggest some sort of natural equilibrium being reached. How long this might last is not clear, and the situation should be constantly evaluated.
Human-elephant conflict
One of the major calls for elephant numbers to be reduced comes from people living with them – outside or near unfenced protected areas. This is understandable. Very few people, especially those who could lose all they hold dear (crops, family, livestock) in a single, aggressive elephant encounter, could tolerate the risk to life and livelihood. Sadly, the plight of rural people living with elephants has been co-opted by politicians and elements of the trophy hunting fraternity to encourage the lethal reduction of elephant numbers[11]. It is doubtful that trophy hunting, unless implemented on an industrial scale, will have any effect on human-elephant conflict – it may even cause the reverse by making elephants more terrified of human beings and therefore increase the likelihood of aggressive encounters.
As human and/or elephant populations grow outside protected areas, the chances of conflict between elephants and humans will increase. We have similar habitat needs – human settlements need to be close to water while the growing of crops in fertile soil attracts the attention of elephants, especially bulls. There are a lot of people working to mitigate the conflict between elephants and people in rural areas. However, it must be noted that while elephant populations in unfenced areas across Southern Africa are relatively stable, human populations are growing. Therefore defining the problem in terms of the number of elephants alone is incorrect.
That said, it is crucial that rural people don’t see elephants as a threat to survival. Ideally, they need to benefit from elephants (through tourism and, much as it stings to say, perhaps through protein and trophy fees – avoiding targeting large-tusked animals and removing their genes from the population). The bottom line is that the people who live with elephants have to see an advantage to their existence.
Heterogeneity – a key management objective
The key goal for most conservation organisations is to improve and maintain biodiversity. One of the ways of achieving this is to manage areas for maximum heterogeneity. In other words, management for an area like the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park (GLTP) needs to maximise the number of different habitats. Some of these will be prime areas, some marginal, some vacant, some occupied. Densities should vary naturally across time and space in accordance with patchy resource availability. In large enough areas, this heterogeneity of landscapes would, ideally, result in subpopulations that will vary in number, growth rates etc. These would then be managed through the lens of a metapopulation.[12], [14]
One of the ways that the Kruger is currently aiming to do this is by closing waterholes and leaving large areas with no artificial water. Between 1995 and 2008, Kruger management reduced the number of waterholes from 340 to 116. This allows less water-dependent species to flourish in the absence of competition from those that are more water-dependent. Indeed SANParks management initiatives focus on spatial manipulation to control impact rather than ‘command and control’ approaches used between the 50s and early 90s.[2], [13]
Our after-dinner ecologist doesn’t understand that when he drives his family down the main road between Mopani and Shingwedzi Rest Camps of an October midday, the waterhole that looks as if an apocalypse has befallen it is placed where it is so that he and his family will see the elephants (and other animals) coming for their midday snifter. He is failing to understand that the proportion of the park he can behold is a very tiny fraction of the entire system. And one that, because of the waterhole’s location and time of year, looks fairly dire.
Reducing artificial water is probably the most important intervention we can make. Closely distributed waterholes cause uniform impact over an area, reduce roaming distances, and reduce stress on young elephants, increasing their survival rates. Closing water points results in more intensive use of vegetation around water, which could cause stress on calves and reduce population growth. At the same time, vegetation away from water can recover. Clearly, this only applies to large heterogeneous areas and not to small, fenced reserves where much more direct management of elephants is required (contraception, translocation etc.). The larger the area, the greater the chance that elephants will experience a variety of living conditions that could limit their population growth rates across the region and possibly across the continent.[2]
The way forward
Ideally, elephant areas need to be joined with corridors and augmented with buffer zones to create a variety of landscapes and habitats and uneven use of vegetation. In many parts of Africa, elephants roam widely out of protected areas – which are also important repositories of biodiversity, even when people are present. It is here that human-elephant conflict must be mitigated, and people who are expected to live with elephants should benefit from their conservation in some way. As distasteful as this may be to many of us, arguments in favour of hunting must be heard.
Adaptive management is also crucial – the questions are complex and require dynamic solutions based on a constantly changing knowledge base. We need to continually re-think conservation and management, especially of keystone species that are both emotive and emotional. The ‘command and control’ approach to keeping the ‘balance of nature’ is no longer in vogue outside of small parks. It has given way to approaches that aim to mimic the dynamism of natural systems. Modern approaches focus on land and ensuring the integrity of ecological processes rather than on elephant (and other species) numbers. In the case of elephants, this means excluding them from sensitive areas and restoring areas by removing artificial water (as has been done in Kruger).
Transfrontier parks also play a massive role – the fewer fences we have, the more easily elephants can move between protected areas. The less concentrated their effects will be as long as we do not discourage emigration by providing water.
Has any of this actually been tested? Yes, in the GLTP and the Kruger. When culling ended in 1994, there was a massive growth in elephant numbers, but since 2003, the growth rate has slowed (from 6.5 % during the culling period to roughly 4.2%). Growth rates in areas more than five km from water fluctuate without trend, and those within this five km zone are constant [2]. In 2017 there were an estimated 19 927 elephants in the Kruger National Park. Will it level off? We don’t know yet but quite possibly given the landscape management (as opposed to numbers management) of the GLTP. Encouragingly, come 2012, 22 of 36 elephant populations across East and Southern Africa had stabilised for roughly a decade. It is not certain that this will remain the case forever, but it points to natural processes limiting elephant numbers.
As human beings with an interest in nature, it is imperative that we understand that we do not have the historical records or ecological understanding to be implementing ‘command and control’ approaches to the conservation of keystone species in large protected areas. We have to manage the land for heterogeneity and do our best to mimic nature while accepting that anthropogenic landscape changes are irreversible in some places. We also have to accept that sometimes, as a very last resort, lethal measures may be necessary.
So, do we have an elephant problem? It depends on your perspective, where you live, what piece of land you are referring to and what your goals are. As with all things in nature, it is a question with answers more complicated than our current understanding.
An elephant bull considers the Maasai Mara
Acknowledgements
My gratitude to Rudi van Aarde (Emeritus Professor, University of Pretoria), Bruce Clegg (Resident Ecologist Malilingwe Trust) for answering my questions and SANParks for information on elephant numbers.
The 8,000 ha Mthimkhulu Game Reserve is part of the Greater Kruger, an open ecosystem with Kruger National Park and the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park where animals roam more than 3.5 million ha with no internal fences. One would think that an 8,000 ha piece of the Greater Kruger with more than 40 km of river frontage would be a cash cow for the lucky owners. After all, similar land in the Sabi Sands Game Reserve has been valued at more than ZAR 70,000/ha. Let’s be conservative here and halve that for Mthimkhulu because it’s not an established tourist hotspot and the soils and vegetation probably won’t support quite the same density of animals that places in the Sabi Sands might.
So, at ZAR 35,000/ha, we’re looking at a piece of land worth roughly ZAR 245 million. Let’s halve it again just to be safe because there is minimal infrastructure on the reserve, the fences need to be fixed, and a crack anti-poaching unit is required. That gives the owners an asset worth somewhere in the region of ZAR 120 million – still a lot of ZAR.
Yet, on the borders of the Mthimkhulu Game Reserve, about 50 km north of Phalaborwa, there are two of the most impoverished rural villages you could ever hope to find. The people of Mbaula and Phalaubeni should, by rights, be the owners and beneficiaries of this piece of paradise on the Kruger’s western boundary – they are the only people living anywhere near the reserve and were forcibly removed to their current location in 1967.
That they are not benefitting from Mthimkhulu is a long, sad story of callous politics, corrupt trophy hunting and ineptitude of the highest order. Mercifully, things may be turning around for the reserve and, therefore, the people.
Mthimkhulu is dotted with gorgeous, granite koppies
On our first morning walk, we left camp heading south, parallel with the Klein Letaba. On the bank, we walked beneath ancient jackalberries, apple leaves (the season’s fallen foliage crunching underfoot), and some of the hugest leadwoods I’ve seen. In the sandy riverbed, our guides from Manukuza Walking Safaris pointed out myriad tracks – buffalo, giraffe, elephant, waterbuck, genet, civet and a male leopard. We also found a dragonfly nymph in a little crystalline pool. As the morning warmed, we shed layers and made for a granite outcrop that, apart from a grazed knee, offered an endless panoramic view of a landscape bathed in the reds, bronzes and greens of the early winter; a landscape that has inspired adventures and dreams for centuries.
Geography
Mthimkhulu is bounded by the annual Klein Letaba River on the east and the perennial Groot Letaba River to the south. The vegetation is a mix of mopane woodland, broad-leafed combretum woodland, marula-topped crests and riverine woodland dominated by apple leaf and jackalberry trees. Several granite koppies stand guard, topped with white kirkias and Natal rock figs, giving stunning vantage of the area. The region receives an annual rainfall of around 550 mm.
The grass sward shows many signs indicating a dearth of large grazing herbivores, the result being swathes of relatively low-grazing value species. This situation can only be remedied by the influx of buffalo, elephant and other bulk grazers – all animals that avoid the reserve because of poaching.
To the south of the Groot Letaba River is the Letaba Ranch, a reserve administered by The Limpopo Department of Economic Development Environment and Tourism (LEDET). As far as the Letaba Ranch is concerned, the only thing accurate in the LEDET name is the word Limpopo. Economic development, environmental care and tourism are phantoms. In practice, the reserve has been plundered, allegedly with tacit approval from officials, hunters, and, if you can believe it, a miner. This fine, upstanding fellow removed half a hillside before a community involved in a land claim chased him off. Parts of the western fence (effectively the western fence line of the Kruger National Park) wouldn’t hinder an asthmatic duiker, let alone an elephant.
We returned to camp around 13h00 and, after some midday snifters and a meal, my seven comrades and I fell into various states of slumber as the perfectly still afternoon passed lazily overhead. The evening stroll netted us a fleeting view of a buffalo bull, who took exception to our exploring and disappeared into the mopane woodland. Perhaps he’d been spooked by the male lion whose pug marks dotted the river bed. There was also an incongruous pool set behind a natural granite weir. Myriad fish shot between the smooth pebbles coloured emerald with algae. The highlight for me was a female painted snipe foraging in a muddy puddle. As dusk fell, we lit a fire on the banks of the river, cooked a basic but delicious meal and shared stories beneath a star-sprayed sky.
Apartheid’s relics
So why is the community living on the reserve’s boundary not benefitting from it? Well, mainly because the government (provincial and national) cannot or will not decide who the correct traditional authority of the area is supposed to be. (The fact that there is a debate over who has the genetic right to benefit from a piece of land in a constitutional democracy is a brain-melting discussion for another time.)
In brief, the chief who claims ownership of the reserve and dominion over Mbaula and Phalaubeni villages, Ngove, lives some 50 km away near Giyani. The chieftaincy was created by the Native Commissioner in the 60s, before the Mthimkhulu community’s forced removal from the Tzaneen area. The Mabunda family, who live in Mbaula, claim that the chieftaincy is theirs. Extensive research completed by a University of South Africa academic indicates that the Mabunda claim is valid. Obviously, Ngove doesn’t want to give up the cash cow that Mthimkhulu could be.
The dispute has been to court any number of times over the last 26 (!) years. For reasons that go well beyond the scope of this story (but including allegations of political collusion and skulduggery), the dispute has never been settled. As I write this, another application based on a constitutional provision that allows communities to benefit from the land they live on, regardless of which traditional authority is in charge, is with the courts. In it, the people of Mbaula and Phalaubeni are applying to benefit from their land without the need for the chieftaincy to be resolved.
The upshot of this convoluted legal/ cultural/ social/ story is that there is no clear landowner. This means that no investor or tourism operator can sign or secure a long-term lease. Without a secure, legally binding lease, money is impossible to raise, and potential investors are understandably reticent.
Tracking a leopard in the Klein Letaba during the wet season
As the second frigid morning dawned, our guides hustled us into the vehicle before it was light. There was a lot of grumbling. We drove down to the confluence of the Groot and Klein Letaba Rivers, where, finally, we were allowed to mainline some caffeinated liquid as the sun rose over the historic confluence. There is a profound sense of memory about the place. As the mist rose off the water, we could almost sense the ghosts of the Khoisan, refugees from the Zulu wars, ancient traders coming to barter their wares from the coast, and the Boer hunters looking for winter biltong.
Where are the animals?
While all this political tomfoolery has ground on with the speed of frozen treacle mooching uphill, the people of the two villages have suffered through neglect, corruption and unscrupulous trophy hunting operations. For many years, various trophy hunting outfits have plundered Mthimkhulu. They have bribed community leaders for access and made minimal contributions to the running and upkeep of the land from which they took the animals. An estimated 20 million rand has flowed to the hunters over the years, with less than a tenth making it into the villages.
Sadly, poaching is rife. It is essentially meat poaching – some for the pot and some for the commercial bushmeat trade. There is simply not enough financial input to maintain the fences and keep a permanent anti-poaching unit.
Several photo-tourism operators have done their best to obtain a lease for Mthimkhulu because it has such potential. Most have eventually left with their tails tucked firmly between their legs. Without an indisputably legal, long-term lease, no funder with a quarter of a brain is going to invest the kind of money required to develop an ecotourism hotspot. Likewise, no conservation NPO is going to step in and foot the bill for looking after the reserve if there is no certainty. SANParks, who look after the Kruger, will also not get involved until the dispute is settled.
The upshot is a poached and pillaged, yet potentially thriving safari hotspot.
Clockwise from top left: Armoured ground cricket (Acanthoplus sp.); western yellow-bellied sand snake; red-veined drop wing; wild cotton (Gossypium herbaceum)
After our warming drinks, we headed inland away from the rivers. Mammals we did not see, but we saw plenty of encouraging signs as we wove between the mopane trees towards another gorgeous koppie. Aardvarks, hyenas, warthogs and buffalo clearly wandered the game paths with relative frequency. On the koppie, we watched a bateleur searching the seemingly endless wilderness for signs of brunch. A zephyr blew the last of the leaves from the Kirkia trees as we contemplated the winter woodlands below. Those ghosts from the confluence seemed to have followed us up, and I couldn’t help but wonder who else had rested on the rocks over the millennia – what marvels they must have seen.
The Villages
Travelling through Mbaula and Phalaubeni, one can scarcely be surprised that some people have taken to poaching – there is very little to eat, and employment is a dream so far from reality it may as well include unicorns. There is no running water and very little in the way of electricity (and only for those who can afford it). The nearest medical facility (and that is to give it a compliment it almost certainly doesn’t deserve) is 20 km away in the village of Makhuba. If you do not have a car and you have a medical emergency, then good luck.
I am always struck by how different the villages feel depending on the time of day. Midday is the worst – the harsh light makes the dusty, litter-strewn lanes, wilting gardens of maize and half-built homes look that much more desperate. But as the evening comes, the light softens, and people – tremendously resilient people – come out of their homes to chat to neighbours. Children play amongst the goats, donkeys and clucking chickens. The sound of cattle bells grows as men return the cattle to their kraals for the night while women light fires for cooking or warmth in their yards. Those with enough cash might head to the local tavern to drink quarts of beer.
Life in these villages is hard. All of the social ills that come with an economically depressed area manifest, yet the people somehow carry on. They collect water from intermittently dry boreholes (often privately installed), clear mopane woodland by hand to plant maize and a few other crops, herd their livestock into the woodlands to graze and do whatever odd jobs they can. The children go to school (covid allowing) and try their best to glean something from the human rights tragedy that is our government’s idea of education.
Clockwise from top left: a homestead; children wandering the street of a Sunday afternoon; many of the houses are incomplete with owners building as and when they have money to spare; a fallow maize field; wood remains the primary fuel for cooking and heating
The afternoon passed like only a Lowveld afternoon can – warm, gentle and smiling. As the sun moved towards the mountains in the west, we made our way onto a massive island of rocks in the middle of the Klein Letaba River. We watched a pied kingfisher trophy hunting one of the pools, silhouetted against the tangerine orb in the west. We listened as the corn crickets crackled at each other. Someone claimed they heard a leopard sawing nearby. Just before dark, we wandered back to our campfire for a sing-song and more stories – stories all the more richly told for the atmosphere created by the fire, the Milky Way and the wilderness where we sat.
Potential
Mthimkhulu’s potential is enormous. Mbaula and Phalaubeni are relatively small villages. There is a lot of communal land outside the reserve that could be incorporated into the fence or be more productively used for farming, grazing or projects that could supply tourism operations. This is not a luxury of which many reserves on the borders of Greater Kruger can boast. A brief gander at a map of the Sabi Sands will reveal villages right up against the western boundary fence – this is not the case for Mthimkhulu.
Two sides of the reserve are bounded by rivers. Mthimkhulu has more river frontage than any other similar-sized private game reserve in the Lowveld. The nearest commercial airport is a 60 minutes drive away (Phalaborwa) on an excellent tar road. It is a shorter, more pleasant drive than, for example, that from Hoedspruit into the northern Sabi Sands, which will leave you in need of severe chiropractic and dental attention. An airstrip could easily be built outside the reserve to service charter flights.
What is needed is a valid authority to sign a valid lease with a seriously innovative tourism operation (or more than one). Ideally, the costs and practicalities of maintaining the reserve should be borne by a conservation NPO in partnership with the government. The land management needs to be cutting edge. Strong consideration should be given to using the herding four health (H4H) model being employed in parts of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park, where communities graze their cattle as one herd inside the park according to holistic resource management principles. This will benefit not only the cattle and their owners but also the grasses and soils of Mthimkhulu.
Poaching remains a problem at Mthimkhulu.
On our last morning, we headed north up the river as the sun poked its head over the Kruger. We were rewarded with an excellent view of a small buffalo herd moving east across the riverbed post a dawn drink (substantially more algae rich than mine had been). We crossed back onto the Mthimkhulu side, cautiously walking along a game path fringed by thick riverine bush when our guide motioned for us to freeze. He went ahead slightly then turned, waving for us to retreat quickly.
‘Go, behind that bush,’ I said to the two behind me. I expected a buffalo to come thundering out of the undergrowth at any second.
‘But there’s a person!’ hissed the sharp-eyed woman in front of me.
‘It’s cattle, not buffalo,’ the guide realised.
Two of us leapt up the bank to see if we could find the man but he’d melted into the mopane. As we returned to join the rest, the guide spotted something shiny in a tree – a thick wire snare, expertly strung with bark sinews, purposed to catch a buffalo.
We spent the next hour removing a total of 24 snares from the area – all made from cable most likely stolen from the Kruger fence just to the north.
Sharing stories around the fire after a great day on foot in the wild
A new dawn
There is hope for Mthimkhulu. In the next few months, another court date could well see the disputes finally put to bed. This will allow the people of Mbaula and Phalaubeni to sign a lease with a serious investor. And there are quite a few groups standing by to get things going. One of these is Manukuza Walking Safaris, which is forging ahead and delivering excellent bush experiences on this historical game reserve despite the challenges. If you’re thinking of a rustic, authentic experience in some of the wildest parts of the Greater Kruger that will make a meaningful conservation difference, then give them a shout.
Resources
For more on the politcal, cultural and hunting debacle of the wider area see here
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So the Aspinall Foundation plans to spend a fortune of donor money to rehome captive-bred elephants from their zoo in Kent, England to a wildlife reserve in Kenya. This, while wild-caught baby elephants are being taken from their mothers and sold by the Namibian and Zimbabwean authorities to zoos in China and elsewhere. Am I alone in believing that the donor money could be better spent?
GREAT NEWS is that the attempt to STRIP MINE Selati Game Reserve near the Kruger NP has been CALLED OFF. I confirmed this with the reserve general manager Bryan Havemann. Well done to Bryan, his team and everyone who helped publicise this attack on wildlife land.
Thanks to all who provided feedback on the new citrus farm on the Greater Kruger border. My team and I are glad to see that most people value objective journalism and the need for accurate facts to best assess this unfortunate situation. But thanks also to the gent who criticised me for being too ‘balanced’ and for his ‘outrage’ that I was not more radical in my reporting. His right to express an opinion aside, feedback like this reminds us of the vast chasm between reality and ideology. Another person was less subtle in her rant and personal attacks on me and on brand AG – for reporting the facts! We soldier on …
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
As I watched the carnage unfolding in South Africa this week, reported on by international news agencies, I, like most people, was filled with a deep sense of depression. This is not the place to discuss the travesty and its social causes. It is, however, the place to lament the damage it could do to our already fragile tourism industry, much of which depends on international travel.
To those of you thinking about coming to South Africa for your safari, please take heed not of the thugs but rather of the volunteers, mostly poor and often unemployed, who emerged to clean up their streets and communities. These selfless, beautiful, determined, stoic and resilient people are the South Africans that will demonstrate the spirit of our country to you when you arrive here to marvel at our natural wonders.
As our first story below refers, ReconAfrica, the hideous Canadian company that think it would be a great idea to drill for oil in the Kavango basin, have been exposed as a pack of penny-stock pedlars.
If you’re after the wildest kind of safari in one of the most untouched and vast wilderness areas in Africa, then look no further than the Luangwa Valley in Zambia, showcased in our second story below. It is the perfect place to escape the madness humanity has created for ourselves.
Lastly, in our third story below, we discuss the rather fascinating science behind rebranding Lycaon pictus. It would seem that ‘painted dog’ evokes the most positive response.
Independent financial research organisation Viceroy Research has released a damning report on Reconnaissance Energy Africa Ltd (ReconAfrica) – the Canadian oil and gas company that has set its sights on the Kavango Basin in Namibia and Botswana. The Viceroy report labels ReconAfrica a “stock-promoted junior explorer, drilling imaginary oil basins in a fragile ecosystem”. It concludes by saying that the detailed findings have been shared with Canadian regulators.
ReconAfrica has rejected suggestions that it is a “pump and dump” stock. In this illegal practice, stock prices are inflated through misleading assertions, allowing insiders to sell off their shares for profit after a surge in interest before the price crashes. ReconAfrica’s share price has risen from around USD 0.5 to USD 13 in the past 18 months, despite serious concerns about the environmental implications of the proposed mining operations.
However, Viceroy’s report states that “once (ReconAfrica’s) promotional veil has been pulled back, we believe the company will revert to trading as a speculative, but highly unimpressive, penny stock”.
In summary, the report highlights the following geological and practical concerns:
Drilling blind
ReconAfrica has been marketing its exploration allotment as a potential shale (unconventional) play – a type of exploration banned by the Namibian Government. The Botswana Government has denied that ReconAfrica has permission to conduct this type of exploration and has stated that the company is only in the initial stages of assessing geological data.
The company has used surface geology analysis, geochemical sniffing and aeromagnetic data to indicate the possibility of a basin that might justify real oil and gas exploration – “this severe overreaction is the equivalent of justifying a gold mine at a beach because a metal detector pinged”.
The company is years and tens of millions of dollars away from drilling an exploratory well with any chance of discovering commercial oil or gas. The three stratigraphic wells were drilled to “justify overly optimistic press releases, swindle investors and fulfil their immediate commitments to the government to retain their leases”.
No well data has been released because the two wells drilled so far failed to encounter oil or gas.
“This approach of drilling blind was common in the 1940s to the 1960s among the oil and gas giants who had billions to burn; for a smaller company with limited case and time, this is a last-ditch effort.”
Their licence to drill
ReconAfrica’s license requires them to forfeit 75% of the lease area by January 2022, and it is unlikely they will have sufficient data to determine which sites to relinquish – “they are rapidly running out of time to do anything that would yield a commercial discovery.”
The Sproule Report
The report produced by Sproule, an external reserves auditor, was purely conceptual, based on potential analogues in other countries – it is a work of “geo-fantasy”.
Regardless, Sproule estimates just a 3.3% chance of commercial success.
The “Kavango” Basin
The Viceroy analysts believe that ReconAfrica’s lease is likely on the Owambo basin rather than the previously unexplored Kavango basin. The Owambo basin has been extensively prospected but with limited success
Along with the environmental concerns, the Viceroy report also indicates that various members of ReconAfrica’s management come with chequered histories, ranging from bribery to incompetence and a trail of ecological damage and unrehabilitated wells. The retail interest they have acquired, according to the report, is due to a strategy of duping unsophisticated investors through crooked analysts, stock promoters, YouTubers and “ClickBait masters”. ReconAfrica’s association with Namibian businessman Knowledge Katti created the impression of insider political connections to “do the magic” with government officials.
The critical report concludes by stating that ReconAfrica is a “tale as old as time”, manipulating investors that will ultimately be burned when the fiction is revealed as such. Viceroy’s report prompted a brief dip in share price and an immediate backlash from ReconAfrica in a press release refuting the “false, short report”, to which Viceroy responded as follows.
[Editorial note: Viceroy is headed by short-sellers whose research has, in recent years, triggered stock collapses in German company Wirecard and South Africa company Steinhoff.]
From individual identities to brands, names carry significant weight in human interpretation. The words associated with particular objects or animals create a series of mental connections and a perception of certain qualities or traits. For this reason, some scientists have been calling for a rebranding of the African wild dog – to escape the negative connotations and associations with stray or feral domestic dogs. However, the IUCN and many conservation organisations still refer to them as African wild dogs. A recent paper puts forward an evidence-based approach for understanding the conservation implications behind the vernacular name of choice for the charismatic Lycaon pictus.
The scientific name Lycaon pictus translates roughly into a “painted wolf-like creature”, but the African painted wolf belongs to a distinct genus only distantly related to either domestic dogs or wolves. It is well-established that painted wolf populations have suffered dramatically through human persecution and habitat loss throughout the continent. In many situations, they are still perceived as blood-thirsty and brutal predators. The question is whether their name has contributed to this persecution and whether or not a rebranding could invest people in their conservation.
The author, ecologist Bryony Blades, was inspired by the 4th episode of BBC’s Dynasties, titled “Painted Wolf”, and the subsequent debate that resurfaced with little evidence-based support on either side. To provide evidence in a more quantifiable manner, she investigated previous scientific journal entries and conducted online surveys aimed at the general public. The first of these surveys was a willingness-to-pay (WTP) survey to establish the influence of the name on the donating behaviour of the participants. Every participant was presented with a picture paired with one of the four names for painted wolves: African wild dog, painted wolf, African hunting dog, or Cape hunting dog. The responses from the 781 respondents across six different continents showed no significant differences in donations between the name variations.
An interesting aspect of these results was that Australasia donated the second largest mean amount by continent, even though the term “wild dog” is used in Australia to refer to feral domestic dogs, dingoes and dingo-domestic dog hybrids. Though the negative perceptions of the name choice were expected to be pertinent to donations from Australia, this was not reflected in the data.
The second survey yielded more potentially significant results. This word association survey used the individual terms “hunting”, “wolf”, “wild”, “dog”, and “painted”. Respondents were asked to associate these terms with another word, and these responses were then judged as being either negative or positive/neutral. Somewhat predictably, the word “hunting” returned the highest number of negative reactions, though the author acknowledges that this may have been due to its association with human activities. However, as the purpose of the survey was to ascertain the primary, subconscious response to a word, the negative reactions are still valid. The responses to “painted” and “dog” were almost all positive. Interestingly, of the 730 responses, there were 51 negative associations with the word “wolf” and 23 associated with the word “wild” as being “dangerous” or “scary”.
As the author explains, the common name of Lycaon pictus is only a part of a much broader conservation issue. However, it is helpful to frame the debate in marketing terms to understand why some conservationists are searching for a rebranding that distances the endangered canids from historic negative associations. Changing a brand name is commonplace in the commercial world, and it is worth considering the effects on environmental conservation. While the linguistic choice does not seem to impact donating behaviour, it does influence perception. Overall, the research concludes that “painted dog” triggers the most positive linguistic associations.
Whatever the ultimate conclusion, there is no question that any attempt at rebranding (or rejection thereof) must be a collaborative and collective effort. This, in turn, should be driven by the scientists and organisations most invested in the future of Lycaon pictus.
It is easy to understand why the symbolism attached to valleys is similar across cultures and continents. They are places that represent life and beauty – inspiring artists, poets and musicians. For the more practically-minded, valleys are sheltered places of safety, guarded by mountains and made fertile by rivers and streams flowing from their slopes. Luangwa Valley is the perfect African example – a vast Zambian wilderness; a playground for tourists seeking an authentic, unfussy safari experience.
It is rugged unspoilt, and best explored on foot in the company of some of Africa’s best guides.
Being on foot in Africa is a connective nature experience like no other
A river runs through it
Life in the Luangwa Valley centres around the Luangwa River and its rich floodplains that spill over into the surrounding plains, savannas and woodlands. The eponymous river is one of Zambia’s most extensive, rising in the north-eastern corner of the country and meandering south-west before flowing into the Zambezi River. As part of the tail-end of Africa’s Great Rift Valley, the ancient tectonic forces that shaped the landscape laid the foundations for spectacular scenery. The magnificent Muchinga Mountains form an escarpment that plunges some 700m to the valley floor, which reaches a width of up to 100km wide. The river changes its course regularly when in flood, creating new oxbow lakes and hairpin bends for the hippos to occupy in their hundreds.
There are four national parks within the Luangwa Valley: South Luangwa National Park (SLNP), North Luangwa National Park (NLNP), Luambe National Park (Luambe NP) and Lukusuzi National Park (Lukusuzi NP). These are surrounded by numerous unfenced Game Management Areas and, with the Mid-Zambezi Valley, the ecosystem covers a relatively undisturbed 70,000km2 of wilderness.
The rich and vibrant habitats are home to some of the highest densities of wildlife in Zambia. According to the Zambian Carnivore Programme, this section of eastern Zambia boasts the largest lion population in the country and the second largest population of African painted wolves. The region is also home to a Luangwa endemic: the Thornicroft’s giraffe (suspected subspecies of the Masai giraffe). Other Zambian specialities include the Cookson’s wildebeest (a subspecies of the blue wildebeest) and the Crawshay’s zebra (a subspecies of the plains zebra).
On foot in the valley
Luangwa is often referred to as the home of the walking safari, and the region was among the first places on the continent to offer walking safaris. Game warden, conservationist, and travel-pioneer Norman Carr famously believed that it was impossible to know an area without exploring it properly on foot. Generations of expert guides have followed in his footsteps, trained to embrace the same ethos and appreciation for the wild as the first walking guides.
There is a twinge of adrenaline heading out on foot into the presence of Africa’s most revered (and potentially dangerous) animals. The genuine value, however, lies in the complete nature immersion. For most, the ordinary human senses are dulled by overstimulation and frenetic schedules. So, it is almost astonishing how, when in the company of an expert guide, it is suddenly possible to revert to a far more primal state of awareness. The sudden amplification of sound, smell and touch (and fear) can be profoundly grounding.
What is more, the Luangwa Valley is a biodiversity hotspot. Rather than hoping for an encounter with a big animal (which will likely happen regardless), revel in the small things. Appreciate the morning light catching the dew of a perfect spider web or marvel at the tenacity of a dung beetle in action. Stop to admire the intricate network of veins in an elephant track and the careful construction of a batis nest or run a hand over the rough bark of an ancient ebony tree. The magic of the Luangwa Valley is so overwhelming that it takes time to soak in fully.
The Luangwa Valley offers some of the best walking safaris in Africa
South Luangwa National Park
The largest of the valley’s four national parks, SLNP, is also the most popular (though it remains almost entirely unspoilt and operates at relatively low tourist densities). The Muchinga Escarpment borders the 9,059km2 (90,000 hectare) park along its western and northern edges, while much of the infrastructure centres around the Luangwa River and its many tributaries. As a general rule, the Mfuwe area is the park’s busiest, and sightings can become somewhat frenetic during the high season. The Nsefu sector of the park is quieter and more remote, offering a more exclusive feel.
Along with enormous herds of elephants and buffaloes, SLNP is renowned for its dazzling leopard sightings, and visitors are regularly treated to more than one leopard in a day. SLNP is also home to one of the most well-known elephant herds in the world. These brazen pachyderms famously return year after year to snack on the wild mangos in Mfuwe Lodge. The herds merrily stride through the reception area, oblivious to the amazement of guests and staff (or perhaps simply accepting it as their due).
Just before the start of the rainy season in November, the park’s skies are filled with flashes of pink as the carmine bee-eaters return for the summer. These gloriously coloured birds nest in holes excavated in sandbanks, and appreciative guests can while away the hours at a hide watching the flashing colours as the birds prepare for the breeding season. (Have a look at this wonderful trip report for an account of a South Luangwa safari)
An African painted wolf observes a flock of carmine bee-eaters, their nests in the riverbank below
North Luangwa NP
North Luangwa National Park is far more remote, and visitors here are unlikely to encounter another tourist group in the entire 4,636 km2 (46,000 hectares). The road network is relatively sparse, and the camps are rustic and fully immersive, designed to be dismantled during the rainy season.
This park is not suitable for solo exploration, and permission to enter must be secured from the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Services ahead of time. Though elephant and leopard sightings are not as common as in SLNP, there are large prides of lions accustomed to people on foot.
Forty years ago, Zambia had one of the largest black rhino populations in Africa, with around a third of them found in the Luangwa Valley. In 1998, they were declared extinct in Zambia due to rampant poaching. With increasing efforts to secure SLNP and NLNP in particular, the North Luangwa Conservation Programme has released 25 black rhinos into the park since 2003, effectively re-establishing a viable population.
The woodlands of the escarpment offer the best chance of spotting both sable and roan antelope, as well as unique birding opportunities. Over 400 different species of birds have been recorded in both SLNP and NLNP.
Luambe National Park
Situated between NLNP and SLNP, Luambe NP lies on the eastern side of the Luangwa River and, at less than 300km2 (30,000 hectares), is one of Zambia’s smallest national parks. After decades of neglect and a shortage of resources, a 2014 report found that the park held just 5% of its wildlife potential. Fortunately, things have turned around in recent years. The Luambe Conservation Project was created to restore the park to its former glory as one of the most biodiverse parks in Zambia.
As a result, the wildlife is gradually recovering, and visitors have the entire park to themselves. There is only one camp currently offering accommodation in Luambe, consisting of five comfortable safari tents. Not only are tourists treated to Zambian-style rustic luxury, but they can also witness the restoration in action. From monitoring camera traps and tracking African painted wolves to tagging vultures and recording nesting patterns of the carmine bee-eaters, guests are welcomed as an essential part of the conservation recovery process.
Lukusuzi NP is the fourth and final national park considered to be part of the Luangwa Valley. Situated to the southeast of Luambe, the park is devoid of infrastructure, facilities, or accommodation. A single dirt track traverses the park, but even this is only traversable in a 4X4 vehicle during the dry season. Little is known about the state of the park’s wildlife populations.
Ecotourism in the Luangwa Valley offers a multitude of activities for all tastes. From the pampered to the basic, they’re all designed to connect humans to nature
The when, why and how
Luangwa Valley is best experienced during the dry season, especially for novice safari-goers. From around May until October, all camps are fully operational, and wildlife sightings are best as animals congregate around the remaining water. From November onwards, the rains arrive and turn the valley’s black cotton soils into a sticky sludge that not even the most experienced drivers will be able to navigate. Only a handful of South Luangwa’s lodges remain open during the wet season. Most bush camps are packed away, only to be resurrected in a flurry of activity at the start of the following dry season. Those lodges that do remain open during the green season, when birding is spectacular, take advantage of the water by offering river trips and boat cruises.
Accommodation options range from budget camps (only in or bordering SLNP) to more luxurious and exclusive lodges and private villas. However, true to form for Luangwa Valley, even the most expensive lodges share the authentic, down-to-earth tone that epitomises the Zambian safari experience. It is an approach that recognises that the real grandeur lies in the scenery, the wildlife, and the stories. Why waste time fussing with canapes when you can watch the sunset with your feet soaking in the cool waters of the river, swapping tales of the day’s sightings?
Want to plan your Luangwa Valley safari? Scroll down to the end of this story to research and get in touch with our travel team to start the discussion.
Camping to uber-luxury – the Luangwa Valley has it all
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I wrote the elephants & oranges story below because I had to see for myself what is going on down the road from my home. We covered this controversial situation from the beginning – but mostly from the perspective of being against this citrus farm in ‘our’ wildlife space.
I was and remain opposed to this intensive farming operation on the border of the Greater Kruger. BUT I now understand better the context and the complexities, and I hope that my notes below will resource you to debate this controversial topic from a factual perspective.
Also, I had my first Pfizer Covid jab yesterday. For some reason, I now feel more in charge of my own future. If you are fortunate enough to live in a country that is pro-actively vaccinating its population, just do it. Aside from the obvious health benefits, being vaccinated means you have a clearer runway to your next safari! Peace out.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
Imagine, if you will, Zorg, an alien biologist from the planet Hegzabra. She’s been commissioned by the Ministry of Intergalactic Zoology to do a routine study of a primitive, bipedal mammal living on the planet Earth. After long and arduous study (Hegzabrans have a lifespan of roughly 600 human years), Zorg is utterly perplexed. Here is a species capable of astonishing acts of kindness, self-sacrifice and, unlike any other species on the planet, it is capable of profound self-awareness. Yet, despite this awareness, it is also apparently hell-bent on its own annihilation. Despite ample evidence of their destructive ways, this strange life form chooses to be led by people obsessed with obliterating the only fragile biosphere that can support it.
This rather fanciful musing came to me as I contemplated yet another multinational bunch of weapon’s-grade buffoons, in connivance with our less than useful government, trying to wreck our natural heritage in their search for fossil fuels and greenbacks.
I am as perplexed as Zorg.
That said, this morning, as I contemplated the delicious silence before dawn, a Cape robin chat began singing from a leafless oak. I drew some encouragement from the fact that although we have done our best to destroy nature, she is strong, resilient and will be here long after we’ve gone.
In our first two stories below, we have a look at the dire conversion of natural heritage to commercial agriculture.
In our third story below, we forget all the bad stuff and escape to gorgeous Lake Malawi – its azure waters, stunning islands, colourful fishes and beautiful people.
Story 3 https://africageographic.com/stories/lake-malawi/
SAFARI FINALE
Lake Malawi is one of Africa’s best-kept travel secrets. A freshwater lake surrounded by gorgeous beaches, islands and biodiversity
A new intensive citrus farm bordering the renowned Timbavati and Klaserie private nature reserves – Greater Kruger – is now a fait accompli. This I state without any shadow of a doubt.
I did not understand this reality when I arranged to meet farmer Kobus van Staden at his new project Casketts Sitrus. But I do now.
Van Staden met me at the gate to Casketts and jumped into my venerable Landy Defender to guide me to the farm HQ. I had loaded up a key question: whether he would consider dropping the intensive farming idea and instead partner with others to open a lodge or other tourism service. That question disappeared like mist under the African sun when we emerged from hectares of scrappy thorn scrub to a vista of ploughed fields with rows of plastic irrigation pipes and a newly-planted cash crop of gem squash seedlings. Here and there, on the cleared fields, large marula, leadwood and knobthorn trees had been left standing their ground defiantly. I saw a large area enclosed by shade-net to the side of the fields – sheltering the citrus saplings that will be planted once the season turns and the cash crop is harvested. About 60,000 trees.
OK then, this is a done deal. With that level of investment, there is little realistic chance of an about-turn in land use and rehabilitation of this farm back to ‘bushveld’ status.
Clockwise, from top left: Ploughed fields with a cash crop of gem squash + Citrus saplings awaiting planting + the Casketts entrance a short distance from the gate to Timbavati and Klaserie private nature reserves.
I followed van Staden and fellow Casketts owner Jurie van Vuren to a rustic farmhouse veranda overlooking the Klaserie River and beyond to prime Big 5 safari country – the Greater Kruger. What followed was a cordial but frank discussion, followed by a tour of the farm. My every request for information was met without hesitation, and I was left free to photograph anything – including a cleared area beyond the authorised limits.
There has been much said and written about this controversial situation, and the battle became intensely personal, with van Staden taking body blows to his reputation. Team AG initially requested members of the public to exercise their legal right to have a say in December 2018 and then followed up with regular opinions from respected scientists opposed to the new farm – who also questioned the Impact Report. However, what we had failed to do to date, was speak to the farmer, a situation I was keen to remedy.
Context to these notes:
I was and remain opposed to this intensive farming operation on the border of the Greater Kruger. BUT I now understand better the context and the complexities, and I hope that my notes below will resource you to debate this controversial topic from a factual perspective.
Caskett’s farm, Greater Kruger area
The farm Casketts
The 420ha farm was subdivided and purchased from former owner Rocco Gioia for about R35million (US$2,5m) – and is entirely surrounded by Gioia’s remaining farms. The authorities have authorised 102 hectares for irrigated citrus orchards based on an existing water right.
The farm was purchased in 1967 by Libero Gioia, who farmed cattle, tomatoes and cattle fodder. When his son Rocco took over the farm, he focussed on tobacco, mangoes, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, chillies, lucerne and blue buffalo grass and various game species – some of which are hunted. Rocco Gioia continues to utilise the remaining 2,400ha surrounding Casketts primarily for game farming.
Water rights
Casketts has a legal right to extract sufficient water to irrigate 120 hectares. This right was granted in 1950 when the Klaserie Irrigation Board was constituted by the then governor-general of the Union of South Africa.
That water offtake is sufficient for Casketts purposes – they have made no application for additional offtake, and no other water use license is required in terms of the Water Act.
The Klaserie Dam was built in the 1950s on the Klaserie River about 22 km upstream of Casketts specifically to enable the farmers to access reliable water for their crops. The total water listed for farmers from the dam is to irrigate 1,100ha, of which about 500ha is currently utilised.
Water is regularly released from the dam to provide the farmers’ required water and maintain the river’s ecological state (theoretically). Casketts has a pump to extract that water directly from the river as it flows past. This water is then pumped to earth dams for storage and then irrigation.
Left: A 1965 map of Casketts and its neighbours on the Klaserie River – note the irrigated fields on either side of the river, including on land that is now incorporated into the Greater Kruger. Right: Casketts pump on the Klaserie River.
Water right conflict of interest?
A perceived conflict of interest has been raised in some quarters because Casketts co-owner Jurie van Vuren is also a board member (and chairperson) of the Klaserie Irrigation Board. The general suspicion being whispered is that he either used his position to grant the necessary water rights (not possible because the water rights were allocated in 1950, as described above) or will influence future decisions related to water and Casketts.
The Department of Water Affairs owns the Klaserie Dam, and the relevant farmers own allocated water volume rights. The only way to be on the Irrigation Board is if you are a water right owner. All board members are beneficiaries of decisions made by themselves. In other words, this is not a public democracy; it’s a club of people who own rights to a water resource and who rely on their collective intent and skills to best manage that resource. This is no different to the many other forms of cooperative resource management boards, such as those governing the Timbavati and Klaserie private nature reserves (PNR), for example.
When I questioned van Vuren about the timing of his appointment to the Board, he advised: “I became a shareholder of Casketts on 09 September 2018 and a board member of Klaserie Irrigation Board on 23 November 2018.”
So, van Vuren was not alive when the water right was granted. Could he conceivably influence water-related decisions in favour of Casketts? Yes, absolutely. But then so could every other Klaserie Irrigation Board member serve their interests in this way. The conflict of interest is there, it’s intentional, and it is no different to other boards that serve a similar purpose. Perhaps boards such as these – with significant environmental impact – should be opened up to include independent board members? But that’s a conversation for another day.
The farm dams
Casketts has four long-existing dams on a drainage line that feeds into the Klaserie River. Two still hold water, and two were breached during the 2012 floods and are currently empty. Van Staden has repaired the largest of the broken dams and indicated that he wouldn’t repair the other dam. The EIA conditions stipulate that he cannot increase the size of the repaired dam – from the original 70m length, 6m width and 5m height.
Our tour of Casketts included the dam in question. It was apparent that the dam floor has been scraped – “to remove the accumulated sand from the rocky floor of the dam”, he told me. The repaired dam wall does not appear to exceed the permitted 5m height limit. The wall is now wider than 6m, increased to 12m in places. Van Staden’s explanation that this was to ensure no further breaches during floods makes sense, as does his further justification that the wider wall now permits them to use the dam wall as the main road to access the portion of the farm on the other side of the drainage line with heavy farming vehicles. In this way, they avoid making roads through the protected riverine area. The length of the wall has been increased to allow for a spillway to prevent future floods – the original dam did not have a spillway. The spillway does not increase the holding capacity of the dam.
I am no dam expert (obviously), but I was no more alarmed at what I saw here than I was last year when one of the largest landowners in Timbavati PNR repaired the 2012 flood-damaged dam wall at his lodge on the Nhlaralumi River. He moved large amounts of sand from the dam floor. I was alerted to this by a downstream property owner who was surprised to see little or no flowing water immediately after excellent rains early this year when the Nhlaralumi was flowing bank-to bank a short distance upstream. This is a large dam with no agricultural benefit. The flow of this non-perennial river is impeded to provide a visually appealing lodge site and attract wildlife for those gin&tonic moments. As an aside, one reason for the concentration of elephants in the Greater Kruger during the dry months, and subsequent destruction of local trees, is these man-made dams. But that’s another discussion entirely.
Do these increases in width and length of the Casketts dam wall represent an opportunity for legal and punitive action? Time will tell. Should every dam repair, regardless of where, be appropriately scrutinised for environmental reasons? Certainly.
Protected trees and clearing beyond the demarcated area
The EIA stipulates that no protected trees may be removed during the bush clearing process – without a permit. Van Staden assured me that no such trees were removed, but of course, I have no way to verify that claim. Google Earth shows old fields with scant natural cover – much like the damaged scrubland we drove through on the way from the gate to the orchards. Nevertheless, there were some sizeable, defiant leadwood, marula and knobthorn trees dotted amidst the moonscape – and each had been marked with plastic tape.
I noticed that part of the clearing was taking place beyond the clearly defined EIA boundary limits and questioned van Staden about that. He explained that he had to decide how to make up the permitted 102ha of land to be cleared because some of the area approved for clearing featured more trees than the area he chose to clear. This transgression did not result in him exceeding the 102ha allocation, and he seemed philosophical about potential ramifications.
Clockwise from top left: The newly repaired dam on a drainage line that feeds into the Klaserie River + Looking across cleared fields and over the drainage line towards recently revamped farm structures + A spared leadwood tree stands defiantly on the cleared fields.
Chemicals and groundwater contamination
Another primary concern is how Casketts will ‘deal with’ the overload of insects that can be expected to invade the citrus orchards from the neighbouring biodiversity-rich Greater Kruger area. The likely chemical warfare will surely impact groundwater pollution and wildlife that feeds on poisoned insects.
Van Staden dismissed my concerns – mainly on the basis that Casketts will, like his other farms, be GLOBALG.A.P. certified to export their fruit and that the requirements are so precise, traceable and transparent that there is no room for errors. He also emphasised that he requires his chemical processes to be bee-friendly to ensure the fertilisation by bees of his orchards. He mentioned using predator insects as one tactic to remove insects that could harm his citrus crop. He further added that GLOBALG.A.P. is very sensitive to negative social media publicity and extra vigilant during the annual audit process.
I found myself silenced by his confident dismissal and not knowledgeable enough to counter. And yet, I am mindful that scientists cite the ubiquitous use of agricultural pesticides and the spread of monoculture crops as a primary reason for the fall-off of the world’s insect populations. Other scientists conclude that insect declines are linked to the intensification of agriculture in the last 50 years.
Legal action and the authorities
Much of the legal tussle going on between the parties seems to hinge on whether any of the bush clearing occurred while the appeal process was underway – which would be illegal. This Daily Maverick article provides the relevant detail, and I won’t go into this matter in any further detail. Van Staden did not want to comment on this matter because of the impending legal actions, but he did express frustration at the costly delays related to the appeal process. In this timeline below, it becomes clear that the authorities (office of the M.E.C., Limpopo Department of Economic Development, Environment & Tourism (LEDET)) took 21 months to finalise an appeal process that they are obligated to complete in 90 days. Despite the LEDET tardiness, appeals lodged by some parties after the stipulated 20-day deadline were rejected as being late!
Legal timeline
23/03/2017: Application for subdivision of property;
24/07/2017: Dept. Agriculture grants permission to cultivate the property;
28/11/2017: Subdivision of the property approved;
15/10/2018: Transfer of property into the name of Soleil Mashishimale Pty Ltd;
15/10/2018: EIA process initiated;
02/08/2019: EIA approved;
02/08/2019: Appeals lodged by Timbavati PNR, Klaserie PNR and Elephants Alive, amongst others. Various other appeals were not submitted timeously and therefore dismissed;
24/03/2021: Above appeals dismissed, approval of the EIA granted on 02/08/2019 upheld;
04/2021: Application by above appellants against the M.E.C: LEDET & Others for a judicial review of the decision by the M.E.C.
04/2021: Urgent application by above appellants to prevent any further development until the judicial review has been finalised;
08/06/2021: Dismissal of the above urgent application.
It is unlikely that the above application (in bold) will see the courtroom sooner than eighteen months from now – we can expect Covid-related delays – and by then, the citrus trees will be in the ground, and the farming enterprise will be well on its way.
WHY is this farm not included in Greater Kruger?
Farms in this area are sought-after because they are close to the Greater Kruger and could one day conceivably be incorporated into this successful conservation endeavour – which would add significantly to their value and revenue-generation potential.
I was curious as to how this valuable wildlife land could end up as a citrus farm. My enquiry as to why Casketts was not fenced into the prestigious Timbavati or Klaserie private nature reserves was referred to the previous owner, Rocco Gioia. As a local landowner, Gioia co-operates extensively with Timbavati and Klaserie management during their anti-poaching efforts to protect their rhino – his farms border those reserves – and maintains a good relationship with them.
HOWEVER, Gioia pointed out in an email that his requests for his farm to be included in Timbavati Private Nature Reserve were turned down.
I discussed these historic rejections with a former Timbavati warden, who confirmed that the decision-makers viewed Gioia’s property as not suitable for inclusion. We also extracted this statement from the Timbavati chairman Anthony Hare: “We took a decision based on our ability to absorb a large property, beyond our natural footprint. This would have meant considerable extra resources and cost required and without being able to leverage the existing operations to take it on. We did not rule it out forever, just at the time.”
Gioia also mentioned several attempts to have his farm included in the Klaserie Private Nature Reserve, including one request based on operating as a hunting camp. We were advised by the current Klaserie warden Colin Rowles that according to his records, Gioia applied at some stage in the 1990s but subsequently withdrew that application.
Gioia provided several examples of specific requests made by him to both reserves going back about 30 years, and the reasons for rejection varied each time. His obvious frustration provides a clear indication that things need to change if we are to avoid similar scenarios repeating themselves. Angry neighbours, of whatever level of economic empowerment, make for bad conservation bedfellows.
Elephants and oranges
The concern about animals being killed by various means as they target the citrus trees is valid, and this scenario is mirrored on most commercial farms in the world. Animals will die in their pursuit of nourishment from these trees – from insects to birds and mammals. Hopefully, there will be mitigation strategies in place (van Staden says there will be), but the reality is that some animals will die.
The issue that has hogged the limelight has been the likelihood of elephants targeting the oranges and what will happen if and when they do.
Van Staden seemed open to any considered, well-managed collaborations to reduce the risk of this happening and to prevent elephant crop-raiders from being killed or harmed – by working with local authorities and NGOs. He seemed to be relaxed about this risk and confused about the focus on elephants as the main issue at play. “Elephants will have to come through four fences before they get to my property”, he said – the Greater Kruger fence, a neighbour farm fence, the Gioia farm fence and the Casketts farm fence. The EIA requires him to install an elephant-proof fence on Casketts – and he assured me that this would be done.
To help me understand the elephant-oranges issue better, I spoke to Kevin Leo-Smith, manager of Rietspruit Game Reserve, just outside Hoedspruit and across the busy R40 road from the Greater Kruger area in question. His input is very relevant because he recently managed the re-introduction of elephants to Rietspruit, which borders directly onto established citrus farms. The neighbour consultation process involved explaining to concerned farmers his mitigation procedures if elephants escape Rietspruit to raid the citrus orchards.
Leo-Smith explained that there is no scientific evidence that elephants specifically target citrus as a general rule. There is plenty of anecdotal evidence of elephants eating oranges in farm orchards, but elephants target just about anything edible. For example, three bull elephants that escaped from the nearby Balule Private Nature Reserve (Greater Kruger) about four years ago followed the Blyde River upstream as they pursued their natural dispersal instinct. They did not make their way to nearby citrus farms; instead they feasted on the mango orchards along the way before being captured and returned to the reserve. The Malelane and Komatipoort areas, about 250 km south of Hoedspruit, are awash with huge sugar cane and citrus farms, amongst other crops, and few if any elephant issues are reported by farmers.
Leo-Smith explained that bull elephants in particular will, through learned behaviour, regularly visit sources of reliable nutrition – including citrus crops – but that they are more likely to target grass crops like sugar cane, maize (corn) and sorghum, which more closely resemble their preferred grass diet.
‘Pristine, virgin bushveld’
Several people I have spoken to recently seem under the impression that this area bordering the Greater Kruger is unspoilt bushveld. I live here and can tell you that this is a fallacy. The area has been farmed extensively, and the veld bears the scars – with large tracts of invasive shrub species such as sickle bush Dichrostachys cinerea and no sign of palatable grass or large trees. We also have massive mining operations nearby (including on the Kruger National Park border) and even a railway line running through the Greater Kruger delivering mica and other minerals to insatiable international markets. Brief scrutiny of the area on Google Earth reveals massive currently used irrigation fields at several places on or near the Greater Kruger border. I mention this to add a touch of reality to some perceptions.
A man who is better placed than me to provide input is local businessman and conservationist Trevor Jordan, who added these interesting notes about the history of the Hoedspruit area (click the link to open a new website tab).
Left: The Casketts farm area between the cleared lands and the farm entrance gate consists of arid shrub veld dominated by the invasive (but indigenous) sickle bush. Right: An area beyond the EIA limits being cleared, with large trees left standing.
Where to from here?
One thing I am sure of is that this citrus farm will go ahead. What remains to be seen is how much financial damage is to be suffered by the warring parties before the storm passes.
On the one side is a wealthy, astute local farmer who is meticulous in his planning. On the other side are extremely wealthy, mostly non-resident landowners and a respected team of elephant scientists.
As much as van Staden has outmanoeuvred his opponents to date, his journey has been made easier by a notoriously lax local government that is the bane of most wildlife landowners. LEDET should hang their heads in shame for twiddling their thumbs while their missed deadlines wreak havoc for all of us.
There is no question in my mind that a significant conservation concern is the lack of employment for local people – and Caskett’s promised 60 permanent and 120 seasonal local jobs (employees need SA identity documents and local bank accounts) trumps what was on offer before. Perhaps things would be different if Gioia’s application for his farm to be included in the Greater Kruger had been successful?
We all recognise the critical role that both farming and wildlife tourism play in SA and that where they meet/compete, we have to be pragmatic in finding ways to solve problems and work together. Perhaps once the time and money have been spent on legal proceedings, all parties should sit down and agree on a mitigation strategy for the inevitable consequences of this intensive citrus farm on the Greater Kruger’s border. Perhaps the conservationists should also work out how this happened on their watch and make sure it does not happen again.
As a long-term resident of Hoedspruit, a wildlife property developer, and conservationist, I believe it is vital to understand that long-term conservation sustainability must consider the intersection of conservation organisations, agriculture, tourism, the causes of poaching and job creation. I believe it is necessary to address certain statements and misconceptions regarding the Casketts citrus farm.
Before I publicly air my views, I wish to state that the opinion expressed herein is personal and not representative of those held by any entities with which I am associated. I have no financial interest whatsoever in this matter. Instead, my involvement and interest are to seek the best possible outcome for all affected parties and the conservation ethos of the area.
Wide-open, undisturbed natural spaces, pristine landscapes without human interference, teaming with wildlife are the first prizes and dreamsfor me! This would, however, mean the exclusion of humans and their requirements. Is this possible? I do not think so, especially considering the world’s continued population growth.
It is, therefore, necessary to manage reality in the best way possible, to strike a balance between the conservation dream mentioned above and the burgeoning needs of human beings.
The Lowveld is a mixed-use area and has been for over a century. Hoedspruit town was founded in the mid 1900s as a railway siding on the Selati railway line and has been at the core of a growing economy that has still maintained ecological integrity and natural resources.
Mines opened in Phalaborwa, Gravelotte and Mica, and towns like Acornhoek and Bushbuckridge sprung up. The railway line and roads came a bit later. The Kruger National Park (KNP) was proclaimed a protected area to demarcate a zone that could not be mined, farmed, or occupied by human settlements.
Over time we have become ‘greener’ and endeavoured to practise more sustainable land use in the face of surging human population numbers. It is a difficult balance to achieve, but in Hoedspruit, we have accomplished many positive outcomes. We have removed many fences, creating more space for wildlife, partially restoring the historical, seasonal east-west migration patterns between the Mozambique coast and Drakensberg Mountains west of Hoedspruit.
Tourism played a significant role in this progress in the early 1980s. The opening of Eastgate Airport (previously the SANDF Hoedspruit air force base) with scheduled flights provided easy access and boosted tourism.
The success of tourism lodges has driven the demand to expand wildlife areas, with Big-5 safari operations being in high demand. These have created many jobs and opportunities for skills development.
The agricultural sector saw a swing away from livestock, with cattle farms converting to game areas to take advantage of the demand for tourism. Some areas close to perennial rivers were further cultivated under irrigation with high density and high-value crops. Like the tourism industry, the farms also created jobs and transferred skills. Both industries contributed to a vibrant economy and generated valuable foreign currency.
However, both these sectors face threats. For example, irrigation farms have limited water resources, while tourism could cause an overuse of land, threatening the exclusive ‘low volume, high value’ tourism model.
The neighbouring towns of Acornhoek and Bushbuckridge, previously tribal trust lands, are now some of the most densely populated areas in South Africa. They also experience one of the highest unemployment rates in the country. Despite the employment offered in tourist lodges and allied industries, these private reserves are perceived to be of little benefit to the communities. They are regarded as playgrounds for the privileged few. The populations are outgrowing the job availability in the tourism sector, exacerbated in these COVID times with job and income losses over 50%.
We need all forms of responsible economic development as there are many socioeconomic issues that, if not addressed, will become a significant threat to the stability of the region.
The Casketts citrus project is one that, as a conservation community, we should be encouraging and supporting, if not even partnering. It should not be seen as an enemy of conservation, as indicated by some. Rather it should be seen as a contributor to the local economy and one that will aid the socio-economic challenges that the region faces.
In 1991 I was involved in discussions regarding the western boundary fence of the Kruger, which led to the incorporation of the private reserves that now make up the Greater Kruger. The discussions were between the leadership of the KNP, the Transvaal Department of Nature Conservation, SA Department of Veterinary Services and Peace Parks. They were all very enthusiastic about the idea.
After discussion with the private reserves, independent landowners and other interested and affected parties, a conference was held at the Thornybush Game Lodge on 10 and 11 August 1991. Besides the KNP fence and private land incorporation discussion, the conference’s central theme was: “Die bewaarings toekoms van die Laeveld” – The Conservation future of the Lowveld.
After robust discussions, the delegates came to the following non-negotiable directives that were to be implemented in conjunction with the removal of the western fence:
There was a need for a collaborative process involving all interested parties;
That a task force be established;
Unifying conservation in the region to enhance its benefits and be of relevance to all its inhabitants. Consideration was to be given to some critical points:
Our natural resources are there for all the region’s inhabitants and should be considered an asset to everyone;
The disproportionate population increase in the region, which was well more than the average birth rate, presented the prospect of increased deprivation, unemployment and pressure on the land;
Historically, the perception existed that conservation and the current model of land usage were irrelevant to the requirements of the various human communities. This was to be addressed through consultation, participation, and optimal economic development;
The region’s resources and existing forms of economic utilisation, such as commercial lodges, hunting andagriculture, constituted a competitive advantage in the national and international market, capable of elevating these businesses through increased revenues and job creation;
Economic development and tourism expansion need not be inconsistent with nature conservation, as long as the concept of sustainable utilisation is applied;
The meeting concluded that we all needed to work together, respecting each other’s interests and land-use rights to ensure the conservation success of the region.
In an ideal world, we would prevent agricultural development from happening near this highly prized conservation area; however, if this massive job creator can conserve our rhino through feasible employment (thereby reducing one root cause of poaching), I feel this is a reasonable and necessary compromise to make.
We cannot afford the luxury of pure wildlife conservation areas – the dream I wrote of earlier in this letter. I believe that sustainable, responsible agricultural developments that create much-needed employment for neighbouring communities should be wholeheartedly embraced and not seen as an enemy to conservation.
———-
Trevor Jordan is a property developer and conservationist. His residential estate and game lodge developments are dotted throughout the Lowveld area of South Africa, and his many conservation activities in the region have added significantly to the cause.
It probably would have come as something of a surprise to the local inhabitants of Lake Malawi to learn that their lake was “hitherto undiscovered”, but even by traditional standards of colonial “discovery”, Livingstone was mistaken. His arrival came some 13 years after that of several Portuguese traders. To add possible insult to unintentional injury, he then proclaimed Lake Malawi as Lake Nyasa – which translates as “Lake Lake” in Chiyao – a name that has stuck in both Tanzania and Mozambique to this day.
Livingstone’s alternative moniker, Lake Nyinyesi or “Lake of Stars” (in reference to the lights of the fishing boats bobbing about on the lake’s surface at night), was perhaps a better fit. This at least does some justice to the enchanting atmosphere of the lake and its surroundings. Whatever the label ascribed to this magnificent body of water, there is no question that Lake Malawi remains one of Africa’s best-kept travel secrets. A crystalline freshwater lake surrounded by sandy beaches fringed by palm trees – could there be a better way to wash off the dust at the end of a safari trip?
The Lake
Lake Malawi/Lake Nyasa is an African Great Lake – the southernmost lake in the East African Rift system. It is the fifth-largest freshwater lake in the world (by volume) and the third-largest in Africa (behind Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika). The lake is around 570km in length and some 75km at its widest point, with one central depression extending to a depth of over 700m. (If this doesn’t fully put things into perspective, Lake Malawi holds an estimated 7% of the world’s available surface freshwater.) It lies between Mozambique, Malawi and Tanzania and the exact position of the international boundary between Malawi and Tanzania remains a matter of considerable contention that has boiled over into frequent diplomatic skirmishes.
The largest river feeding the lake is the Ruhuhu River, which flows south from Tanzania, while the renowned Shire River serves as the lake’s primary outlet. The basin is believed to be around 8.6 million years old, formed as the African tectonic plates began to diverge. Research indicates that water levels have varied considerably over the millennia, including periods where the lake dried out almost entirely.
Lake Malawi is classified as a meromictic lake. This means that the layers of water (surface and deep waters) do not mix, unlike the more common holomitic lakes where physical mixing of the layers occurs at least once a year. This stable “stratification” of the waters creates radically different environments for the lake’s organisms as the deeper waters are almost entirely without oxygen and considerably cooler.
The water is usually exceptionally clear for a freshwater lake, with visibility often extending further than 30m. Beneath the warm cerulean waves, Lake Malawi’s ancient but turbulent geographic history has created truly spectacular underwater scenery decorated by electric flashes of vibrant fish.
A plethora of fun for the super active or the deeply relaxed
Snorkel, scuba, kayak, sail (or just sunbathe)
Across the extensive shoreline of Lake Malawi, tiny beach villages, resorts and lodges offer the adventurous tourist a plethora of opportunities to explore the waters – above or below the azure ripples. Sailing and kayaking are at the top of the list for those eager to investigate the various bays and coves along the shoreline. This also provides the opportunity to marvel at the enormous granite boulders scattered by the forces of a more primordial earth, or perhaps even catch a glimpse of a fish eagle swooping in to snatch up an inattentive fish. For those intent on sticking to a more sedate pace, boat trips provide the perfect vantage to appreciate the lake’s famous, blazing sunsets. Snorkel or dive beneath the surface to take in the fishy kaleidoscope darting around the rocks in the shallows.
There are two caveats to exploring the lake’s waters. The first is that there are crocodiles and hippos in residence, though they very seldom spend time in clear waters away from murky river deltas. Fortunately, they are easy to spot in the clear water. It is worth remembering that Malawi’s rainy season runs from December to around March and the consequent runoff affects water visibility. The second is that bilharzia is a potential risk for those entering the water. The risk is highest close to more densely populated areas and negligible on the secluded islands. Infection is extremely rare, and bilharzia can be quickly and efficiently treated with a single course of anthelmintic drugs.
Clockwise from top left: cichlid; malachite kingfisher; spotted-necked otter; trumpeter hornbill
Something fishy
In terms of wildlife, crocodiles and hippos take second place behind the astonishing variety of fish that inhabit the lake – over 1,000 species – more than any other lake in the world.
The majority of these are cichlids, whose evolutionary radiations have been a source of eternal fascination for biologists intent on unpicking their taxonomic complexities. (Though their bright, shiny colours are the most attractive characteristic for the average diver.) These stunning little fish are everywhere, though most numerous in the shallow shoreline areas where they create nesting ‘sandcastles’ (officially termed bowers) and ferry their tiny fry by mouth.
Fishing is an integral way of life for local Malawians living on the lake’s shores. Exploring the tiny fishing villages, learning about the culture of fishing is fascinating. Unfortunately, overfishing has become a serious concern in recent decades. This is due less to artisanal and small-scale fishing and more to large-scale, commercial fishing operations.
Kaya Mawa with Mozambique in the distance
Paradise Island(s)
Though far from over-developed, there is a distinctive ‘beach-town atmosphere’ to some of the more popular sections and resorts of Lake Malawi, particularly along the southern shoreline (most notably, Cape Maclear). These hubs are desirable to low-budget travellers, and several backpacking establishments offer affordable accommodation and an enthusiastic nightlife.
Several upmarket lodges boast their own private beaches for those keen on a more exclusive experience. Here residents can step straight out of their cabins onto the white sand. There are many of these on Lake Malawi’s scattered islands, some of which are entirely private, set aside for exclusive use by lodge guests. These tropical escapes offer the same amenities as any other luxury beach holiday, usually at a fraction of the cost. The two largest islands, Likoma and Chizumulu, are inhabited by small populations of some 10,500 (Likoma) and 4,000 (Chizumulu) people. Fascinatingly, despite having no tarred roads or electricity after 10 PM, the town of Likoma is home to the enormous, gothic, stone edifice of St Peter’s Anglican Cathedral.
This rich sense of history extends across the lake, and the Lake Malawi Museum documents the story of the first naval battle of World War I. However, to call it a naval battle might be something of a stretch. The story goes that Captain Rhoades of the SS Gwendolen was the first to receive official orders and immediately set out to disable the German steamship, the Hermann von Wissman, while it was being repaired. His friend and supposed drinking buddy, Captain Berndt, was entirely unaware that the war had started so when bombs began raining down on the docked Hermann von Wissman, Berndt rowed out to the Gwendolen to inquire if his old pal Rhoades had perhaps had one too many.
There are accommodation options from backpackers to super luxurious privacy
Bush and beach
Though not one of the normally fancied safari destinations, Malawi’s conservation and ecotourism ventures have gone from strength to strength in recent years. Many of the country’s pristine protected areas offer a ‘Big 5’ experience, with the added advantage that they are unspoilt by mass tourism. Just a short journey from the southern shore of Lake Malawi lies Liwonde National Park, bordered by (and indeed accessible to) the Shire River. Along with the adjacent Mangochi Forest and under the auspices of African Parks, the national park is flourishing, and translocated animals from other reserves have bolstered local wildlife populations.
Malawi’s birding is equally varied and exciting with 684 species on the list. Liwonde National Park is the population stronghold of Lilian’s lovebird.
The Lake of Stars
From spectacular hiking trails to pristine white beaches, Lake Malawi’s true magic lies in the fact that it is still relatively “undiscovered” (despite Livingstone’s best efforts). Removed from the famous safari circuits, its crystal waters and pristine biodiversity make for the perfect tropical escape accompanied by the warm embrace of local hospitality.
Want to go on a safari to Lake Malawi? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
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After the helter-skelter and deadlines of our Photographer of the Year season, it’s great to again focus on unearthing fascinating topics and digging deeper into important issues that plague us all.
Importantly, the African safari industry is still reeling from the impact of Covid – not only in terms of the third wave of infections but also financially. Many tourism-related businesses have gone under, and the unemployment rate has skyrocketed. Here in South Africa, the brief respite afforded to lodges by highly discounted offerings to local travellers was dealt a hefty blow when our government enforced a third-wave shut down of leisure travel in and out of Gauteng – our economic powerhouse. Lodges in the Greater Kruger area (and others) relied on Gauteng travellers to at least fund basic overheads such as some salaries – but for now that door has been slammed shut. Again. As a result, those lodge owners, staff members and suppliers that were not already DIGGING DEEP are most certainly now doing so.
That said, this is a resilient industry and we will bounce back. That’s the thing about industries driven by PASSION – the bottom line is only one metric that we apply to measure success.
Here at AG we were as badly affected as the rest – with a 100% revenue reduction at the time that Covid lockdown was enforced. We have seen a gradual recovery from ground zero, with our loyal safari clients now planning for 2022 and the more intrepid taking advantage of huge discounts to travel this year. Thanks to all of you for your support and for helping refloat the African safari industry.
We have taken this opportunity to reflect and reboot ourselves – expect THE BIG REVEAL in about a month. Till then, please enjoy our stories and consider planning your next safari with us. Safari njema!
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
The wilderness is a great tonic to mind, body and spirit. If you are stuck at home, unable to travel because it’s too dangerous or you are stricken with this awful plague, then this week’s stories will draw you away to the profound healing of the wild.
In our first story below, we take a look at travelling in Africa during September, October and November. There’s heat, dust and action in the south, magic in the Horn of Africa and the Indian Ocean is gorgeously inviting.
In 2006, Al Gore made Kilimanjaro’s receding glaciers one of the rallying points for the climate crisis. Well-intentioned this may have been but science it was not as our second story below explains.
Otters are some of the most adored of all wild animals. Yes, they smell like rotting fish innards much of the time but they’re cute, affectionate and clever. In our third story below, we take a look at the four delightful otters that ply their trade in the waterways of Africa.
“Within the decade, there will be no more snows of Kilimanjaro.” Al Gore (2006), An Inconvenient Truth.
It is now 15 years since Al Gore’s startling pronouncement, and, for now, Africa’s tallest mountain still has its iconic white icecap. In the intervening years, Mount Kilimanjaro has become a poster-child for the grim effects of climate change. Yet buried beneath the avalanche of panicked headlines and shock-inducing before-and-after pictures, the voices of scientists have largely been lost. Glaciologists who have studied the ancient volcano for decades argued that the link between climate change and Kilimanjaro’s disappearing glaciers is tenuous at best. Which, bizarrely, has turned out to be a far less convenient (and less emotive) truth.
Kilimanjaro’s glaciers are disappearing – rapidly. Over the last century, the ice coverage has shrunk by over 90% and, if things continue at the same rate, conservative estimates suggest that most of the ice will be gone by 2040. At the same time, global average temperatures have been steadily rising, and, throughout the world, wide-spread glacial retreat at mid and low altitudes can be directly attributed to this increase. It is not hard to see how the connection was made between Kilimanjaro and global warming. But Kilimanjaro, say the experts, is different.
What sets Kilimanjaro apart?
The relative size of any glacier is determined by a combination of energy and mass exchanges between the glacier and the surrounding air. Depending on where this balance falls, the glacier can either grow or shrink. Precipitation (rain or snow) replaces what is lost to melting or sublimation (when a solid moves directly to the gaseous phase without melting to liquid). It will also affect the reflectiveness of the glacier’s surface: rain makes the surface darker and light absorbent, while snow lightens the surface and makes it more reflective.
Most glaciers are sensitive to immediate air temperature changes because they lie close to the mean 0˚C level (the mean freezing level). However, Mount Kilimanjaro’s glaciers occur about 1000m above where this freezing level exists. In other words, they lie at altitudes too high to be affected by small local air temperature changes. Research indicates that the temperatures at the glacial point on the ancient volcanoes that make up Kilimanjaro have remained well below freezing.
So why then is the glacier disappearing if not melting due to air temperatures? The answer lies in absorbed solar radiation, much of which results in the sublimation of the ice, which then causes a loss of glacier mass. Precipitation should replace this loss, but where Kilimanjaro is concerned, there has been a dramatic reduction of precipitation over the last century. The effects of solar radiation on glaciers are complex and variable depending on cloud cover, shade, and the reflective surface. The shape of glaciers also impacts how falling snow gathers and whether it will become part of the glacier. The vertical cliff faces of the plateau glaciers on Kilimanjaro make it particularly difficult for snow to settle, freeze and become part of the ice sheet.
Why is there less precipitation?
Analysis of historical observations and measurements, climate modelling, sea sediments and corals all indicate that at some point in the late 19th century, the dynamics of the Indian Ocean shifted (specifically the major currents and atmospheric flow above the ocean). As a result, less moist air flows into East Africa from the Indian Ocean. The increase in the frequency of dry air masses complicated cloud formation over the volcanoes, resulting in less precipitation. Snowfall over Kilimanjaro decreased, and the glaciers began to shrink.
This shift in ocean dynamics was natural in origin but, in recent years, has likely been maintained by global warming. However, research suggests that climate change would have accounted for only a fraction of the decline in glacier size.
Scientists have also disproved the idea that deforestation has caused a decline in precipitation over the summit. (Though there is evidence that this has reduced rainfall in the forest belt of the mountain.)
In summary
Glaciology is complex and the physical processes that impact the size of a glacier are multi-faceted. The glaciers on Kilimanjaro have shrunk because there is less snow falling over them. Changes in Indian Ocean dynamics are the culprits for decreased precipitation, and global warming has played a small role in maintaining this state of affairs.
The scientists investigating Mount Kilimanjaro do not suggest that climate change due to global greenhouse gas emissions is not of tremendous concern, and there is no question that it has significantly impacted some glaciers. The end of Mount Kilimanjaro’s glaciers is a devastating prospect and will mean the loss of vital equatorial glacier biodiversity. However, using Kilimanjaro’s glaciers as an example of the drastic effects of climate change is misleading.
The effects of climate change will be far-reaching and unpredictable. Determining the parameters of causality will be a fundamental challenge to be faced by conservationists, policymakers, and the public. Awareness around the meticulous research of scientists is vital in sorting fact from fiction. Kilimanjaro was a powerful symbol of climate change – it just wasn’t an accurate one.
There is something unaccountably beguiling about otters. Perhaps, as Ted Hughes wrote, it is their duality: a creature equally at home on land or in the rivers and oceans of the world. Or maybe it is the coiled tension in their sinuous bodies, which melt, sleek and powerful, into the water. Like their cousins worldwide, the otters of Africa have lively eyes, expressive features and utterly adorable squeaks, which have gone a long way to securing literary and internet fame.
Otters are intelligent and fascinating predators with an irresistible propensity for play. In Africa, this appeal is complemented by a sense of the mysterious – otter sightings are brief, infrequent and treasured by those fortunate enough to catch a glimpse of these extraordinary, amphibious mammals.
The musky mustelids
There are 13 recognised otter species, four of which are found in Africa. They belong to the mustelid family – the largest family within the order Carnivora and one of the oldest and most diverse. Other mustelids include weasels, badgers, wolverines and honey badgers. Almost all mustelids share a similar morphological design, with long slender bodies, short legs, and thick fur. Most are fierce, little predators. Another characteristic held in common is that almost all mustelids possess anal glands which produce a pungent (and to the human nose, obscenely malodorous) secretion used in olfactory communication.
The otters of Africa are sometimes referred to as “fisi maji” in Swahili, which translates as “water hyena”. Though the initial similarities may seem somewhat obscure, this is a surprisingly apt description. Like hyenas, otters are fast-paced and efficient hunters, but they are also opportunistic carnivores with mighty jaws capable of cracking open even the hardest crustacean shells. Otters are also expert problem-solvers.
The largest of the 13 otter species is the sea otter, which is also the heaviest member of the mustelid family and an exception to most otter “rules”. Sea otters are the only entirely marine species and, as a result, do not return to land or occupy burrows. Survival on the open sea has also necessitated a more flexible social structure than most freshwater otter species. Those plying their trade in fresh water spend much of the time on land and use holts/couches (the official names for otter dens) underground or in dense vegetation. All the otters of Africa otters are freshwater dwelling, though most will happily venture into the sea.
The African clawless otter is Africa’s most well-known and is widely distributed throughout most of sub-Saharan Africa (though they are most common in Southern Africa). As the second-largest freshwater otter species in the world, African clawless otters can reach over 1.5m in length and weigh up to 36kg (though the average is between 12 and 21kg). While not entirely clawless as their name suggests, their claws are significantly reduced, and their toes are only partially webbed, allowing for much greater dexterity.
Adaptable and resilient, African clawless otters can be found in various habitats, from dense forests to semi-arid savannas (provided there is a permanent body of water surrounded by sufficient vegetation). Though most are found in freshwater rivers and dams, African clawless otters will also readily enter the shallow ocean surf to hunt. They will also scavenge along beaches in search of crustaceans. Clawless otters are not picky eaters, and everything from fish and shellfish to amphibians and invertebrates are on the menu. Unlike the spotted-necked otter (discussed below), their thick whiskers allow them to hunt in murky water.
African clawless otters are primarily solitary but live within relatively tolerant family groups. Each individual occupies its range in a communal territory, marked by anal gland secretions, urine, and droppings (referred to as “spraints”). The females usually have between two and five pups, and the male plays no parental role.
Clawless otters are preyed upon by pythons, crocodiles and fish eagles in the wild, but habitat loss and water pollution are far greater threats. These factors have contributed to significant population declines over the last century. The IUCN currently lists African clawless otters as near-threatened.
Congo clawless otter
Congo clawless otter (Aonyx congicus)
Fractionally smaller and slenderer than the African clawless otter, the Congo clawless otter was once believed to be a subspecies of the former (a matter that some zoologists still contest). As its species status is still relatively new (and their habitat comparatively tricky to traverse), this is probably the least researched or understood of the African otters.
They inhabit the swampy areas of the Congo Basin, and researchers believe that they are likely to be more terrestrial than other otter species. The agile fingers on the front feet are used to dig through the mud in search of molluscs and worms. Though little is known about their populations, the IUCN lists the Congo clawless otter as near-threatened.
Spotted-necked otter
Spotted-necked otter (Hydrictis maculicollis)
This tiny otter is considerably smaller than the two clawless species, though its distribution overlaps with both. Even the heaviest individuals seldom weigh more than 6kg. With their keen eyesight and webbed feet, spotted-necked otters are expert fish hunters, though they have been recorded eating crustaceans and amphibians as well. They are sight hunters and prefer deep, clear, flowing water.
The little white markings and spots on their chests are unique to each otter and can be used to identify individuals. They are also more sociable than the larger African otter species, though solitary when hunting. Spotted-necked otters manage their busy social lives through a wide range of vocal squeaks, and they are known to chatter merrily away during social encounters. The IUCN lists the spotted-necked otter as near-threatened
Eurasian otter
Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra)
The Eurasian otter, while highly elusive, has one of the widest distributions of any Palearctic mammal. These are probably the most well-known of all otters, yet few people realise that they occur in northern Africa (as well as across most of Europe and Asia).
Eurasian otters are strongly territorial and solitary, apart from mothers with young pups. Hunting and water pollution (particularly by pesticides) decimated otter numbers over the latter half of the 20th century. Increased restrictions have seen numbers recover in parts of their range, particularly in the United Kingdom. Their current population numbers in Africa are unknown and in urgent need of further research, according to the IUCN’s Otter Specialist Group. Overall, the species is listed as near threatened.
Pet pebbles and other otter oddities
Though tricky in itself to define, tool-use in the animal kingdom is often used to measure cognitive ability and subject to considerable research. Many animals use tools to varying degrees – including primates, elephants, cetaceans, birds, and, of course, otters. Sea otters are the most famous example – they use rocks to break open abalone shells and show a distinct preference for a specific rock suited to this purpose. These favoured rocks and pebbles are stored beneath a flap of skin in the otter’s armpit and are often kept for life.
Other otter species have been observed ‘juggling’ favourite rocks, displaying a considerable degree of dexterity and skill in the process (have a look here). The reasons behind this entertaining behaviour are a matter of considerable debate. It has been described as displacement behaviour (often observed in captive otters) or possibly as an indication of hunger-frustration. Whatever the biological reasons, this unusual behaviour comes across as playful and charming to the casual observer.
African clawless otter
Pet otters
Unfortunately, there is an inevitable aspect to the charisma and charms of otters. “Celebrity” pet otters have seen a meteoric rise to fame on social media in recent years, and, inevitably, this has precipitated a demand in the pet trade (both legal and illegal). Worse still, “otter-petting cafés” have sprung up in parts of Asia, with the predictable associated welfare concerns. Though this trend has yet to affect African otters, the ever-increasing demand for exotic pets may well add the illegal pet trade to the list of threats facing otters in Africa.
Though exacerbated by social media in recent years, this is not a new phenomenon. Perhaps most famously, otters captured the heart and mind of Scottish naturalist Gavin Maxwell. However, the loving, playful character of Mij, the pet otter, described by the novel (and film) Ring of Brightwater, eclipsed a much darker tale. Edal, Maxwell’s female African clawless otter, was as famously misanthropic as the author himself and regularly attacked visitors. Edal once removed two fingers from one of her caretakers with one swift bite in a fit of understandable pique born of her captive frustration.
It should go without saying that otters do not make good pets. They are territorial and fierce, driven by wild instincts and possess strong jaws full of sharp teeth capable of biting through bone. These powerful and fascinating carnivores are designed to spend their days gliding through the waterways of the world, and it is in the wild that the otters of Africa are best appreciated.
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What an incredible array of Photographer of the Year images we feasted our eyes on this year! James adds more detail in the gallery below, but know this from me: Each year, I feel so honoured and humbled that so many passionate people share their images with us that my head feels like it will explode. And I marvel at the dazzling variety and the brief glimpses into this majestic, mysterious continent that is my birthplace and home. PROUD African!
After you scroll down to our 2021 Photographer of the Year gallery (the last for this year), please take the time to read our other stories. The first story is an unfolding tragedy that has a CALL TO ACTION – this is where YOU can help. Please share this appeal to anyone that cares.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
I am one of those people who thinks summer is around the corner as soon as the winter solstice passes. This is bat-guano illogical of course. In the rarified atmosphere of Johannesburg, we are still a good two months from any warmth – on the odd occasion this mad city has received snow, it has normally been in September. Yet while it is skin-scaling dry, frosty and despite the fact that no South African architect has worked out how to insulate a home (for hot or cold), nature still finds a way to provide a little wonder. Yesterday, I was banging away at my computer when the call of a grey hornbill interrupted my thoughts. I assumed my wife was editing a video of the birds but then, lo and behold, two of them landed in the magnolia tree outside my window. I dived for a camera and, rather like a first-time safari-goer, took 400 mostly unusable pictures in my feverish excitement.
Our first story below is rather devastating. Some shady dealings, bizarre legal decisions and a lot of weapons-grade dim-wittery have seen the last barriers to an open cast copper mine in Lower Zambezi National Park finally removed. We are still hopeful for an 11th-hour political or legal intervention but this may be a pipedream.
Many are the naturalist photographers who bemoan the presence of collars on wild animals. A collar definitely detracts from a feeling of wilderness but, as our second story below shows, they are integral to our understanding of the wild species we aim to conserve and they appear to have a little adverse effect on the animals concerned.
With that all out of the way, it is time to celebrate photographs of beautiful Africa. In our third story below, we share the experiences of last years winners as they travelled into the Greater Kruger recently (Covid-delayed) to share stories and take great pics.
And finally, with a great drum roll, trumpet fanfare and ululation, we reveal the winner, runners-up and highly commended images of this year’s Photographer of Year. Well done to EVERYONE who submitted their art, your gracious willingness to share your creativity with us is hugely appreciated. I shall look forward to next year’s competition in eager anticipation.
Our 2021 Photographer of the Year has come to a glorious finale as we present the best submissions. The winner and two runners-up will share the princely sum of USD 10 000 and join their partners and our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana, where they’ll take more wonderful snaps of our wildlife, landscapes and fascinating, resilient people.
MESSAGE FROM OUR EDITOR-IN-CHIEF:
It has been a great joy and privilege to receive your entries each week, to see the vastly different perspectives of Africa. Over the desert sands, across the savannas, through the forests, under the ocean and from the mountain fastnesses, you have sent us images that inspired awe, wanderlust and a connection to wild places we so desperately need.
We have managed to pick a winner from 25,023 photographs of our magnificent continent (well, 99.9% celebrated Africa; a few entries celebrated motorcycles, house pets and body parts – but they do not feature here).
It is fashionable in competitions to lament how hard the judging process is. We must repeat the cliche because it was genuinely challenging to pick the winners.
We judge images on their ability to tell a story, evoke emotion and capture the essence of Africa. We also look at technical aspects of the photos – both in the capture and edit stages of creating an image. We are but human, and therefore the judging cannot be entirely objective – many entries may well succeed in other competitions.
To all who had the courage to enter, thank you from Africa Geographic and all our tribe who have enjoyed their vicarious connection to African wilderness through your efforts. We hope you’ll take part again next year. Entries open on 1 January 2022.
A lion cub tries to nudge dad, but the male is grumpy. At the click of the shutter, a fly passes through the focus point and the pupil of the eye. The blunt teeth indicate an old male – but clearly, one still to be feared. Cubs always tread lightly around the males, weary of a swipe.
Judges’ comment
With one snap of the shutter, this image succeeds with so many of the criteria that make an excellent photograph. It is technically brilliant from the perspective of timing, anticipation and setting the camera perfectly for the predicted behaviour. The edit is also captivating – the colour and contrast create a mood that complement the lion’s palpable anger. Then, as with so many great wildlife shots, luck played a huge part as the fly just happened into frame at the right time.
About the photographer Hannes Lochner – Read more
Hannes Lochner is a renowned, award-winning wildlife photographer and has been taking pictures professionally since 2007. He has long been fascinated by the arid zones of Southern Africa, which of course, include the Kalahari. His name is now synonymous with the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park and the park’s leopards in particular.
Hannes was born in South Africa and knows the countries of Southern Africa exceptionally well. Since childhood, he has travelled to Namibia at least once a year and has a profound knowledge of that country and its photo spots.
He has published several, amazing books, two of which were entirely dedicated to the Kalahari. To realise these projects, he lived for six years in the Kalahari and invested hundreds of hours in photographing the magical landscape and fascinating wildlife. His new coffee table book, Planet Okavango, was published recently. Hannes spent two years completing it in Botswana.
Hannes is extraordinarily talented at image composition and the interplay of various light conditions. His pictures show the essence of the landscape and its animals while telling their stories. His passion for art ensures that his pictures stand out from the work of conventional wildlife photographers. His skills enable him to produce work that attracts great attention continuously. Hannes is also passionate about passing on his knowledge.
He has been awarded various international awards over the past few years.
This photo was taken in a Mursi village in southern Ethiopia. Many people believe that photography in Africa is all about animals and landscapes. However, the people of this part of the world are actually more fascinating to me. Whether it is Ethiopia or Morocco, there is a great depth of culture and history.
On my way out of the village, I saw this woman holding an AK47, nursing her child. As I walked closer, it was the baby’s eyes that attracted my attention. He stared straight at me. I used body language to ask the mother if I could take a photo of her and her baby. She granted permission, and I started to use my wide-angle lens to focus solely on the baby boy. It felt like he was talking to me through the lens – I believe this is what photography is meant to do. I asked my guide for the reason the mother was holding the weapon and he answered that she was simply trying to show off that she has a husband who is a good warrior.
Judges’ comment
This is an exceptionally powerful image that is as incongruous as it is moving. It captures the hardship experienced by so many women in Africa while managing to express their strength and resiliance at the same time. Add the myriad gorgeous textures – warthog tusk, rifle stock, rope, bell, hair – and you have a cracking shot.
About the photographer Bob Chiu – Read more
Bob Chiu was born in Hong Kong and lives in Los Angeles, USA. He is a visual storyteller whose images from travel to street photography convey the beauty of various human cultures, emphasising human interactions. He aims to capture precious moments of unique human interaction in a rapidly changing world. He hopes his work can help make the world a smaller place by allowing people from different parts of the globe to know each other better.
Besides the United States and Canada, Bob has travelled to China, India, Ethiopia, Cuba, Iran, Morocco, Israel, Russia, Ecuador (Amazon Rainforest), the Balkans and other parts of Asia and Europe. In 2018 and 2019, he held exhibitions and talks at Leica India where he showcased his work on Ethiopia. His work was also part of the Leica Club International of Moscow’s exhibition in 2019.
His work, “The Land of Buddha”, was a finalist at the 2020 “Art of Building” annual competition of the Chartered Institute of Building in the UK.
Bob holds the following photography distinctions:
Grand Master (GMPSA), Gold (GPSA) – Photographic Society of America PSA
Associate (ARPS) & Licentiate (LRPS) – Royal Photographic Society RPS
Excellent (EFIAP) – Federation Internationale de I’Art Photographique FIAP
Certified Master (CMP) & Certified Excellence (CEP) – Professional Photographers International PPI
Follow (FAPAS) – Association of Photographic Artists Singapore
I found this white rhino mother and calf resting in the heat of the day and returned to a nearby waterhole just before sunset, hoping they might visit to drink. I realised that the dusty ground would create a dramatic effect if I shot into the sun and underexposed as the rhinos were walking past. So, having snatched a couple of shots of them drinking, I relocated to get a view of the route I expected them to take when they left. With lots of trees in the area, the rhinos would only be in the open for a few seconds, and if they left in a different direction, I wouldn’t get a single shot. Fortunately, the gamble paid off.
Instead of focusing on the negative aspects of rhino poaching, I wanted my picture to convey a sense of hope – a new beginning almost – as if these were the first rhinos being forged in the fires of creation. The effect of the backlit dust, creating a blurred shadow image, added to the ethereal effect. Botswana’s battle against poaching has been well-documented. Sadly, the health of the rhino reintroduction programme has been hit hard, particularly in the last year when the lack of tourists has left conservation areas unguarded. For me, the decreasing rhino numbers give this image even more resonance. It is now vital that the remaining rhinos in Botswana are conserved for future generations.
Judges’ comment
This is the sort of image in which you see something new every time you look at it. It’s a clever capture that shows the photographer has a great appreciation of light and how his camera interacts with it. It conjures a feeling of awe and positivity with regard to rhinos.
About the photographer James Gifford – Read more
Based in Botswana for the last 15 years, James Gifford is a multi-award-winning photographer, writer and videographer, with two published books and numerous magazine credits to his name. In between guiding specialist photographic safaris and creating marketing content for safari companies, he takes every opportunity to get into the bush to create images that can influence how we think about the world and conserve the bounty of wildlife that is still left on our planet.
I titled this image ‘The Murderous Pharaoh’ because of the nature of the cheetah’s pose and the blood dripping down the chin, very much resembling a pharaoh’s beard. The brutality of a cheetah kill often goes unnoticed. The violence involved and the fierceness displayed left me at a loss for words.
Judges’ comment
This image manages to be both brutal and somehow darkly amusing at the same time. The viscera dripping from the cheetah’s face evokes the savagery of a hunt on the plains but his expression indicates a slight dissatisfaction with the mess he’s made.
About the photographer Aditya Nair – Read more
My name is Aditya Nair, and I specialise in wildlife photography with an added touch of surrealism. I grew up in Kenya snd couldn’t help but feel connected to the wildlife around me. Every time I saw a different species for the first time, I felt responsible for telling stories about us and them.
Several media platforms helped form my strategy of digitally capturing the true essence of nature and translating it into a format that creates a bond with anyone who views it.
Photography, videography, and editing allow me to document my relationship with these beautiful creatures. It’s an emotion rather than a conversation. The wilderness is the only place in the world I can happily wake up before sunrise and still be able to describe why!
On a calm afternoon, I spotted a mother giraffe and her newborn calf on the plains of the Maasai Mara. As I approached them, I noticed that the calf had discomfort in its right eye, maybe due to the fall at birth. It was uplifting to see how caring the mother was. She attended incessantly, tenderly cleaning her minute son.
Judges’ comment
This lovely image reflects so beautifully the mammalian bond between mother and offspring – it evokes the mother’s affection and the calf’s (reluctant?) acceptance. The black and white with added contrast pulls the animals from the distracting wonder of the Mara backdrop.
About the photographer Ana Zinger – Read more
From Brazilian jazz clubs to Africa’s national parks, Ana Zinger sings and photographs. Born in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, she majored in music and vocal performance in 2003. She developed an interest in photography at an early age, only to find her inspiration reached a peak when she visited Africa for the first time in 2000. Mesmerised by the beauty of the African wilderness, she started travelling back to Africa to photograph its wildlife. It has been 20 years now… Her work has featured in several expositions, magazines, Brazilian newspapers and Africa Geographic. Ana’s mission has been to connect people to Earth’s wild inhabitants through her lenses, throwing light on the importance of a respectful human-wildlife coexistence in a changing world.
“I found myself and rediscovered photography on this continent to which I have been travelling for twenty years. In Africa, I heard my own voice whisper: ‘I am home.’ The wild places of Africa and its creatures are part of my identity, and without them, I would suffer from a profound loneliness of spirit. Photographing and being in the wild gives me a deep sense of belonging and gratitude.”
I almost did not go out this day; it was cold and overcast, but the need for some “phototherapy” at one of my happy places, Rietvlei Nature Reserve, overrode the urge to stay in my warm bed. I am so glad it did as I managed to capture this beautiful male yellow-crowned bishop (Euplectes afer) in full breeding plumage. He was trying his best to attract a female to his nest with his beautiful song, flaring his yellow feathers, putting on quite a show in a field of pompom weeds. While I know the pompom weeds are rapidly becoming a serious threat to the conservation of grasslands in South Africa, they do make for a colourful backdrop complimenting the stunning yellow plumage of the bishop. The moral of the story, get out of bed and explore our stunning Africa to see the beauty in even the simple things like this little bird on a stick.
Judges’ comment
It is the lovely combination of colour in this image that grabs the attention first. Then, possibly, the detail in the animated bishop’s feathers and expression. Overall the photo gives a sense of excitement at the breeding season.
About the photographer Eleanor Hattingh – Read more
I am an amateur hobby photographer raised in South Africa. I have a deep-seated love for wildlife, photography and the African bush.
I bought my Nikon camera in 2013 (I still use it today) and so began my journey in wildlife photography. Being a full time working, single mom of two amazing boys, I do not get to the bush to photograph as much as I would like, so I make the most of every opportunity. Even a day trip to the local botanical gardens or nature reserve offers great opportunities for bird photography which, in turn, has ignited a new passion for birding.
My photography has taught me to see the beauty in the simple and ordinary things that most tend to overlook in the busy lives we lead. This beauty is what I hope to share with the world through my lens.
Quench – I think it would be safe to say that 2020 turned out completely different from the way we expected it to. For a waterman and somebody whose energy is rejuvenated by spending time in the ocean, the hard lockdown in South Africa left me feeling like a fish out of water for many months.
Fortunately, I had access to a backyard facing open space. And so I started to focus my attention on the wildlife which could visit me. I set up various hides and started to observe and photograph the birds in the area.
One morning, a Cape weaver (Ploceus capensis) came to quench its thirst by catching water dripping from above. I was elated when I managed to capture, in those few fleeting moments, a perfectly shaped drop a split second before the weaver caught it, despite the slow frame rate of my camera. This moment quenched the “drought” I was feeling as much as it quenched the weaver’s thirst.
Judges’ comment
This remarkable capture radiates a sense of joy and relief of the kind that comes with harvesting Africa’s most precious resource, a resource that, as this photo demonstrates, is precious to the last drop. It’s a very tricky shot that took a great deal of patience, skill and luck.
About the photographer Geo Cloete – Read more
Geo Cloete is a multi-talented artist with an architectural degree from Nelson Mandela Bay University (South Africa) in 1999. The fruits of his labour have seen him complete award-winning works in architecture, jewellery, sculpture and photography. Sharing the beauty and splendour of the natural world, especially the underwater world, is a primary focus of his photographic projects. In recognition of his contribution to spreading awareness of ocean conservation, Geo was invited to become a Mission Blue partner in 2015.
His photographic work has been awarded multiple times in many of the most prestigious national and international competitions.
The event took place in the Maasai Mara ( Olare Motorogi Conservancy) in Kenya. During a morning game drive, I saw two lionesses watching a giraffe and her calf from the cover of a croton bush. Soon the lions started stalking the giraffes and I told my guests to get their cameras ready. The lions managed to jump onto the calf, but the mother giraffe chased them away. Once the rest of the pride arrived, they surrounded the giraffes, and after about half an hour, a lioness managed to jump onto the mother’s back and distract her. During the brief separation, the lions killed the calf. The mother eventually escaped.
Judges’ comment
This is an unadulterated image that conveys the vicious side of the African wild. Although the giraffes are unable to express their emotions facially, the photo manages to display the mother’s terror and calf’s hopeless predicament. It begs the question ‘what happened next?’
About the photographer James Nampaso – Read more
I grew up in a small nomadic Maasai community in the southern part of Kenya. I now work as a professional safari guide showing international guests the beauty of nature in Olare Motorogi Conservancy.
I developed my photography skills by guiding many photographers from around the world and learning from them.
On this fine morning in Kolwezi, DRC, as I gazed at a chinspot batis that was hawking insects. I noticed she wasn’t consuming her prey. Then to my surprise, she landed on a nearby nest with two chicks in it. The nest was situated on a fallen branch, allowing me to observe the birds at eye level. I visited the area during weekends, and on the 3rd week, I was lucky enough to witness the two chicks fly to a nearby branch. This image reminded me that I am one with them and one with nature.
Judges’ comment
This image just radiates warmth. The colours, the perfecton and comfort of the tastefully decorated nest, and the dedication of the mother all combine to give a sense of peace and wonder.
About the photographer Kirkamon Cabello – Read more
Kirkamon Alarin Cabello was born in the Philippines. Nature hikes led him to a love for photography at an early age. He worked as a signage layout artist in a mining company based in the Democratic Republic of Congo. During this time, he became even more enamoured with nature photography and birding. Through this art, Kirkamon eased his loneliness away from family and loved ones. It was therapy to keep him sane and happy. He has successfully entered several local competitions in the Philippines for birding photography.
“For me, bird photography is about having a sense of connection to the environment and the audience. It is having a thousand words printed in the pixels. Photography is a never-ending passion – a desire to translate an image into a wonderful, pictorial representation – which I find both enjoyable and rewarding.”
The ears, large and wide, manage to save this fennec fox from the sweltering weather. This is the smallest fox in the world, here immortalised while walking in the perfect dunes of the Tunisian desert. It is comfortably camouflaged despite the hostile climate of this region.
I have always been fascinated by deserts and their colours. I have long looked for an ideal location to photograph the mythical fennec fox. After much research, I decided to go to the heart of the Tunisian desert with expert guides. After several days of searching at temperatures above 45 degrees, I finally managed to immortalise my fox in its natural environment in the midst of splendid dunes.
Judges’ comment
This is an astonishing shot of a very rare and elusive animal about which little is known. That it was captured in beautiful light, with such clarity is a testament to the photographer’s determination and skill in tricky conditions.
About the photographer Marcello Galleano – Read more
Marcello Galleano, an entrepreneur in the field of nutraceuticals and herbal medicine, has always been a lover of nature and adventure trips. He has visited more than 86 countries worldwide and collaborates with non-profit associations in Africa and South America. Passionate about wildlife photography, he loves to capture the most incredible moments that the various environments offer and share the world’s beauty.
I visited the northern section of the Kruger National Park in April, a couple of months after the area had received an exceptional amount of rain accompanying cyclone Eloise. As a result, the vegetation in the area had flourished to unprecedented densities, making game viewing (and photography in particular) a real challenge. After another unsuccessful drive, we retired to our camp for the evening when a light shower provided some relief from the heat. The bush came alive when the rain subsided, and insects congregated around the camp’s lights. Among the ranks of creatures hunting them was an eruption of small amphibians brought out by the rain. I found this individual on a low hanging rain tree leaf. Backlighting by the camp’s lights and my headlamp provided the effect I was looking for. Having nothing but an ancient kit lens in my arsenal for this focal length, I was well pleased with the result. It just goes to show that there is always something to see in nature and many ways of getting interesting compositions if you just look a little closer (you also don’t always need the most expensive kit).
Judges’ comment
This image makes great use of available opportunities and imagination. The detail in the leaf is stunning, all the more so because of the lack of colour, while the frog, despite being a tiny part of the frame is the obvious star of the show.
About the photographer Mattheuns Pretorius – Read more
I am a conservation scientist, drone pilot and an avid wildlife photographer based in Gauteng, South Africa. I completed my formal training in 2007 as a nature conservation student in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, whereafter I conducted a postgraduate study on the vulnerable African Grass Owl on the Highveld of South Africa. I am currently employed by a non-profit conservation organisation. My primary role is to study novel ways to protect wildlife from power line electrocutions and collisions. I also pilot unmanned aerial vehicles for various conservation missions. My love for wildlife photography blossomed in the Kgalagadi and has since been nurtured by a passion for birding, scuba diving and various other outdoor hobbies I share with my wife.
I took this photograph from the low water bridge over the Sabie River near Lower Sabie Camp in the Kruger National Park. It was January and extremely hot; most of the animals had retreated to the shade of tall trees in the riparian zone. This hippopotamus found relief in the cool rapids below the bridge and seemed to be thoroughly enjoying itself. Completely unperturbed by the human onlookers, it even fell into a brief midday snooze. I wanted to capture the scene in a way that brought across the peaceful expression on its face and opted for a slow shutter speed to enhance the feel of flowing water around the hippo in its ‘natural jacuzzi’.
Judges’ comment
This is such a cleverly designed and considered, artistic shot. The sharpness of the hippo contrasting with a blur of the water and the expression of apparent relaxation of the hippo’s face are utterly captivating.
About the photographer Mattheuns Pretorius – Read more
I am a conservation scientist, drone pilot and an avid wildlife photographer based in Gauteng, South Africa. I completed my formal training in 2007 as a nature conservation student in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, whereafter I conducted a postgraduate study on the vulnerable African Grass Owl on the Highveld of South Africa. I am currently employed by a non-profit conservation organization. My primary role is to study novel ways to protect wildlife from power line electrocutions and collisions. I also pilot unmanned aerial vehicles for various conservation missions. My love for wildlife photography blossomed in the Kgalagadi and has since been nurtured by a passion for birding, scuba diving and various other outdoor hobbies I share with my wife.
I captured this image of a Hartlaub’s Gull at ‘The Kom’, in the seaside village of Kommetjie situated in the South Peninsula of Cape Town.
The morning the image was taken, ‘The Kom’ was calm and glassy. The gulls were jumping and diving, a perfect scenario to capture the Hartlaub’s Gull in action with a partial reflection in the still water.
‘The Kom’ is a small sheltered bay almost entirely enclosed by a ridge of boulders which was once a Stone Age fish trap. When conditions are right, it is one of the best sites on land from which to see seabirds.
Judges’ comment
This is a perfectly timed image from a wonderful angle that probably took a good deal of patience and experimentation to achieve. The edit really makes the bird and the water pop out of the background.
About the photographer Philip Jackson – Read more
Philip Jackson was born in the United Kingdom. In 1992, at the age of 28, in need of adventure and tired of grey skies, he embarked on a bicycle ride to South Africa to start a new life. He fell in love with the country and has lived there ever since.
Being a nature lover his whole life, it was finally the lure of birds that encouraged him to pick up a camera and start photographing all things feathered. Seven years later, his passion for bird photography is still on an upward trajectory. He is often spotted wading into swamps, oceans, rivers or bushes in an attempt to capture the perfect bird shot. Philip now resides in Imhoff’s Gift, on the edge of Wildevoelvlei in the Western Cape. He is fortunate enough to have fish eagles, swamp hens, pied kingfishers, flamingos and many other bird species on his doorstep.
The graceful Mozambican long-fingered bat (Miniopterus mossambicus) is a fast-flying predator of insects, targeting them with echolocation signals emitted through the open mouth (many bats echolocate through the nose). A large colony of this species lives in the limestone caves of the Cheringoma Plateau in Gorongosa National Park. They emerge at dusk to hunt moths and beetles before returning to the safety of their cave shortly before sunrise. I took this photo using an infrared beam that triggered the camera as soon as the bat broke it with its body.
Judges’ comment
Photographing bats on the wing, especially the nocturnal ones, is very tricky. This image is a great example of the skillful use of technology combined with an artistic eye and a great understanding of the subject’s behaviour.
About the photographer Piotr Naskrecki – Read more
Piotr Naskrecki is an entomologist, conservation biologist, and photographer with over 20 years of experience in biodiversity research in academic environments and non-profit conservation organisations. He received his PhD in entomology from the University of Connecticut, USA. His interests concentrate on sound communication in insects and other animals, new species discovery, biodiversity conservation, and popularisation of scientific knowledge.
Piotr has published over 60 peer-reviewed papers, several books, and numerous popular articles. He has discovered and described over 150 species new to science, including new katydids, crabs, bats, and lizards. He has conducted biodiversity research and led expeditions in tropical areas across the globe. Currently, he directs the E.O. Wilson Biodiversity Laboratory in Gorongosa National Park, Mozambique, where he designed and helped create a unique research and education facility that includes a molecular laboratory, biological synoptic collections, and a comprehensive bioinformatics infrastructure. He has also initiated and helped develop an extensive biodiversity education program for Mozambican students, including Mozambique’s first graduate program leading to the M.Sc. degree in conservation biology, all in the remote wilderness of Gorongosa.
He is actively involved in the work of the IUCN Red List and serves as the first Chair of the Half-Earth Project of the E.O. Wilson Foundation, leading the Half-Earth Scholars initiative in Mozambique. In addition to conservation and education work in Mozambique, he has an active research program in systematics and insect behaviour, including a comparative study of acoustic and other behavioural responses of katydids to bat echolocation in the Old World (Mozambique) and the New World (Costa Rica).
Piotr is also an accomplished photographer whose images have been among the winners of major competitions, such as the Big Picture and Wildlife Photographer of the Year. He has authored several books illustrated with his photos (“The Smaller Majority”, “Relics”, “Hidden Kingdom”).
Marimba is a Ground Pangolin. Like many others of her species, her mother was poached for her scales to be used in traditional Chinese medicine. Marimba was thought to have been just a year old when she was orphaned – too young to fend for herself. The decision was therefore made to take her to the Wild is Life sanctuary in Harare, Zimbabwe, where she met her full-time carer, Mateo.
Pangolins are notoriously difficult to look after in captivity and require particular and personal care. Mateo’s gentle nature seemed like a perfect fit, and a remarkable relationship was born.
Pangolins are naturally nocturnal. However, for their safety, Marimba and Mateo go out in the day so she can satisfy her insatiable appetite for specific species of ants and termites. Marimba and Mateo have spent ten hours a day together for the past thirteen years, and it shows – they are inseparable. Many attempts have been made to rewild Marimba, but she always finds a way back to Mateo. She is simply too attached to him, and being so young when her mother died, she never learnt the essential skills required to survive in the wild.
As Marimba cannot be released, she will live the rest of her life at the sanctuary as an ambassador for her species. Her story has already touched the lives of so many, highlighting the importance of protecting these wonderfully unique creatures so that others do not succumb to the same fate as her mother.
Do not be fooled by their reptilian appearance. Pangolins are affectionate, gentle, sentient beings that are rapidly disappearing from our planet. They are the most trafficked group of animals in the world, and unfortunately, most human-pangolin interactions end in another pile of lifeless scales.
In a perfect world, the close connection between Marimba and Mateo would have never existed. However, I hope that this image portrays the relationship that we as a species should strive to have with pangolin to save them from extinction—one of trust, love, and compassion.
Judges’ comment
The story told by this powerful image is both sad and encouraging – speaking of humanity’s destruction of nature and of the selfless commitment many have made to save our most vulnerable species.
About the photographer Sam Turley – Read more
Sam Turley was born in Staffordshire, England, in 1992. Growing up in the countryside, Sam’s fascination with the natural world started at a very young age and has never left him. He has since dedicated his life to wildlife conservation, and after studying zoology in the UK, he went on to qualify as a field guide in South Africa, where he worked for three years. During a trip to Namibia in 2016, Sam’s passion for wildlife photography ignited, and he has been obsessed ever since. He was the overall winner of the 2020 Wilderness Safaris People’s Choice Award and was a three-time finalist in the highly prestigious 2020 Natural History Museum’s Photographer of the Year competition. His work has also been featured in many magazines, including The Telegraph, Getaway and Travel Africa. He now lives and works in Zimbabwe on a rhino conservancy where he plans to run photographic workshops and tours.
“My unique background in zoology and my experiences working as a guide help me to understand complex conservation issues. Through my photography, I aim to highlight and celebrate successful conservation initiatives whilst connecting audiences to the natural world on an emotional level. I believe that our relationship with the natural world has never been more important than it is today. I hope that my images help people to fall in love with wildlife and to ultimately understand the importance of protecting it. For, in the end, we will only conserve what we love.”
It was a particularly rainy December in Hillcrest, the garden shrubs and trees green and growing. The insects, including flies and mosquitoes, were also thriving.
On this morning, I happened to see a little tree frog hiding in a Ligularia leaf which is a bushy plant that attracts lots of flies and insects when in flower. Of course, not to miss a wonderful opportunity, I ran to grab my camera, which happened to have a flash attached to it. I managed to take several shots before the frog disappeared into the leafy trees above. My settings were Manual Mode, F16, shutter speed 100, ISO 800, Macro lens, handheld.
Judges’ comment
This image is beautifully presented. The way the frog is looking at the camera, his right foot draped leisurely over the edge of his leafy refuge, gives a sense of fairy tale curiosity and joy. The gentler side of nature.
About the photographer Shirley Gillitt – Read more
I was born and educated in Zimbabwe, moved to KwaZulu Natal, South Africa to complete a midwifery diploma as a young woman and married a South African farmer who is passionate about wildlife. So it was that my interest in wildlife and photography slowly began.
I am an amateur photographer who takes photography seriously, exploring most genres. However, my passion is wildlife, a genre that requires patience, perseverance and observance. To watch and understand animal behaviour is hugely rewarding for me. The abundance of game reserves available to us is an absolute privilege, and we try to visit most as much as possible. On many trips to game reserves, I spend time admiring the small creatures, birds and flora while trying to bypass the other 80% of people chasing the big five.
I live in Hillcrest, KwaZulu Natal, a subtropical temperate climate where the tree frogs hang out.
I have been lucky and privileged to have visited the mountain gorillas of Bwindi in Uganda a few times and what surprises me the most each time I encounter them is how similar they are to us. I was attracted to this silverback who was very relaxed and lying down, observing my movements and keeping a close eye on the rest of us.
His hands caught my attention; I was amazed at how similar they are to our human hands. Perhaps they are not like modern-life hands, but rather hands that have worked and harvested – like a farmer without modern machinery.
Judges’ comment
This image somehow manages to convey contemplation, power and vulnerability all at once. The hands’ likeness to our own also demonstrates humanity’s connection to nature and wilderness
About the photographer Valentino Morgante – Read more
From Italian origins, Valentino Morgante was born in Malawi, in the heart of Africa, where he spent his first 18 years living in close contact with African nature and culture. He completed his last years of study in Johannesburg and then moved to Italy. There, he began his working life, where he developed, among other things, a passion for nature and sports photography.
In the 90s, the call of Africa brought him back to his native land, this time to Namibia, where he started as a specialised tour guide and then a tour operator. Valentino is still living his dream and leads small groups of photographers to iconic African parks. His unconditional love for Africa is clearly recognisable in his passion for nature photography, which represents an artistic expression capable of enhancing the beauty of African nature and wildlife.
I visited Kenya for photography in 2019. The trip aimed to capture Kenya’s natural scenery, wild animals, and local people. On this day, before dawn, we drove from the Lentorre Lodge, where we stayed to a nearby village of Maasai people. When we arrived, the village was just coming alive. The children began to play, and the adults drove the cattle and sheep. Animals are important assets to the Maasai people, and animal husbandry is their main source of livelihood. This was an unforgettable day in my photography career.
Judge’s comment
This image has so many layers to it. The glorious colours of the dawn and the Maasai shukas, the movement of the goats and sheep, the children playing to the left and the dust. It also manages to convey a sense of peace and daily rhythm.
About the photographer Ying Shi – Read more
Ying Shi is a Chinese photographer who has lived in Canada for nearly 20 years. He is a member of the Canadian Association For Photographic Art, a council member of the Jiahua Elite Photography Association, and a member of the Photographic Society of America. He was awarded The Distinguished Canadian Photographer by the 126th Toronto International Salon of Photography in 2019. His photographs in Kenya have won many awards in international photography competitions.
Nestled on the northern banks of the mighty Zambezi River, opposite Zimbabwe’s Mana Pools, lies the Lower Zambezi National Park in Zambia. It is one of Africa’s most pristine wilderness areas – remote, unspoilt, and spectacular. For years dedicated individuals and organisations have been fighting against the proposed Kangaluwi mine, but the final appeal was dismissed in February 2021.
Mwembeshi Resources Ltd holds the licence for the mine, and the proposed mine site would cover 12km2 (1,200 hectares), situated between two seasonal rivers that discharge directly into the Zambezi River.
After close to a decade of delays and obfuscations, the High Court dismissed the case on a legal technicality in favour of Mwembeshi in 2018. The final appeal to the Court of Appeal of Zambia was dismissed in a judgement delivered by Justice Ngulube in February 2021, possibly marking the end of any legal challenges open to those looking to stop the mining operations.
The final barrier was the validity of the Decision Letter (and thus the Environmental Impact Statement) granting mining rights. After the ruling in their favour, Mwembeshi Resources immediately applied for an extension of validity. David Ngwenyama, an expert ecologist and one of the parties fighting against the mine, confirmed that the Zambia Environmental Management Authority (ZEMA) had granted the extension in June 2021.
The argument that the previous judge had failed to consider the public interest of the matter was summarily rejected.
The timeline
Early 2000s – Australian company Zambezi Resources Ltd applied for and was granted an exploration licence for an area of 240km2 in the Lower Zambezi Game Park. They registered a subsidiary called Mwembeshi Resources Ltd.
2010 – 17 local chieftains in the region signed an agreement to oppose all mining. An application was made to open Kangaluwi Copper Mine.
2011 – Zambezi Resources and the local subsidiary, Mwembeshi Resources, were granted a 25-year mining licence by the Zambian government and began prospecting for copper. An Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) was submitted to ZEMA for the Kangaluwi Copper Project shortly afterwards.
2012 – ZEMA rejected the EIS and released the following statement: “The proposed site is not suitable for the nature of the project because it is located in the middle of a national park and thus intends to compromise the ecological value of the park as well as the ecosystem.”
January 2014 – The minister of lands, natural resources and environmental protection, Harry Kalaba, overturned the ZEMA decision, and the project was given full permission.
February 2014 – David Ngwenyama, acting in his personal capacity, and five different NGOs began legal proceedings to appeal the decision to allow mining in Lower Zambezi National Park. The court granted an injunction to halt mining during the proceedings.
November 2014 – Dr K Leigh prepared a damning independent analysis of the EIS and proposed mine site for the Lower Zambezi Tourism Association.
April 2015 – the Appeal was adjourned by the High Court, pending judgement by Justice Chali.
April 2015 – 2019 – The court process stagnated. Upon the death of the presiding judge, a new judge was assigned under a mandate to clear the backlogged cases.
October 2019 – High Court of Zambia upheld the decision to grant mining rights in Lower Zambezi National Park on a legal technicality (a failure to file a Record of Appeal in the early stages of the proceedings).
January 2020 – Tourism and Arts Minister Ronald Chitotela announced that the project would not go ahead because the EIS was no longer valid. Experts and insiders warned that this did not necessarily confirm that the project would be cancelled.
February 2021 – The Court of Appeal of Zambia dismissed the final appeal brought by David Ngwenyama. For various reasons, many of them financial, David Ngwenyama was unable to take this matter to the Supreme Court after the appeal was dismissed.
June 2021 – Mwembeshi was granted an extension of validity for the Decision Letter (and, therefore, the EIS).
The company and legal loopholes
Bermuda-registered Mwembeshi Resources Ltd is a subsidiary of Australian-owned Zambezi Resources Ltd (subsequently renamed Trek Metals). The parent company was then sold to Dubai-based Grand Resources Limited – a company that has proved to be impossible to contact.
The Zambian Mines and Mineral Development Act of 2008 does not contain any substantial provisions relating to mining in protected areas. The Environmental Management Act of 2011 does not require a developer to carry out a fresh EIS following the expiry of the period of validity of the Decision Letter (usually three years). All that is required is a request for extension – an administrative arrangement that does not require a public hearing nor any other form of consultation with stakeholders.
For foreign investors who face more robust legislation in their own countries, Zambia is an easy target. Political games and murmurs of corruption have conferred a relentless momentum to a project that may not even be economically viable. Hamstrung by procedural regulations and an insubstantial legal framework, the courts have done little to stand in Mwembeshi’s way. Ultimately, the final judgement did not even delve into the case’s merits.
David Ngwenyama investigating an unrehabilitated exploration shaft
Collective objection
It goes without saying that an open-cast copper mine in the centre of Lower Zambezi National Park would do tremendous damage to the environment and biodiversity of the park. The devastating effects would extend to polluting the Zambezi River itself and affect neighbouring Mana Pools, the surrounding ecosystem in Zimbabwe and Mozambique.
The mine saga galvanized a diverse community of people in Zambia to rise up against the mine – NGOs, private individuals, community organisations, conservationists and ecotourism operators. The potential mine has also given rise to a new generation of environmental activists that didn’t have a voice before. Zambian youth formed a group called IMPI and organised marches to deliver petitions, held press conferences, and created a lot of noise when the appeal was dismissed in 2019.
One of the people involved is ecologist David Ngwenyama. He joined the original court battle in 2014 in his personal capacity, believing that it represented a collective fight to protect his country’s heritage. When the High Court dismissed the case, he filed the appeal at a personal legal cost of some $50,000. For seven years, he has fought for the future of Lower Zambezi National Park.
Mr Ngwenyama has now reached out to ZEMA to allow the setting up of a tripartite meeting with the developer and ZEMA to set strict biodiversity offset and associated conditions including a program of environmental social monitoring if the mine is allowed to proceed as is. ZEMA seems agreeable to this.
Protesting the mine
The future
There is also some disagreement over whether or not Mwembeshi is legally obliged to re-do the EIS given that nine years have passed since the original EIS but Mr Ngwenyama is of the opinion that Mwembeshi is now free to break ground. Various stakeholders are looking into possible legal alternatives to stop the mine, and there are glimmers of hope in this regard.
The approval process seems to be irregular and the stakeholders above are trying to inform the public. The fact that two extremely contentious projects (farming in the Kasanka National Park buffer zone and the Lower Zambezi mining) which will both impact significantly on the environment were signed off with Parliament dissolved in the run-up to the elections, is worth consideration.
The WWF, CI, CLZ and a number of other stakeholders have developed a social media campaign to educate the local public on what the approval of the mine could mean (see below).
A long-term study of spotted hyena in the Maasai Mara uses tracking collars extensively
Tracking collars have revolutionised the amount of information available to wildlife researchers since their introduction in the 1960s. The benefits are enormous, but naturally, researchers need to ensure minimal cost to the animal’s welfare.
Researchers from the Smithsonian National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute set out to examine the short-term, welfare effects of collaring captive scimitar-horned oryx.
Scimitar-horned oryx
The scimitar-horned oryx is an antelope that was once widespread from Senegal to Sudan but eventually went extinct in the wild due to hunting and habitat loss. All remaining individuals were captive in institutions around the world. In 2016, a massive joint project reintroduced 194 scimitar-horned oryx into the Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim Wildlife Reserve in Chad. Each individual has been or will be fitted with a GPS collar. Naturally, the information gathered will be critical to monitoring the reintroduction process.
The data collected from GPS readings can be used in myriad ways for wildlife studies including resource selection, behaviour, migration, home range, demographics and understanding human-wildlife conflict. Animals from elephants to birds and fish are fitted with tracking devices and, as technology develops, some of these animals may wear the devices for extended periods, possibly even for life. Naturally, scientists have recognised the need to ensure animal welfare during the process and biologists wanting to collar animals usually need to undergo a thorough review from professional committees before permission is granted. There are several restrictions, including that the device itself should weigh less than 5% of the animal’s body weight.
Fitting robust tracking collars to research species, both large and small, is a delicate and highly-skilled process.
During this study, researchers assessed the impact of the collars in three different ways: through behavioural observation, measurement of faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (indications of an animal’s stress levels) and through tri-axial accelerometers in the collars (able to detect head shaking which might indicate physical discomfort). As these animals were captive and habituated to humans, no anaesthetic or chemical sedatives were administered; instead, the oryx were physically restrained to fit the collars.
The study concluded that while there was an indication of increased stress levels after the fitting of the collar (that could also be attributed to being restrained), the animals quickly reverted to normal. There was no indication of long-term, adverse effects of using tracking collars. However, headshaking did increase dramatically initially and then dropped below the normal amount witnessed before the collaring. This may be an attempt to avoid discomfort and irritation from the collar. The feeding and movement patterns of the oryx remained the same. This was one of the main concerns that the study hoped to allay.
While there is no evidence for the long-term, negative effects of tracking collars, they can cause temporary discomfort
While the researchers are clear that there is no evidence to preclude the use of tracking collars, they encourage further studies to examine the long-term effects of collaring. There are potential concerns regarding the extra weight, regardless of how small, as previous studies have suggested this could harm an animal. There is also some concern regarding the chafing effect of the collars, which can also place the animal at higher risk of infection and increase the growth of harmful microorganisms, hence the need to ensure a good fit for the collar. They acknowledge that in many wild situations, researchers are unable to study the effects of a collar once it has been fitted, for both financial and logistic reasons. This is why they encourage researchers and manufacturers of tracking devices to work with zoos, which offer the opportunity to address at least some of these questions in a controlled environment.
There is no doubt that tracking collars have contributed tremendously to our ecological understanding of many different species and the authors of this study describe these tracking devices as “essential elements to an ecologist’s toolbox, vital for assessing conservation action, and one of the only cost-effective means for evaluating the fate of every individual in reintroduction efforts, especially across large remote areas.”
Imagine four exceptional and diversely talented photographers together on safari in the world-renowned Sabi Sands Game Reserve …
After an extended covid-delay, our 2020 Photographer of the Year winners joined me and my wife Lizz to enjoy their prize-winning safari in South Africa’s Lowveld – a great way to soak up some of Africa’s magic.
It was March 2021, and the bushveld was still dense after an excellent rain season – and yet the Sabi Sands was thrumming with wildlife and delivered on its reputation as predator-central.
We each brought our significant others – which meant that thankfully fireside discussions went beyond f/stop and the latest gear – although one winner brought a photographer friend. Our first game drive was a mere few minutes old when painted wolves ruthlessly dispatched an unfortunate impala a few meters from us. That emotional rollercoaster of excitement, sorrow and quiet contemplation was an apt introduction to what was an epic safari.
We were hosted by Djuma Private Game Reserve (no longer open to the public) in the northern Sabi Sands – we stayed at what was then the self-catering Tumbeta House. My significant other – Lizz – ran the kitchen for our party of eight – and we dined like royalty. Hats off to her and the Djuma staff – mere words cannot describe the behind-the-scenes action behind running an operation like this.
I won’t go into detail about our time in paradise – that would be cruel in the current covid-restricted dimension that we all are enduring. This brief selection of images pays testament to the combined talents of the diverse group but barely hints at the exhilarating time had by all.
Sony ILCE-1| FE 400mm f2.8 GM OSS| aperture f2,8 | exposure 1/80 | focal length 400mm | iso 2000
AND THEN
After five enriching and relaxing days in the Sabi Sand, we spent the last day of our adventure hosted by one of the most respected ladies in African conservation – a personal friend of long-standing. CEO of GKEPF, Sharon Haussmann is at the frontline of anti-poaching efforts and forging the way to cement strategic alliance partnerships between private and state landowners in this region – including a private Mozambique game reserve bordering the Kruger National Park. Sharon and colleague Marion Bourn gave us an interesting briefing of the issues and how GKEPF is tackling them. This behind-the-scenes reveal was followed by an afternoon with Timbavati warden Edwin Pierce and his rangers at a remote outpost and a helicopter flip with renowned veteran flyboy Gerry McDonald. The rangers are my heroes in the battle to protect our wildlife from the evil ones – they live in remote areas away from friends and family and put their lives on the line. I can never find the words to thank them for what they do.
Our last night in paradise, again hosted by Sharon, was at the ultra-luxurious Africa House – an exclusive-use and villa of Royal Malewane in Thornybush Game Reserve, Greater Kruger. Our late-night discussions under the twinkling stars about the last few days were a fitting end to an exceptionally uplifting sojourn.
Want to go on a safari to Sabi Sands? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
Africa’s final gift was an enchanting time spent with a lioness who brought her five cubs into the open for the first time while we were on game drive in Thornybush. Prepare to be smitten by the cuteness of the following video:
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We have an epic newsletter for you this week – so please budget for EXTRA TIME because each of the five stories below is an excellent read.
After our Botswana rhino poaching story of last week, my inbox has been flooded with further information and helpful input – thanks to all. Several people mentioned how many of Africa’s protected areas are under threat from organised crime – poaching or shady elements in extractive foresty, mining and trophy hunting. Many lamented our governments’ INABILITY to deliver on their biodiversity protection mandates. Several of our stories below bear testament to these concerns. We live in challenging times indeed.
BUT we will eventually prevail in our drive to keep Africa’s ecosystems and biodiversity safe from the evil ones. Lots has to change. Be the change.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
The world’s most famous lion died last week. Scarface, famed king of the Maasai Mara, breathed his last while resting comfortably in the waving red oat grass. He wasn’t shredded by hyenas or mauled by young pretenders. This is not a death that many wild animals can look forward to. To some, Scarface was a controversial figure. He was given the benefit of at least ten veterinary interventions that probably extended his ‘natural life’. Far more than that, however, he was an ambassador for his species and for wilderness in general. Who knows how many tourist dollars came to the Mara, contributing to the preservation of wild places because of this grizzled legend of the plains. His image, which hangs in homes all over the world, will continue to inspire nature travel and a passion for Panthera leo.
When I started guiding in the dim mists of prehistory, we were given strict instructions never to give wild animals names. ‘They are not pets and we don’t want guests to think our cats are tame.’ As a wet behind the ears biologist, I thought this was excellent. Most guides heartily agreed, despite some rather obvious contradictions. We’d refer to the Clara Dam female as ‘Clara’ or the Pink-nose Mxabene Young Male as ‘Pinky’.
Cecil and Scarface changed my mind. Their fame built awareness for the plight of their species and the wilderness in general. In our first two stories below, we consider the nameless thousands of lions living in captivity in South Africa. What will happen to them in the wake of our government’s proposed ban on the national disgrace that is captive lion breeding and trade?
Our third story below is also quite heavy going and frustrating. Kasanka National Park in Zambia, home to the world’s largest mammal migration, is under threat from commercial agriculture. Allegations of skulduggery abound.
Our fourth story below is an encouraging tale of nature’s resilience in the face of human idiocy. Wars have ravaged South Sudan for the best part of four decades now, yet one of nature’s greatest mammal migrations appears to be almost intact.
Finally, we bring you the finalists in this year’s Photographer of the Year. It’s been such a privilege to enjoy the contributions each week. Our choices are inevitably born of human biases and subjectivity and we make them in humility, full in the knowledge that not all will agree. A huge vote of thanks to all who had the courage to enter – we hope that you will do so again next year.
Here, at long last, are the Finalists in our 2021 Photographer of the Year! We will announce the overall winner and two runners-up next week. They will share US$10 000 in prize money and join their partners and our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
A recent survey by Space for Giants in South Sudan shows that one of the largest mammal migrations on earth, the white-eared kob and tiang migration, continues, apparently oblivious to the decades-long civil conflict. Numbers are sketchy for obvious reasons, but white-eared kob, tiang (a close relative of the topi) and a smattering of Mongalla gazelles (possibly a subspecies of the Thomson’s gazelle) continue their annual migrations.
South Sudan is a large country – one and a half times the size of South Africa. It is also a country that has seen horrific, long-standing conflicts. The First Sudanese Civil War dragged from 1955 until 1972. The Second (essentially a continuation of the first) went from 1985 to 2005 and resulted in independence for South Sudan (previously controlled by Khartoum in the north). A multi-sided South Sudanese Civil War then kicked off in 2013 and only really ended in February 2020.
Migration overview
Between January and June, the kob, tiang and gazelle move north and east from the wetlands on the eastern bank of the White Nile towards Boma National Park and Gambella National Park just across the border in Ethiopia. They return to Boma National Park and the vast inland delta known as the Sudd between November and January. The delta is the biggest in Africa and, in the wet season, may extend to 130,000 square km. It is home to 400 bird species and, in addition to the kob, tiang and gazelle is a refuge for the endangered Nile lechwe. Fifty years ago, there were 80,000 elephants in the region; now, there are probably fewer than 2,000.
With all the civil war, conservationists have been unable to monitor the extent of the herds or the effects of the conflict. Soldiers killed masses of bushmeat to supply the war effort while ivory was exported from the region via Juba. The war for independence saw the local extinction of zebras and rhinos, once abundant in the southern areas.
Hope
In March 2021, Dr Max Graham, founder and CEO of the international conservation organisation Space for Giants, led a rapid conservation reconnaissance survey of a selection of South Sudan’s protected areas. The goal was to understand the country’s wildlife better and explore options to support the government with its conservation work and, eventually, attract conservation tourism investors. The five-person team logged 33 hours of aerial surveys from a low-flying helicopter, travelling across Rumbek, Tonj, Yirol. Shambe National Park, Shambe Port and The Sudd, Jonglei, Bor and Boma National Park.
A key area of their focus was the status, following South Sudan’s most recent civil war, of the world’s second-greatest large mammal migration of tiang and white-eared kob.
Dr Graham talked to Africa Geographic about the survey mission and its findings.
Can you give us some broad findings from the recce?
There was a paucity of large wild animals in the areas we visited in and around Shambe National Park, west of the Nile, except for aquatic or semi-aquatic species, including sitatunga, Nile lechwe, hippos, and Nile crocodiles. Reedbuck, bushbuck, and duikers were seen but were uncommon. We saw indirect evidence of elephants and buffalo from old spoor around watering holes and came across a significant population of roan antelope west and north of Shambe.
Clearly, the elephant population here is under extreme hunting pressure given their local scarcity and the ubiquitous presence of ivory bangles among local herders. I think it could also be said with some confidence that the possibility of the Shambe area holding any remnant population of northern white rhino is extremely low given the large number of armed individuals, including specialist local hunters, and the territorial ecology of rhinos.
The area to the immediate east of the massive, abandoned, German-built machine designed to dig the Jonglei Canal was abundant in wildlife at the time of our recce with large populations of tiang, lechwe, white-eared kob and Bohor reedbuck. (The abandoned Jonglei canal project aimed to divert water from the Sudd to deliver more water downstream for agriculture in Sudan and Egypt). There was very little evidence of people in this area, east of the Nile, and it is clearly a stronghold for wildlife. Subsequent discussions with key informants suggest this area may be a no man’s land between conflicting ethnic groups, creating a haven for wildlife. As we travelled south towards Bor, wildlife began to disappear in the face of human presence, charcoal burning and deforestation.
Boma National Park and its immediate vicinity held the bulk of white-eared kob seen on this reconnaissance survey. We observed them in their tens of thousands, with smaller but significant populations of tiang. A small group of just four giraffes and around twelve eland were also observed. Both groups were highly nervous and it is clear they were under intense hunting pressure. We observed armed people throughout the park.
The abandoned, German-built machine designed to dig the Jonglei Canal
How have the numbers of migrating animals changed with the civil war?
After the wildebeest migration of the Mara-Serengeti ecosystem, these herds of white-eared kob, tiang, and associated other species, are the largest concentrations of large mammals left on the planet. That this is one of the wonders of the world is indisputable. That it has survived the long, persistent, armed conflict within South Sudan is testament to how little development there is in the country and the inaccessibility of the seasonally water-logged flood plains east of the Nile and into Ethiopia.
Research led by South Sudanese wildlife ecologist Dr Malik Morjan and supported by the Wildlife Conservation Society found that white-eared kob numbers were not dramatically affected by the 1985-2005 South Sudanese Liberation War. However, tiang were affected, with numbers estimated to have dropped from 500,000 to 160,000, mainly due to hunting by the armed forces at the time. This may be because the tiang dry season range is closer to the conflict. It isn’t clear what has happened to Mongalla gazelles which were counted at around 66,000 in the 1980s but could actually number many more today.
It also isn’t clear how the recent civil war, from 2013 to 2020, has affected overall numbers of all of these species, as we could not undertake a complete aerial survey during our recce. What surprised us was the numbers of tiang we came across to the north of their dry season range, near the Jonglei canal. Given the absence of human settlement here, possibly due to insecurity created by the civil war, we wonder if the tiang might have recovered from the negative impacts of the Jonglei canal construction, which began in 1978 but stopped at the opening of the 1985 war and never restarted.
We were also struck by the number of hunters and scattered settlements in and around Boma and Bandingilo National Parks and the clear evidence of hunting evidenced by the many animal carcasses. When we did come across kob in large numbers in parts of Boma National Park, there were always people in relatively close proximity, suggesting they may be under pressure, despite their large numbers.
I would tentatively suggest that white-eared kob may have been worse affected by hunting in and around the national parks in the Boma-Jonglei ecosystem than tiang, which used a different part of the range, towards the Sudd swamp, during the recent civil war. This would need to be verified through a complete aerial survey.
White-eared kob
How much pressure is there in the Boma and Bandingilo corridor?
What is important to note is that most of the kob and tiang migration actually falls outside of the two protected areas so it is not so much a ‘corridor’ as an entire 200,000 square km ecosystem, stretching from the Sudd and White Nile in the north-west, to Boma National Park and the Ethiopian border in the south and east. The animals move across this whole landscape seasonally. Currently, the only pressure on the corridor is hunting by local people and armed forces. This may have been amplified during the recent civil war because of the lack of alternative food sources.
The medium-term pressure is, however, far more significant. According to research led by Dr Morjan before the recent civil war, 72% of the known kob migration, and more than 99% of the tiang migration, fall within leased oil concessions. With the country desperate to exploit the benefits of oil revenue, the associated infrastructure development that might emerge could be devastating for the migration. For example, three of the ten priority roads planned by the government cut through the migration. Furthermore, South Sudan has a high population growth rate, and settlements within the ecosystems could soon become urban centres.
Local settlements occur within and around the national parks of South Sudan
Has the migration route changed with human encroachment and settlement?
It appears from our recce survey that the distribution of ungulates was similar to that found in previous dry seasons, if not a little more extensive in the north than described previously. It is important to note just how big this migration is. Kob have been recorded moving across 68,805 square km and tiang across 35,992 square km, both sparsely populated by people. However, there appears to be growing pressure on the kob in the southern part of their range due to increasing human settlement and possibly an increase in hunting.
How secure are Boma and Bandingilo from human encroachment?
Both have significant, growing human settlements within and outside the parks, accommodating traditional villages that existed before the parks’ establishment. What isn’t clear is the extent to which people here are engaged in commercial bushmeat poaching due to a lack of alternative food sources given the effects of the civil war.
The inundated swamps to the east of the Nile
What is the condition of the rangelands in the national parks and corridor areas?
The habitat, currently, is intact across the 200,000 sq km Boma-Jonglei ecosystem. However, there is extensive burning of habitat nearly everywhere we travelled. This is associated with the cultural tradition of using fire as a rangeland management tool to improve pasture for livestock. It isn’t clear what role the extensive burning plays on the ecology of the ecosystem. It is possible that, on the one hand, this burning could be a factor in driving migration patterns of wild ungulates by providing them with highly palatable grasses, whilst it could also be threatening overall species diversity.
How much pressure is there from local livestock?
There is a large scale pastoralist movement into parts of the ecosystem during the dry season. There is clear pressure around watering points in Boma and Bandingilo, which we presume could accentuate conflict and hunting during the dry season.
What are the barriers to setting up a viable safari circuit that might support conservation in the area?
There is no tourism infrastructure in the parks, and indeed very little accommodation in South Sudan as a whole. Access to these wild places is very challenging, given the absence of road infrastructure. Furthermore, sporadic and unpredictable conflicts, together with the proliferation of arms, mean that travel needs careful planning and local knowledge. All of that said, there is very little evidence to suggest that visitors to South Sudan have been targeted during all the years of conflict. I was pleasantly surprised by the warmth of the welcome we received from local people. Any tourism initiative would have to begin with an air-based travel solution which could be possible and very rewarding for intrepid travellers. Putting in place a simple and effective tourism visa system would also help.
Migrating herd of tiang
What’s needed next?
Space for Giants recommends that the government works with conservation partners to undertake an immediate aerial survey of South Sudan’s national parks to establish the distribution and density of wildlife populations and identify key conservation priorities. That should include provisions for specialist survey methodologies for rhinos if credible intelligence networks can identify suitable survey areas. It should also include identifying the full extent of the area required by the white-eared kob and associated species for their annual migration and prioritise their protection through an expanded protected area system. South Sudan could submit to the United Nations for designation as a World Heritage Site and “wonder of the world”.
Through the Ministry of Conservation and Tourism, the Sudanese Government could also convene a summit of conservation NGOs and associated partners in Juba to agree on a road map for national park protection, expansion, ongoing management, and development. Based on our expertise advising national governments elsewhere, primarily in Uganda, Gabon, Kenya and now Mozambique, Space for Giants would suggest South Sudan put in place co-management agreements with reputable conservation NGOs to resource wildlife security, park infrastructure and management. In partnership with regional mobile tourism operators, South Sudan could then launch expeditionary tourism to visit its unique offerings to global tourism, including birding, sports fishing, cultural heritage, and the kob migration, to build the country’s brand as a wilderness destination.
Last month, South Africa’s government took a significant step forward for animal welfare and lion conservation when the Minister of the Department of Forestry, Fisheries and Environment (DFFE), Barbara Creecy, announced plans for a complete ban on the controversial captive lion breeding industry. But as we stare into the face of the horror created over two decades, one question remains: what will happen to the thousands of captive-bred, genetically impaired and diseased lions and cubs?
Conservationists and welfare experts have pushed to shut down the captive lion breeding industry for years, saying it is cruel, has no conservation value, and is damaging to South Africa’s international image. The industry has been exposed for the unethical ‘canned’ or captive lion hunting, the questionable tourist cub petting industry and, more recently, the lion bone trade to Asia.
Now, as processes to close the industry are unfolding, welfare activists ask: “What will become of all the lions?”
The answer is not only shocking but also sobering. With so many welfare and genetic defects, more than half, if not all, of the approximately 12 000 captive-bred lions will need to be euthanised.
The unregulated captive industry has led to the inbreeding of lions, resulting in physical defects, inferior genetics, and a breeding zone for pathogens that threatens other lion populations and humans.
“We must not ignore the catastrophic consequences created by this horrific industry. Let’s hope South Africa and the rest of the world does not easily forget the shameful outcome of such animal exploitation,” says Adrienne West of Animal Survival International.
Conservationists say rewilding captive-bred lions is no solution due to their diseases, compromised genes and human habitation. And there is simply not enough wild habitat available to accommodate so many lions.
Furthermore, despite many facilities promoting themselves as wildlife sanctuaries, only a handful of true sanctuaries exist in South Africa. None have the capacity or financial ability to home hundreds of big cats.
Yet the industry must be stopped. Left unchecked, the captive predator breeding industry is a self-perpetuating animal welfare disaster. During the mid-nineties, when the Cook Report first exposed the horrific cruelty of the industry and Director of Blood Lions, Ian Michler, began his intensive investigations, there were fewer than 1000 lions held in captive facilities.
“When I started investigating, there may have been about 800 predators living in captive facilities. In 2005, I submitted a report to the government at the time, estimating that there were roughly 3500, and when we researched Blood Lions, the number was in excess of 6 000. Today it’s estimated that there are over 10 000 lions in about 300 captive breeding facilities,” says Michler.
If the captive breeding of lions were left to continue, the number could explode to tens of thousands of genetically inferior lions living in captive squalor and destined for trophies or slaughtered for their bones.
“Captive lion breeding does not contribute to the conservation of wild lions and… legal trade in lion body parts risks stimulating demand and illegal trade, posing major risks to wild lion populations in South Africa and among vulnerable wild lion populations in other countries where poaching is on the rise,” says Dr Paul Funston, director at the international wild cat organisation, Panthera.
In addition, a recent study found that captive lion facilities create a dangerous breeding ground for zoonotic diseases, highlighting the potential health risk to thousands of tourists and staff working at the facilities.
According to Blood Lions, the first plan of action needs to be an immediate ban on captive breeding through sterilisation. Following that, there needs to be an audit to ascertain exact population numbers, the welfare of individual lions and the state of the facilities.
The audit will also reveal true sanctuaries from commercial breeding facilities. A true sanctuary provides a permanent home for animals and does not buy, sell, breed or trade-in animals or their parts, nor do they allow any human interaction.
“Strict guidelines on breeding, keeping, animal husbandry and welfare need to be imposed on such facilities, and a definition of a true sanctuary must be addressed in existing legislation.”
Environmental and animal welfare NGOs are now eagerly awaiting the DFFE’s Policy Paper to begin the process of shutting down the captive predator breeding industry.
But lion breeders and canned hunting outfitters are frantically lobbying Creecy to reconsider her decision and many fear this an attempt to bully the minister into watering down the policy report, which would be a devasting blow to such a bold move by government.
In addition, there is a concern that lion breeders may begin illegally killing their lions and pushing the illicit lion bone trade before new legislation comes into effect and clamps down.
“It’s a matter of urgency that the process is swift as we would hope that the industry is not allowed to flourish while details are being sorted,” says Michler.
Banning the captive predator breeding industry is a significant shift in South Africa’s attitude towards utilising its wild animals. Hopefully, we will not easily forget the shame of being forced to dispose of nearly 12 000 lions humanely.
(Melissa Reitz is an investigative wildlife and environmental journalist. As the full-time staff writer for Animal Survival International, she aims to continue raising awareness to the issues impacting on wildlife and animals across the globe. Animal Survival International is a non-profit organization that acts as a voice for animals around the world to raise awareness and take action against the threats that endanger their survival. )
In the recent report provided by the High-Level Panel on the management of iconic wildlife species in South Africa, the majority of the panel recommended that the government of South Africa ban captive lion breeding. One of their reasons was the risk associated with zoonotic diseases. It is a risk that has been highlighted by several lobbying groups and individuals but is often lost beneath the layers of moral debate that tend to dominate. So what diseases are associated with lions, and how acute is the risk? A recent study analyses 148 different research papers to start providing answers to these questions.
A zoonotic disease is a disease caused by any pathogen – bacteria, viruses, prions, fungi and parasites – capable of transmitting from vertebrate mammals to humans. Outbreaks of zoonotic diseases such as ebola, foot-and-mouth, psittacosis, or tuberculosis are often associated with severe human illness and death, as well as heavy livestock losses. Any farming and commercial use of animals is associated with an increased risk of zoonotic transmission, which is why biosecurity is so stringently regulated in most countries.
Wild animals can also act as reservoirs of infectious disease, some of which may, as yet, be unknown to the scientific community. Commercial wildlife operations are typically conducted with high concentrations of animals, poor hygiene conditions, and close contact between animals. In wild animals without domesticated instincts, high stress levels caused by captive situations might lower immune response and increase the risk of disease spread. Even though there are now thousands of lions and other predators housed in captive situations throughout South Africa, this was the first attempt at compiling a list of pathogenic organisms associated with lions from recent scientific research.
The authors analysed 148 different scientific papers from the last ten years to collate a list of diseases that have been identified in lions. Sixty-three different pathogens were reported, most of which were parasites but also included viruses and fungi. The authors also list 83 clinical symptoms and diseases associated with the identified pathogens. Several were singled out as potential threats to human health:
Echinococcosis – a disease caused by tapeworms that may often be present without symptoms for many years but may result in the formation of cysts in the brain, lungs and liver.
Human African trypanosomiasis – lions are a potential carrier of African sleeping sickness, though the disease is not typically present in South Africa.
Bovine tuberculosis – tuberculosis transmission at the wildlife-livestock-human interface is a growing concern and can have severe health and economic implications.
A pathogenic strain of Escherichia coli – these bacteria are present in the intestines of most mammals, including humans, but pathogenic strains cause diarrhoea and digestive distress.
Toxoplasma gondii – a protozoan parasite that causes toxoplasmosis (generally symptomless in healthy adults but can cause serious conditions in those with weakened immune systems). Some Toxoplasma species can cause severe inflammation to pulmonary, cardiac and nervous systems and have been linked to foetal death and abortion.
Anaplasma phagocytophilum – one of the tick-borne Rickettsia bacteria, causing tick bite fever.
Microsporum gypseum – a fungus that causes dermatomycosis (ringworm).
Toxascaris leonina – a parasitic roundworm that has been known to invade human hosts.
Mange – a contagious skin disease caused by parasitic mites and resulting in scabies in humans.
Of significant concern is the mutation and spread of viruses. Coronaviruses are one of the most common virus types in the world, and almost every human is infected with one or more during their lifetime. It is the more lethal strains of the virus (such as COVID-19) that are of concern. The feline coronavirus has not yet been known to spread from cats (lions or domestic cats) to people. However, the unsanitary conditions and proximity in lion farms increase the risk of these viruses mutating and making the species leap to humans. There are documented cases of COVID-19 in captive big cats, and farmers in the Netherlands contracted COVID-19 through close contact with infected mink. Pathogens could also transmit from farms to the surrounding wildlife.
In many instances, managing disease within captive lion populations is especially difficult because the lions appear asymptomatic for years or may act as carriers of disease. With little to no legal regulation, most captive lion farms have no biosecurity measures in place. This, in turn, will have implications for what happens to the lions currently in captivity.
The authors indicate that the list of identified pathogens is far from exhaustive but was intended as a baseline inventory of key pathogens associated with diseases in lions. They conclude that regardless of the moral debate surrounding the commercial breeding of lions, the industry poses a potential risk to other wildlife and public health.
Straw-coloured fruit bats in Kasanka National Park
The Kasanka National Park in Zambia – home to the world’s largest mammal migration – is under immediate threat from agricultural development. Update.
Up to ten million fruit bats migrate to the wetlands in Kasanka for a few months every year. It is a globally significant biological spectacle that draws in tourists and helps to underpin the fastest growing economic sector in Zambia. This is the world’s largest mammal migration.
Kasanka National Park receives the highest level of protection in Zambia – because of the unique flora and fauna that it supports. Critical to the whole ecosystem is the habitat immediately surrounding the park. This land is currently being illegally deforested by the Tanzanian based Lake Group and its subsidiary Lake Agro Industries. They apparently aim to grow wheat, maize and soya amongst other crops.
The habitat around the park is designated the Kafinda Game Management Area (GMA) and also receives protection but this is being ignored. Lake Agro Industries have cleared over 560ha of natural woodland in the zone. The future of the whole area now hangs in the balance.
The world’s largest mammal migration occurs when straw-coloured fruit bats visit Kasanka National Park each year. It’s a spectacle that’s been filmed by the BBC, Netflix and is currently part of an ongoing project for National Geographic / Disney
The current situation
The Zambian government has temporally halted the destruction but Lake Agro Industries is persevering. They have submitted a formal Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) for consideration, requesting permission from the Zambia Environmental Management Agency (ZEMA) to develop commercial agriculture and associated infrastructure over a 7,000ha footprint inside the GMA, less than three km from the national park where the bats roost. The result of the ESIA will be given on 18 June 2021 but the actual ESIA still does not appear on the ZEMA website and public comment is thus almost impossible.
The clearing began in 2019, well ahead of obtaining any formal permissions. The Kafinda GMA is officially classed as part of Zambia’s Protected Area Network. In practice, this is supposed to be implemented by the General Management Plan (GMP), which was signed by the Ministry Of Tourism and Arts and the Zambian Wildlife Authority. This splits the area into zones and sets out what type of land use is permitted in each. The Lake Agro footprint sits across the ‘Wilderness Zone’ and the ‘Development Zone’.
The wilderness zone is supposed “to be used for tourism and preservation of habitat”. “The purpose of the zone is to provide low volume tourism. It allows for minimum development with non-permanent structures. Visitor activities focused on are game walks, game viewing and photographic safaris”. Roads, settlements, hunting, and farming are not permitted.
The development zone: “covers 56 % (2,162 km2) and is the largest of all the zones. It generally surrounds the buffer and the special use zones. It allows for developments such as settlements and basic amenities such as education and health”. Small scale community farming is permitted within the Kafinda GMA, but not commercial farming. All development proposals within the GMA require an EIA or an Environmental Project Brief.
Lake Agro Industries claim they have permission to occupy the land because they made a payment to the local traditional authority, Chief Chitambo; however, the chief doesn’t have the authorisation to give away that amount of land or override the legal restrictions set out in the GMP, and he did not consult DNPW.
Local ecologist and conservation biologist Helen Taylor-Boyd says: “The value that the Park and GMA buffer provides through ecosystem services such as water catchment and carbon sequestration, as well as tourism livelihoods, cannot be underestimated. Kasanka National Park is also host to the world-famous fruit bat migration and impacts here will have a knock-on effect for seed dispersal locally, nationally and beyond borders”.
Kasanka National Park
Kasanka National Park hosts a number of exceptional natural features, including:
The largest mammal migration in the world. A seasonal colony of up to ten million straw-coloured fruit bats, a significant part of the subequatorial population of this IUCN Red List Near-Threatened species and a major tourist attraction.
The second-longest bird list of all Zambian national parks and Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas. It is home to a highly diverse avifauna that includes many threatened species.
Important populations of the scarce sitatunga, offering the best viewing in Zambia and beyond; the IUCN Red List Near-Threatened puku; and the little known Kinda baboon.
A healthy and diverse complex of rivers. The park is of great importance to the ecological and socio-economic functioning of these watercourses.
A unique small-scale diversity of intact habitats, including threatened habitats such as the mushitu and mateshe evergreen forests, hosting enormous biodiversity.
The area under threat, the GMA, is crucial to the integrity of the park, providing a buffer and transition into other sustainable land uses. When the world’s largest mammal migration occurs in October each year, the straw-coloured fruit bats take up residence in a small area of evergreen forest in the very heart of Kasanka National Park. Every evening they leave the roost to forage well beyond the artificial boundary of the park, venturing deep into the Kafinda GMA.
Research has shown that these bats migrate huge distances from countries including DRC, South Sudan and Tanzania. Along the way, they deliver invaluable ecosystem services, such as seed dispersal and the promotion of reforestation. Effects in Kasanka will have repercussions felt across Central Africa.
Concerns with the ESIA
Despite the legal status of the GMA, its protection is not being enforced. The landscape is being deforested and degraded at an alarming rate, posing a direct threat to the integrity of the park’s ecosystems and the animals it supports. In 2019, Lake Agro Industries cleared over 560ha of pristine woodland in Kafinda GMA without the appropriate permission. Government departments issued three-stop orders before closing the farm in March 2020.
The proposed 7,000ha Lake Agro site lies entirely within the Kafinda GMA, less than three km from Kasanka National Park
Proposals in the ESIA include drawing water directly from the Luwombwa River, which feeds the wetland habitats of Kasanka National Park. It is estimated that abstraction at peak demand in September would be greater than 90% of the remaining flow of the Luwombwa River.
The ESIA report from Lake Agro Industries concludes that “the identified environmental impacts have been fully mitigated against”, with proposed mitigation to compensate for deforestation being “avoid clearing or damaging intact habitats” – despite the 7,000ha scheme being situated entirely within the intact habitats of the GMA.
Potential impacts on the Protected Area network (Kasanka National Park and Kafinda GMA) are not given any consideration in the ESIA and, in 245 pages, there is not a single mention of a bat.
Conclusion
Kasanka Trust maintains that it would be negligent of ZEMA to grant approval for the proposals. The site selection and occupancy of the GMA would result in devastating impacts to biodiversity conservation on an international scale.
It should also be noted that elsewhere inside the Kafinda GMA, another subsidiary of the Lake Group, Gulf Adventures, has occupied approximately 5,000ha of pristine forest and constructed a game farm. The introduction of species not native to the local area such as ostrich and impala is a further breach of the GMP that is designed to support the protection of the GMA.
In theory, there should be no way that the project will be granted approval. It’s situated entirely in a protected area and would have very serious consequences for a national park of international importance for biodiversity conservation. On paper, it has the highest level of protection available. The company has already demonstrated their lack of regard for the environment and the law and there are also serious concerns about the validity of the EISA.
Note that AG attempted to contact the Lake Group for comment but to no avail.
TAKE ACTION:
If you would like to support the Kasanka Trust in stopping this development, please contact James Mwanza of the Kasanka Trust – gm@kasanka.com. To support the objection against the Lake Agro ESIA, the Kasanka Trust needs to hear from you by 16th June 2021.
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Rant warning!
Do we expect too much of our elected leaders in governments around the world? Should I ratchet down my expectations that they treat our natural heritage with respect and not as expendable political tools? And what about enquiries from responsible media brands like Africa Geographic – why are the relevant government departments ignoring our respectful and patient requests for clarity about the poaching crisis that bedevils their wild areas?
The Botswana government has a deserved reputation for stellar wildlife conservation. How quickly that will change if the current leaders continue to duck and dive in the midst of a massive increase in poaching of rhinos and elephants. While old scores are settled and egos assuaged, the crime syndicates are making a fortune out of the slaughter.
Our first story below refers.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
As a child I detested winter. I grew up in Johannesburg so this is reasonable – it’s skin-scalingly dry, frosty and the air is clogged with asphyxiating horrors. There also isn’t a builder in South Africa who’s worked out how to construct a vaguely insulated home. While I could put this down to some sort of national incompetence, (of which there is an ample supply) I actually think it’s national amnesia. Come the first of September, we forget entirely that we’ve been freezing to death, looking forward instead to the long summer.
When my parents sent me forth to make a living (i.e. ejected me from the nest), I moved to the Lowveld where the winters are surprisingly pleasant – as they are in most of southern Africa’s safari hotspots. Yes, it is frigid on early morning game drives, with many of our international travellers utterly astonished that Africa could be cold at all, but the chilly dawns are followed by balmy days with lots of animals frequenting the dwindling waterholes. The colours of the winter – bronze, copper, orange and gold – also offer a gorgeous backdrop for photography. In my opinion, a leopard’s pelage is much better complimented by the palate of winter than the verdancy of summer.
So, once you have immersed yourself in the 101 finalist photos for the 2021 Photographer of the Year competition (two exquisite galleries below), why not book yourself a winter safari? You can take your own happy snaps for next years competition, and, if you are a town-dwelling southern hemispherite, you can escape the smoggy air and respiratory distress that accompanies the city’s winter. Our travel desk is open for enquiries by emailing travel@africageographic.com or navigating to the website links at the end of each of our stories below.
Here, at long last, are the Top 101 entries in our 2021 Photographer of the Year! We will announce the overall winner and two runners-up in late June. They will share US$10 000 in prize money and join their partners and our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
Here, at long last, are the Top 101 entries in our 2021 Photographer of the Year! We will announce the overall winner and two runners-up in late June. They will share US$10 000 in prize money and join their partners and our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
That we are seeing increased rhino poaching in Botswana’s Okavango Delta region is no secret, as your news feeds will bear witness to.
During the last few months, I have received several phone calls from respected members of the African conservation and tourism industries. The clear and urgent message has been that rhino poaching in Botswana is rampant and that Africa Geographic should investigate and let the world know what is going on. But, unfortunately, my requests for specific facts and evidence were initially rebuffed for fear of persecution by the Botswana authorities.
Eventually, bits and pieces of information and documents from various sources started dripping in. We also received a batch of photos taken off the mobile phone of a poacher – a unique behind-the-scenes look into this sordid industry.
What follows is our attempt to make sense of the toxic mix of official silence and considered input from members of our networks. We do not present this summary as hard facts – we suspect that even the Botswana authorities do not know precisely the scale of the rhino poaching problem. Instead, this is as close as we can come to at the moment to understanding the scale of the problem regarding the poaching of Botswana’s rhinos.
At the outset, I must emphasise that my team and I attempted to contact individuals within the relevant Botswana government departments over the last two weeks. In the spirit of a request by Dr Kabelo Senyatso, Director of the DWNP, on 2 March 2021 that we all “…verify any anti-poaching data with DWNP before making irresponsible and misleading statements that may have a negative implication on Botswana.” we did just that. Initially, there was no response from any Botswana government official – no returned phone calls, emails or social media messages. Finally, last week we managed to make telephonic contact and were provided with two email addresses to forward our queries to, which we did. To date, there has been no response, despite several reminders.
Extinction and the come-back
Botswana’s free-roaming rhinos were poached to extinction during the mid and late 1990s – with the last black rhino going down to poachers in 1992. The decision was then made to re-introduce rhinos, and several private and government projects have focussed on just that – bringing rhinos back to northern Botswana’s wild areas. The project was by most accounts a success, with a 2017 IUCN report estimating that Botswana had 452 white and 50 black rhino– 502 rhinos in total – at the time.
Poaching volumes – estimates
Between 2010 and 2018, only one rhino was poached – by a fisherman poacher in what appeared to be a random, opportunistic killing. The poacher was arrested. In mid to late 2018, poaching escalated rapidly – initially in private game reserves and then in the vast Okavango Delta area.
These are the estimates we have gathered about the number of Botswana rhino that have been poached:
Our sources estimate that the number of rhinos poached in the last 2 1/2 years amounts to a minimum of 100-140 (ave 4 per month). Some sources suggest that a further 60-odd rhino are unaccounted for and almost certainly poached – resulting in a higher estimate by some of up to 200 rhinos poached (ave 6,7 per month).
Former Botswana President Ian Khama estimated the number at 120 in the 18 months to March 2021 (ave 6,7 per month).
Various government officials announced figures related to specific periods – as follows:
46 over ten months (April 2019 to February 2020) (ave 4,6 per month) – Moemi Batshabang, a deputy director DWNP
56 over two years (to August 2020) (2,3 per month) – Dr Cyril Taolo, Acting Director DWNP
36 over 21 months (April 2018 to December 2019) (ave 1,7 per month) – Philda Kereng, Minister of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation & Tourism.
Whether you are inclined towards the higher or lower estimates, these figures are significant. Even a conservative estimate based on the above of 120 rhinos poached over 2 ½ years (ave 4 per month) amounts to 24% of the estimated population before the poaching commenced. By comparison, South Africa lost 32% of its rhinos to poaching in the two years to 2019 and 67% over the nine years to 2019. South Africa has 8-10 times more rhinos than Botswana and the number of rhino being poached is therefore significantly higher.
Relocations and dehornings
Some black rhinos were successfully captured and moved to a safe area, and it is believed that there are now few, if any, free-roaming black rhino in the Okavango Delta – the others having been poached. Some white rhinos were dehorned, but dehorned rhinos were amongst those poached – as has been the case in South Africa.
The poachers and networks
Our sources tell us that up to six poaching gangs now operate in the Okavango Delta area, and we have viewed evidence that alleges at least one Botswana Defence Force helicopter pilot was/is involved (more about that later).
Evidence suggests that the poaching gangs have branched out from elephants to now include rhinos. Many of the poachers are from Zambia and Namibia and are assisted by locals. Minister Kerenge explained in parliament: ‘Let me explain that it is a network and syndicate of both Batswana and foreigners’.
Rhino horns captured in seizures as far afield as the Democratic Republic of Congo have been DNA-traced to Botswana. Similar testing of ivory indicates that the elephants were poached in the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA). According to our sources, ivory and rhino horn poached in Botswana are trafficked to Congolese buyers in Lusaka (Zambia) and Chinese buyers in Windhoek (Namibia).
Inside job?
According to evidence that we have studied, at least one Botswana Defence Force helicopter pilot was being investigated in 2019 for allegedly working with known poachers – providing real-time rhino locations and security updates. Furthermore, it is alleged that the pilot is related by marriage to one of the known poachers.
Threats & oppression, smoke and mirrors
Several in our networks expressed fear about being blacklisted by the Botswana authorities if they were to be associated with this article. One suggested that this is often a subtle process – with permissions/licenses/permits etc., to operate in Botswana being withdrawn and economic opportunities being denied.
When former President Khama publicly stated that this failure to manage rhino poaching would negatively impact the tourism industry, DWNP director Dr Kabelo Senyatso responded with “…security sensitivities of the subject matter … potential negative implication on tourism … economic sabotage.”. And yet, various ministers have made equally concerning statements relating to rhino poaching (read the links provided in this article).
Senyatso goes on to claim that “…DWNP has a long-standing policy of not discussing operational and security-sensitive anti-poaching information in the media, as that only serves to increase the safety risks that our on-the-ground operatives face.” And yet, the links in this article prove that government ministers do not respect this secrecy policy.
One bizarre (in the circumstances) statement by Minister Kereng during a parliamentary discussion in August 2020 seems to make a mockery of this supposed strategy of keeping poaching-sensitive information out of the public eye: “After de-horning, the horn grows back, same as a nail. When the tourism sector reopens, tourists are going to find our rhinos with horns.”
Where to from here?
My observation is that rhinos and elephants are now such highly leveraged political collateral in the battle to influence people and win votes, there is unlikely to be much common sense in the public rantings of politicians and others who have spotted the same opportunity.
This tunnel-vision strategy is surely preventing meaningful discourse, sharing and collaboration – and wreaking havoc at ground level. That information vacuum is being filled with conspiracy theories and guesswork. And the dominance of political manoeuvring over best-practise is creating an opportunity for well-organised crime syndicates. The same crisis exists in South Africa – for similar reasons.
Who knows what is going on behind the scenes, which valuable experience is being ignored and even suppressed because it originates on the other side of some ideological fence? The Botswana government has a deserved reputation for stellar wildlife conservation. How quickly that will change if the current leaders continue to duck and dive in the midst of a massive increase in poaching of rhinos and elephants. While old scores are settled and egos assuaged, the crime syndicates are making a fortune out of the slaughter.
Accurate rhino poaching statistics will, one day, rise to the surface. And by then, we will know how effective the Botswana government is at curtailing what appears to be rampant poaching. My sincere hope is that someone in the Botswana government rises above the noise soon and starts making good decisions. Am I hoping for too much? Time will tell.
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
Africa Geographic has a policy of not disclosing specific locations of rhino and other target species. Locational terms such as ‘Northern Botswana’ and ‘Okavango’, as used in this story, do not provide new or useful information to criminal syndicates, who rely on real-time and granular locational information provided primarily by insiders and local people.
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I am buried deep in research for a future story. My location is currently about midway between bureaucratic bungling and misinformation juiced by algorithms. Or thereabouts. Over to my raconteur colleague James to regale you with his dry wit and immense charm. See you next week.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
A few months ago I was going through a trunk of memorabilia when I happened upon a large packet of photographs – yes, printed snaps. All of them were wildlife shots sent by various kind guests in the early 2000s. I don’t want to be unkind here so I’ll just say that none have ever decorated a wall, desk, mantelpiece or even privy in any of the hovels I’ve occupied.
Our 2021 Photographer of the Year competition is now closed and we now face the intimidating task of picking a winner and two runners up (to be announced in July). Here are a few thoughts on how we assess the images.
In the days of manual, film cameras, taking a good shot required patience, exceptional knowledge of the camera, the conditions, the animals and a great dose of luck. Now, cameras and editing software are so clever, that just about anyone can take a decent wildlife shot. The result is that what may have been forgiven in the past (slight blur, exposure issues etc), can’t be forgiven now.
Yet, still, most of the principles that defined great shots of the past, define them today: An exceptional prediction of animal behaviour, patience (time), large doses of luck and the ability to tell a story with a picture.
You can see the final gallery of Africa’s wonders below – it’s a long and lovely one so best enjoyed with some good music and drink. A huge thank you to all who entered this year’s competition.
Tourism operations are increasingly offering guests the chance to participate in conservation. In our second story below, two AG tribe contributors share their fascinating experiences of hands-on conservation in the field.
In our final story below, genetic research indicates that there are four species of giraffe and seven subspecies. The research has mighty important conservation ramifications.
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is now closed for submissions, it’s been a wonderful 21 weeks. We will announce the overall winner and two runners-up in late June. They will share US$10 000 in prize money and join their partners and our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
A number of ecotourism operations are beginning to offer conservation activities to their guests – opportunities to see hands-on conservation in action. Lodges and parks are formalising guest safety protocols for taking their guests on rhino dehorning, elephant collaring, game capture and other veterinary interventions.
Here, two of our AG tribe share their accounts of firsthand conservation experiences.
Game capture in Mokala National Park, South Africa
By Sharlene Cathro
During a recent visit to Mokala National Park – one of the newest SANParks Reserves, my husband and I discovered the building of a large boma in the middle of the reserve. This could only mean one thing – ‘game capture’. We spoke to the rangers and they agreed that we could experience the event.
As retired, hobbyist photographers, we spend an average of three to four months of the year in various SANParks reserves; this was the first time we’d had the opportunity to witness something like this. It turned out, I had no idea what actually transpired during a game capture.
Clockwise from top left: Just prior to closing the first division; two divisions closed with the animals in the truck; SANParks officials monitoring the animals in the truck; tranquilising a herd of captured zebra.
Preparation
First, the boma area was built bearing in mind factors such as animal pathways, wind direction, trees and space for the massive transport trucks. Then, the helicopter took off to locate a herd of the desired species (not, as I had envisaged, with different herbivores herded together). Meanwhile, the ground crew entered the boma area and positioned themselves out of sight, behind trees and the tarpaulin curtains. The first target for our capture team was a herd of zebra.
After just 15 minutes, we heard the siren from the helicopter warning the crew that the herd was close. Then a different siren sounded as the animals were about to enter the boma. This told the ground crew to pull the first tarpaulin curtains closed behind the advancing herd. All this happened in seconds.
Then the hard work began.
The second tarpaulin division closing behind a herd of eland
Execution
We watched the ground crew guide the herd towards the holding pen, still with the assistance of the helicopter. This is far easier said than done as zebras have an excellent sense of smell – if they scent human, they can panic and dart off in the opposite direction. It took a while, but finally after three different curtain closures, each one smaller than the last, the herd was in the holding pen.
All the captured animals were then counted, sexed and finally tranquillised for the onward journey. This was done by a professional team of SANParks veterinarians. The procedure was performed methodically by marking each animal with a green stripe after the first tranquilliser, followed by a yellow stripe after the second. Once completed the zebras were loaded into the trucks. Depending on the species, some are loaded and only then tranquillised through the roof of the vehicles.
I was fortunate enough to photograph the eland capture from the top of one of the trucks. The eland were quite happy to run from the holding pen straight up the ramp into the truck where the tranquillising was done through the roof.
The three large trucks interlinked in a U formation – the animals walked through the first and second trucks and into the last. This meant there was no moving, reversing or changing trucks after each capture – therefore less stress on the animals.
The entire day’s experience was one of the most exhilarating and educational of my life. I can only admire the dedication and hard work of the SANParks team. They worked tirelessly for the entire day, hiding up trees and wrapped in tarpaulin curtains; all to ensure the animals were captured and transported to their new homes in the safest, most humane way possible.
To quote Ben, a long time SANParks employee, ‘You must come and help so that you can tell your children and grandchildren you were involved in relocating wild animals; this is not something many people get to do in their life.’
The author enjoying her game capture experience
Conclusion
Mokala National Park is known as the breeding park for our unusual and endangered animals. It has no natural predators and the herds grow to numbers greater than the park can sustain. It is, therefore, necessary to control the numbers – hence the game capture and redistribution programme.
All the animals from this day’s capture went to various rigorously screened game farms in the Northern Cape as part of an effort to create a greater spread of species across the country. The farms were pre-approved after undergoing a rigorous screening process by the SANParks.
Thank you to Rudi and Lawrence for giving us the opportunity to be a part of the team and photograph the day’s proceedings.
Hands-on conservation: elephant collaring in Zimbabwe By: Ben Sheil
Have you ever seen a collared wild animal and wondered why it is so? Tracking wildlife with remote radio collars stretches back to the 1960s and since its inception, it has seen widespread use by those studying and conserving wildlife. Collars are the most widely used tracking devices for mammals because they are relatively easy to fit and have minimal impact on an animal’s wellbeing. Powered by batteries, they are designed to run for a set period (usually influenced by the frequency of data transmission) before being manually removed.
Most collars are equipped with a VHF radio transmitter and/ or a GPS transmitter, allowing the animal to be tracked directly in the field, and online. By observing an animal’s long-term movements, researchers can develop a better understanding of their behaviour, habitat selection, home range size, and potential for human encounters. Collars provide researchers with detailed pictures of species’ ecology – information critical for conservation.
Guests receiving a safety briefing from vets and field workers
Joining the mission
I was fortunate to have the chance to join an elephant collaring mission in Zambezi National Park, situated just outside Victoria Falls in northern Zimbabwe. The mission was orchestrated by the Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority (Zimparks). The project was part of an effort to understand the elephant population in the little-studied park which is part of the Kavango Zambezi (KAZA) Transfrontier conservation area.
As you might imagine, collaring an animal the size of an elephant is a complex operation, with many precautions in place to minimise the risk to both human and elephant. With a relatively large team consisting of researchers, rangers, vets, hunters and a small group of university students from Australia, there was no margin for error.
We assembled at the gates of the park in the early afternoon, and after a safety briefing, we headed off. Our convoy bumped along the dirt tracks that navigate through the thick bush, before opening up to the Chamabondo Vlei, a strip of open grassland that runs through the otherwise densely forested southern half of the park. Elephants are frequently sighted here, and sure enough, we encountered a herd at a watering hole.
The experts in the team quickly identified a suitable individual – an adult cow. Although only one individual would be collared, the information collected from the collar was expected to represent the entire herd. Adult cows are selected as they are the most likely to remain with the group and will not outgrow the collar.
The perfect shot
We waited at a distance as the herd slowly abandoned the watering hole and headed for the thick bush that flanks the grassland. One truck, with the vet on the back holding the loaded dart gun, approached the herd. As soon as the opportunity presented, the shot rang out. Through my telephoto lens, I saw the dart impact the elephant’s right thigh. A perfect shot.
The herd quickly ran into the forest and the rest of us on the ground scrambled in chase. We parked up next to the boundary of the forest and set off on foot, following the tracks of the retreating herd. A couple of hundred metres in, we found her lying on the ground, completely knocked out.
The collaring had to be swift, and this is where the importance of having a hugely skilled team is crucial. Some pairs of hands were dedicated to attaching the collar, some took measurements and tissue samples while others fanned her ears and sprayed them with water – regulating her temperature. A great deal of attention was also focused on the surrounding bush, making sure the rest of the herd wasn’t about to charge to the aid of the downed female.
Within a few minutes, the collar was attached and measurements recorded. The team packed up and left hastily. As we walked back through the bush, we began to hear the bellows of the waking cow. We returned to the vehicles and took a deep breath to fully absorb the experience.
This particular elephant was one of three collared in Zambezi National Park over the course of a few months and researchers gained the ability to track the movements of the herds online. The information received remotely is valuable alone, but it also allows the researchers to better locate the herds in the field. Twice a week the team ventures into the park to gather data from the ground.
The collared elephant cow just prior to her antidote
After the collaring
Locating these specific herds in the field is still no easy task even with the aid of the radio collars. Before heading out in the mornings, the researchers check the last-known GPS location online. They then drive as close as possible to the coordinates before using radio telemetry to zero in on the elephant. This involves holding an antenna in the air and listening for beeps that come through the receiver, roughly indicating the distance and direction of the collar. Often, the elephants are situated in areas of thick bush inaccessible to the team, but the job has become even harder after two of the collared individuals joined other herds – an example of how socially dynamic elephants can be.
When the elephants are spotted, the team take recordings on the herd size, demography, health and behaviours, and this, coupled with the long-term movements of the herd, provided by the GPS, gives the researchers an enhanced understanding of the status of elephants in the park. The purpose of this information is used to advise conservation initiatives such as mitigating human-elephant conflict in the region.
It is true that seeing a collar wrapped around the neck of a wild animal isn’t pretty, but the value of these instruments shouldn’t be understated. The efforts of conservation organisations have a big part to play in the fight to save threatened animals – and with issues such as climate change, habitat loss, poaching, and human-wildlife conflict all adding to the uncertainty of what lies ahead, these efforts are needed now more than ever.
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It’s no surprise that a WHISTLEBLOWER has fingered the high-profile oil drilling operation in the Okavango basin in a complaint registered with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). This dubious project, previously described by me here as a ‘pump-and-dump investor SCAM’, will likely burn many naive (greedy?) investors before it sinks beneath the Kalahari sands. What these thugs will inevitably leave behind is environmental damage and yet another abused and discarded African community. Read all about the SEC complaint here.
And, along similar lines, the plot thickens regarding attempts to strip-mine the bushveld paradise that is Selati Game Reserve, a conservation success story near the Kruger National Park. The man behind this particular GET-RICH scheme has a history of fraud and corruption. Read all about it in this sterling bit of investigative journalism. Thanks to Ritchie Morris for sending us this link.
Lastly, we have received many nudges about our exciting new development that I have hinted at in the last few months. Soon YOU will be invited to get involved in AG’s mission to up our game.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
Many things in the world baffle me. For example, I cannot comprehend why, despite the regular passing of the seasons over humanity’s entire history, we still comment, with great surprise, when it’s cold in winter or hot in summer. Another thing beyond the realm of my intellect is banking – I suspect it is so to many bankers too. Because of its inscrutable nature to the layman, bankers are excellent at hiding behind jargon. Many enjoy delivering treatises on market variables with an intimidating array of obfuscating vocab – usually with a supercilious air that indicates they really don’t expect a bottom-feeding biologist to understand. What has any of this to do with conservation? Well, money must flow for people to be paid for things and suitcases stuffed full of greenbacks are difficult to haul about these days. In our first story below, we look at some new research that points a finger at banks and calls on them to flag money flowing in the illegal wildlife trade – about time too!
As a guide, driving back at night after a long game drive, guests in a satisfied gin funk, my mind used to wander. One evening, the spotlight was flicking from side to side, and I was trying to convert 4.4 light-years to kilometres, the distance from the earth to Alpha Centauri. Suddenly, Elvis shook the spotlight violently and there, in its beam, was a cat I’d been hoping to see for years. Utterly oblivious to my stupified guests, I slammed on the brakes. Knees clattered into seat frames, binoculars flew, cameras hit the floor. ‘Serval!’ I yelled. The cat disappeared long before any guest could recover sufficiently to see it. Our second story below is a deep dive into the life of this magical, miniature cheetah/leopard/moggy type cat.
Then it is time for your weekly chill session with some gentle tunes. We’re into the very final stages of our Photographer of the Year and this week’s selection holds some rare and stunning delights from all over Africa. You can still enter your best African snap here.
Probably best to watch our video of the week after your Friday afternoon cake. You will need this to fuel your soon-to-start trail running regime.
Story 2 https://africageographic.com/stories/serval/
SPRING-LOADED CAT
Species focus: With its long limbs, spotted coat, and characteristic spring-loaded pounce, the serval is one of Africa’s most striking cat species
The classification of giraffe species and subspecies has proved unexpectedly contentious. Various scientists have suggested that giraffe be divided into anything from two to nine different species. New research facilitated by the Giraffe Conservation Foundation (GCF) confirms that a division into four giraffe species division is the correct approach. This, in turn, could have an important impact on giraffe conservation throughout Africa.
The northern giraffe is divided into three subspecies: the west African giraffe (G. c. peralta ~600 remaining), the Nubian giraffe (G. c. camelopardalis ~3,022 remaining) and the Kordofan giraffe (G. c. antiquorum ~2,297 remaining). The southern giraffe has two subspecies: the South African giraffe (G. g. giraffa ~20,675 remaining) and the Angolan giraffe (G. g. angolensis ~20,192 remaining). The study also suggests that the Luangwa giraffe (G. t. thornicrofti) should be recognised as a distinct subspecies of the Masai giraffe. The distinctions are important because some species/subspecies are of more conservation concern than others. The southern giraffe is the most common, while two subspecies of the northern giraffe are critically endangered.
At present, the IUCN only recognises one giraffe species classified on the Red List as ‘Vulnerable’. However, the IUCN also recognises nine different subspecies, each with a separate conservation status (although the South African giraffe has yet to be assessed). As in the case of the forest elephant, acknowledging new species takes time, especially when science does not provide an unequivocal answer and there is disagreement over what criteria to use when distinguishing species. For giraffe, some contention arose due to a degree of hybridisation in captivity.
The four-species division was initially suggested in 2016, based on collaborative research conducted by the GCF, Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre and partners. “We were extremely surprised to find such large genetic differences in giraffe in our initial study as their morphological and coat pattern differences appear limited,” says Dr Axel Janke, a geneticist at the Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre and Goethe University in Germany. “However, to put our results into perspective, the genetic differences between the distinct giraffe species are similar to those between polar and brown bears.”
Nevertheless, the 2016 study was met with some controversy, and debate ensued about the correct classification. However, the new research published this month was analysed with additional experts from the Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences and ITMO University to produce the most inclusive genomic level analysis of giraffe relationships. The researchers conclude that the four distinct giraffe lineages diverged between 230,000 and 370,000 years ago.
Clockwise from top left: Reticulated giraffe, Masai giraffe, west African giraffe, Nubian giraffe (courtesy www.afripixo.com), Angolan giraffe, Kordofan giraffe, South African giraffe
Why is this important? “We estimate that there are fewer than 6,000 northern giraffe remaining in the wild. Their numbers have declined by more than 90% in the last 35 years. As a species, they are one of the most threatened large mammals in the world, and we need to urgently increase our protection efforts of this species before it is too late. The conservation implications of this genetic research are immense, and it would be ignorant to ignore these new findings. It’s time to act now!” says Dr Julian Fennessy of GCF.
Genomics is vitally important to our understanding of species and subspecies divisions, and, most importantly, it is enhancing our perception of biodiversity. Not only does it highlight how vital it is to act on this research to conserve what remains, but it also serves as a sobering warning about how much we may have lost already without knowing. In the case of the giraffe, there is still time to appreciate the significant differences between the various species and protect those that remain.
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up who will be announced in late June. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
According to the Financial Action Taskforce’s 2020 report, illegal wildlife trade (IWT) generates between seven and 23 billion USD annually for international, organised crime syndicates. Investigations by the Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) show that cartels are using formal banking systems to launder the proceeds, largely undetected. The authors of the new EIA briefing call on major financial institutions to play their part in helping authorities identify transactions linked to IWT. The failures of banks to scrutinise the financial footprints left by syndicates have resulted in the loss of vital opportunities to disrupt trade.
According to the report, while IWT is a global concern, the main markets for the bulk of the trade are in east Asia. This is particularly true for elephant, rhino and pangolin parts, which the UN Office on Drugs and Crime recently identified as the three species accounting for some 56% of all illegal wildlife seizures.
Using case studies broken down into different species and routes, the EIA report analyses the financial flow linked to specific forms of illegal wildlife trade and major seizure incidents. In many cases, syndicate members received payment directly from buyers into their personal bank accounts (or those of family members) without any apparent concern for detection.
One case study documents how, in late 2013, some 4.8 tonnes of ivory valued at 5.9 million USD was seized in Tanzania. (Tanzania has lost more elephants to poaching than any other African country in recent decades – its population plummeted by 60% between 2009 and 2014). Upon investigation, it turned out that the smugglers were using a network of front companies ostensibly involved in the trade of agricultural products, food, and marine products. On one particular day, half a million dollars moved through a Tanzanian bank account linked to a front company, but the bank failed to identify or flag the suspicious transaction. The formal banking system was used for transfers in both dollars and Tanzanian shillings, but large cash deposits failed to attract any attention.
Flow of the proceeds of illegal wildlife trade
According to the EIA, the apprehension and prosecution of wildlife traffickers for money laundering offences are extremely rare, even though this line of investigation can pinpoint high-level people within a syndicate and strengthen criminal cases. Fortunately, there are signs that this is gradually improving, and financial intelligence units are putting more emphasis on wildlife crime cases. This, in turn, should see financial institutions following suit.
The briefing emphasises that it is critical for these financial institutions to recognise the potential risk that wildlife trafficking brings to their organisations. Naturally, the larger, local institutions in emerging markets carry the most significant risk. While global banks have shown limited progress, regional and local banks are not involved to the necessary level. According to the authors, this can largely be explained by a lack of conformity across jurisdictions in terms of the treatment of wildlife trafficking, with disparate classification, laws and policies acting at cross-purposes. Given the lack of legal frameworks to establish potential liability, it is perhaps unsurprising that wildlife crimes are not a risk priority for many financial institutions.
Even once the gaps in the law are filled, the resources directed towards the financial aspects of wildlife crimes are also minimal, left to a small number of law enforcement agencies with powers relating to money laundering and banking and a handful of NGOs. Notably, financial crimes are often viewed through the lens of fighting organised crime and are often very transaction-specific. However, the EIA points out that many of the banking services provided (such as loans or credit facilities) may be having a far greater impact on IWT than once-off transaction dealings.
As such, the report argues, IWT in the financial sphere should be viewed as part of a broader effort to conserve the environment, not just as a pursuit of organised crime. Disrupting wildlife trafficking will require complex strategies at a deep structural level as the current piecemeal approach is not effective. Financial institutions need to coordinate and play their part in the fight against wildlife crime.
As Julian Newman, EIA’s Campaigns Director explains, added: “Private sector banks have a vital role to play in ensuring that wildlife criminals cannot hide their ill-gotten gains in the financial system… They can start by assisting governments to follow the money and reduce the profit incentive behind illegal wildlife trade, helping the authorities to build anti-money laundering cases and to seize assets.”
Across the runways of Paris, New York and Milan, supermodels parade the latest fashions draped across their slender frames. With steely looks and pronounced cheekbones, these young and glamorous walking clothes horses are, in theory at least, the pinnacle of human attractiveness. Yet for all the effort that goes into achieving this particular look, there is an African cat that effortlessly achieves the same effect: the serval.
The striking servals that stalk the savannahs, plains, wetlands, and forests of Africa bear a certain similarity to these leggy models, sporting a matching kind of composed elegance. These servals are, in essence, the ultimate masters of the catwalk (and stalk and leap and pounce).
The leggy serval knows just how to strike a pose.
Introduction
The serval (Leptailurus serval) is a medium-sized cat that looks somewhat like a cross between a small cheetah and a large house cat. In reality, they belong to the “caracal lineage” of the Felidae family, along with caracals and African golden cats, though their peculiar shapes, spotted colouration and missing ear tufts set them apart from the other two species. Servals have the longest legs in proportion to their bodies of any of the cat species (hence the model comparison) and a tawny-gold coat dotted with a mixture of spots and stripes. Like caracals, their tails are relatively short in comparison to other cat species. There are rare sightings of melanistic servals, particularly in East Africa, and leucistic individuals have been born in captivity.
Though the serval is the only member of its genus, there are currently three proposed subspecies recognized by the IUCN’s Cat Specialist Group: L.s. serval of Southern Africa, L. s. lipostictus of East Africa and L. s. constantina of Central and West Africa. These distinctions, however, are based mostly on the trend observed within other African cats, rather than genetic analysis, and may change as further research comes to light.
Solitary and silent, servals are seldom seen but surprisingly widely distributed across a range of habitats in most of sub-Saharan Africa. There are also some small and isolated populations scattered in North Africa – specifically in Morocco and Tunisia. As a general rule, servals are not fond of arid areas. They prefer wetter habitats where rodents tend to be densely populated, with the exception being the central tropical rainforests of Africa, where they are notably absent.
This blue-eyed serval was photographed in Amboseli. Their eyes are usually brown/tan in colour.
Quick facts
Height:
54-62cm at the shoulder
Mass:
8-18kg (the males are usually larger than the females)
Length (not including the tail):
67-100cm
Social structure:
solitary
Gestation:
around 73 days
Life expectancy:
10 years in wild, over 20 years in captivity
The pounce
The lanky limbs of the serval are not only useful in navigating long grass and dense wetland vegetation, but they confer the serval’s most well-known ability – a gravity-defying leap. The extended metatarsal bones and elongated and unusually mobile toes provide the perfect attachment points for a complex arrangement of tendons and muscles that store and release elastic energy. The result is that servals have been recorded leaping close to 3m straight up and 4m forwards, occasionally snatching hapless birds out of the air at the same time.
Aided by this penchant for pouncing, servals are exceedingly proficient hunters. While current research indicates that the diminutive black-footed cat holds the highest hunting success rate of any member of the cat family, the serval vies closely for the top spot. Studies conducted in Tanzania indicate that some servals have a hunting success rate of over 60%, with the possibility that this number is closer to 80% when only rodents are considered.
The characteristic leap of a hunting serval.
The hunt
The secret to this success lies in the serval’s hunting strategy. They are consummate ambush predators that use their massive, radar-like ears to detect the smallest movements of anything from rodents, insects and reptiles to birds and antelope lambs. Prey detected; the serval stealthily moves into a spring-loaded crouch, frozen until the time is right to launch an attack with legs drawn up to their chests and descending upon unsuspecting victims from above. Anything that manages to dodge this aerial assault is rapidly chased down in long strides. Snakes require a more combative approach, with lightning-fast blows from the forepaws dispatching them from a comfortable distance.
This particular strategy is most effective at night, and servals are described as primarily nocturnal. However, they are equally comfortable utilizing the daylight hours, particularly in the early mornings and at dusk. When large kills are made, servals have been observed caching the carcasses, hiding them beneath leaves and grasses.
A hunting serval uses it’s large ears and exceptional hearing to pinpoint its prey.
The kittens
Efficient hunting is vital for mothers of young kittens. As is the case with all solitary cats, the females with dependent kittens expend approximately twice the energy and time hunting to keep their litters well-fed. The altricial kittens are born blind and weighing just 250g, covered in soft grey fur and entirely dependent on their mothers. The litters of between one and four kittens are hidden beneath dense vegetation or in abandoned burrows, and the mother starts to bring food back to the den when they are around a month old.
The transformation from vulnerable fluffballs to fierce little predators is a rapid one, and the kittens start hunting at around six months old as they acquire their permanent teeth. They will accompany their mother on hunts for the next six or so months before reaching full independence at around a year old. Overly attached youngsters who exhibit a reluctance to leave their mother’s side are eventually met with aggression as she chases them out of her territory.
Like all cats, servals are lithe and agile.
The sexes
The serval social structure and territory layout is not dissimilar to that of leopards, albeit over smaller home ranges of 10-32km2. Both males and females mark and defend territorial boundaries against members of the same sex, though physical confrontations seem to be quite rare. The territories of the males are larger than those of the females, and one male’s range may overlap the ranges of several females. Territory size and serval density are dependent on the resources available to them. When the habitat is suitable, and prey is abundant, the territories will be smaller in size and the population density will be higher.
The males and females generally only associate when the female is in oestrus, a state that she advertises through increased urination and repeated vocalizations.
Serval are, by nature, solitary cats.
The threats
Naturally, the main anthropogenic threat to servals is the constant degradation and loss of suitable habitats, particularly wetlands and grasslands. Fortunately, however, servals have proved to be highly adaptable and appear to be more tolerant of disturbed landscapes than many other mammal species. Recent research seems to indicate that the highest density of servals anywhere in Africa is in Secunda, South Africa, in the buffer zones surrounding a coal liquefication plant where they prey on the abundant rodent population.
To a lesser extent, trade in serval skins poses a particular threat to the servals of North and Central Africa. At the same time, in West Africa, their parts are used for ceremonial and medicinal purposes. Rural pastoralists may also target servals as a potential threat to livestock.
For now, however, the serval is listed on the IUCN Red List as “Least Concern”, though the populations north of the Sahara are considered to be “Critically Endangered”. These northern populations are primarily isolated to Morocco, though servals were reintroduced to Feijda National Park in Tunisia. While servals were once recorded in Algeria, fears are that they are now extinct there.
Servals are highly adaptable and are found in most sub-Saharan habitats, preying on a variety of species.
The pets
Over recent decades, the serval has seen a surge in popularity as an exotic pet, and the first savanna cat (an occasionally fertile hybrid between a serval and domestic cat) was bred in 1986. Most countries have strict regulations around keeping wild animals as pets, but in areas where such restrictions are more relaxed, exotic breeders have flourished.
While fortunately, the breeders supply most of the pet trade without significant impact on wild populations, there are practical and ethical realities to keeping a serval as a pet. Slender they may be, but a serval is an immensely powerful animal that can weigh close to 20kg and live for 22 years. Most importantly, their wild instincts are imprinted from birth. While pet sites are full of testimonials about how servals make wonderful, almost dog-like pets, the various rescue centres now home to abandoned, “troublesome” adult servals tell a vastly different story. It is unaccountably cruel to breed an animal genetically programmed to stalk the wilds of Africa and put it in a harness or cage as a status symbol and ego-boost.
Conclusion
For those looking to see an elusive serval where it truly belongs – in the wild – there is good news. Over recent years, particularly in East Africa, serval sightings are becoming increasingly common as more time and effort has been put into understanding their movements. For a fortunate few, this has resulted in astoundingly intimate glimpses into the lives of one of Africa’s most graceful cats.
And, the more time we spend with them, the more we will learn about these mysterious little cats with their model-like limbs, handsome faces, and sense of absolute self-possession.
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How I miss the restless herds of the Maasai / Serengeti, the cool crystal waters of the Okavango Delta & the walking paradise of Luangwa Valley – the list of where I would rather be right now is long. I MISS THOSE SAFARIS so much that my entire life seems out of kilter at the moment.
That said, I am comparably fortunate because I live on the border of the Greater Kruger, with regular forays into the nearby bushveld and wildlife encounters in my garden (including aardvark a few nights ago). I cannot even begin to imagine how deep YOUR LONGING to again come on safari must be. Most of our tribe are not from Africa – you mostly hail from the United States and Europe. Every newsletter we craft is our attempt to keep you involved with Africa, to keep that passion burning until you can join us again. Hang in there. Africa needs you.
Speaking of safari, it’s of paramount importance for the industry that we all get vaccinated against Covid-19. Please don’t be put off by the anti-vaxxers – JUST DO IT! Charlie Paxton from Namibia emailed me in response to last week’s newsletter with her candid thoughts on the Covid situation. She made the excellent observation, among many, that getting the jabs will “… calm the governments of the world down and get them to reopen normal travel and the economy.”
I forgot to thank Dr Michael D. Kock last week for sending us the article that formed the background to my observations. My sincere apologies for the oversight Michael. Thanks to you all for sending me your thoughts and links to some interesting reading!
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
‘Can you ride a motorbike?’ she asked.
‘Well, I can sort of make one go forward and change gears,’ I said, recalling the combined total of five minutes spent falling off a bike in my 38 years.
‘Oh you’ll be fine then!’ she said with a shake of her hand.
I was on Mashatu, part of the Tuli Block, about to film a cycle tour. My transport was an angry, spitting, offroad motorcycle (which may have been built for a child). Anyway, I hardly noticed the myriad cuts, bruises and burns. The elephants, scenery, baobabs, smells and endless skies of the Tuli Block helped me forget my potential departure from life courtesy of an inability to control the bike in front of an irritated elephant. Our first story below will manifest just such an escape from whatever traumas you currently face.
In January, my good wife and I spent a week working with Wildlife Act at Hluhluwe-iMfolozi. We woke at ungodly times, spent hours beep beeping with telemetry. We boiled in the sun and showered in the summer rain. It was wonderful. Our second story below is a tribute to the hard, poorly paid, long-houred, and, in this case, tremendously rewarding work done by conservationists dedicated to saving African painted wolves.
Our third story below is a little more nuanced – so read it before you have your first snifter. It delves into the complicated process of moving animals between the different CITES appendices. Mostly, it provides a strong reminder that every decision must be informed by data on the ground and not assumptions from ivory towers.
Ok, now you can take your first sip of the weekend and enjoy the 19th selection of Africa’s wonders. There is little time left to enter our Photographer of the Year and win 10 000 USD and a trip to Botswana. I’m sure there are thousands of award-winning snaps on hard drives and in attics yearning for their time to shine.
Finally, our video of the week is a tribute to Bob Scholes, world-renowned climate scientist and systems ecologist. He was taken from the earth he loved aged just 63, but his legacy lives in his academic work and the thousands he mentored in his quest to save our planet.
Story 1 https://africageographic.com/stories/tuli/
LAND OF GREY GIANTS
Botswana’s Tuli is a place where the wind carries stories of the past, whispering over rocks, around baobabs and across the vast wilderness
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
There is a special quality to the silence of Tuli. Indeed, it may be disturbed by the whisper of the wind, the rumbles of elephants or the distant echo of a lion’s roar, but beneath those sounds lies a blanket of silence so profound it stills the soul.
In this almost mystical atmosphere, there are strange ephemeral moments where past and present seem intertwined, and the existence of those gone before seems to flit over the red rocks and beneath the towering baobabs. It is a rough and rugged land where bloody history has taken its toll, but concerted effort has restored wilderness to a thriving landscape.
The Tuli Block is a narrow stretch of land in the southeastern corner of Botswana, sandwiched between South Africa to the south and Zimbabwe to the north and east. This strip of land has a colourful history, and the Limpopo River, which forms its southern boundary, has witnessed it all.
The Tuli Block extends 350km along the Limpopo River, southwest of its confluence with the Shashe River. It comprises mixed-use, fenced and unfenced private properties of varying sizes. Some are farmed, some hunted, and many offer photographic safaris. Rustic bush camps are set beneath ancient fever, Ana, nyala and baobab trees, offering budget escapes for intrepid travellers searching for unspoilt wilderness.
In Tuli, the wind carries stories of the past, whispering over rocks and across the vast wilderness.
The Northern Tuli Game Reserve
The most well-known and best-protected portion of Tuli is the Northern Tuli Game Reserve (Notugre) – a collection of 36 private properties to the east of the Tuli Block, including Mashatu Game Reserve, that are jointly managed for conservation and ecotourism. It extends across some 720km2 (72,000 hectares), making Notugre one of the largest private game reserves in Southern Africa.
The reserve is also a cornerstone of the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area, which covers nearly 6,000 km2 (600,000 hectares) and centres on the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashe. South Africa’s Mapungubwe National Park is south of Tuli, across the Limpopo River international border, once home to the Iron Age kingdom of Mapungubwe. To the north and east, Northern Tuli is contiguous with the Tuli Circle Safari Area in Zimbabwe.
The History
As might be expected for a region bordering three countries, Tuli is littered with reminders of a turbulent past – from ancient stone tools and San rock paintings to corroded ammunition casings, left over from wars and the passage of hunters.
During the late 19th century, Botswana was part of the Bechuanaland Protectorate under the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. At the same time, Cecil John Rhodes was looking for a suitable route for his envisioned “Cape to Cairo” railroad and petitioned to have the Bechuanaland Protectorate transferred to his company: The British South Africa Company. Alarmed by the potential consequences of the transfer, Chief Khama III of the Bangwato Tribe travelled to England to petition the Queen. He managed to win her sympathy but agreed to cede what is now the Tuli block to the company so that Rhodes could continue his railway plans. It is quite probable that Chief Khama III also hoped the company’s presence would keep out the advancing ‘Boers’ (a slang term often used for Afrikaans people, but which means ‘farmers’ when translated literally).
Rhodes quickly concluded that building a railway through Tuli would be a logistical nightmare, and his focus shifted to more forgiving landscapes further west. Some of the northernmost battles of the South African War (Anglo-Boer War) played out in the Tuli Block – including the fight at Bryce’s store, the ruins of which lie on Mashatu Game Reserve.
As the dust settled in the aftermath of the war, the British South Africa Company sold off most of the property to commercial farmers. However, the rugged and inhospitable landscape proved to be largely unsuitable for cattle farming and, eventually, landowners began to turn to game farming and ecotourism. Cooperative efforts of conservation-minded owners saw the gradual return and reintroduction of wildlife, though buffalo remain absent due to strict foot-and-mouth veterinary protocols.
The Rhodes Baobab has borne witness to Tuli’s impressive history.
The Scenery
The trees along the riverine areas are an attraction in their own right. Massive, ancient leadwood and gangly apple-leaf trees contrast against the lush dark greens of the majestic nyala and weeping Boer-beans and dense stands of vivid, yellow-green fever trees. Away from the rivers, the landscape becomes less hospitable and more arid, though equally breathtaking. It is dominated by jagged rocks and bulbous baobabs. Famously, Cecil John Rhodes scratched his name into the bark of one of these giants which stands like a sentinel on the Mmamagwa rock formation and is now known as the Rhodes Baobab.
Solomon’s Wall, close to confluences of Motloutse River and the Limpopo, is another of the main geographical attractions – a 30m basalt wall jutting through the landscape on both sides of the riverbed. This wall once formed a natural dam that held back a massive lake, as evidenced by the deposits of several kinds of semi-precious stones.
Cycle, walk, drive, ride, experience
As mentioned, the Northern Tuli Game Reserve consists of an amalgamation of private properties, which means that entry is only through arrangement with one of the multiple lodges. However, the fact that the land is privately owned means that almost anything goes in terms of exploring (provided, of course, that it does not damage the ecosystem). Aside from the traditional game drives led by expert guides, adventurous visitors to Tuli can explore the surrounds on foot or horseback – galloping alongside herds of giraffe or zebra. For the even more physically active, Tuli’s rocky outcrops and networks of dried riverbeds make for exciting and challenging mountain biking opportunities, with the added adrenaline of encountering some of the reserve’s many elephants.
For those looking for a more sedate experience, underground hides present amateur and professional photographers with a unique perspective of the reserve’s waterholes. From the quick dips of the birds on a hot day to extreme close-ups of elephants’ muddy toenails, the low-level photographic hides offer something entirely different to the safari experience.
There are various accommodation options to suit most budgets, some intimate and rustic and others geared to more luxurious tastes.
The wildlife viewing in Tuli is spectacular, not just in terms of the variety of animals but because the extraordinary scenery creates the perfect backdrop against which to view them. Elephant viewing is best between January and March when large herds of 100-300 individuals gather. The dry season between April and November offers the best nocturnal viewing of less common species like brown hyenas, honey badgers, African wild cat, aardvark and even aardwolf. This period also offers the best predator viewing because water resources are limited to the deep pools and waterholes.
The reserve is open to surrounding areas, so the elephant population has sufficient space to thrive. and Tuli is said to have some of the highest densities of elephants anywhere in Southern Africa. While the reserve is not home to buffalo or rhino, it supports healthy populations of the three big cat species, and deep pools in the rivers are home to pods of hippos and large numbers of crocodiles. Recently introduced painted wolves (African wild dogs) are a rare sighting.
As a transition zone between the Kalahari Desert and Lowveld bushveld, Tuli offers varied and exciting birding opportunities, with over 350 recorded species. The large riverine trees hide Pel’s fishing owls, and the kori bustards (Botswana’s national bird) pick their way through the grasslands while lanner falcons swoop through rocky valleys.
The Land of Giants
The Northern Tuli Game Reserve is often affectionately referred to as the Land of Giants, a name which it lives up to in so many different ways. It is home to the largest antelope species (the eland), and large herds of elephants crisscross its dusty paths. Ancient baobabs, ecosystems in their own right, dominate the extraordinary vistas and the landscape, with its outcrops of red rocks, resembles a giant’s playground.
Listen closely beyond the silence in Tuli. You may just hear the echoes of the history that played out in a rugged, somewhat inhospitable, but infinitely wild and beautiful land.
A new pack of endangered African painted dogs has been released into the iconic Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park (HiP), managed by Ezemvelo KZNWildlife, with support from Wildlife ACT and the Endangered Wildlife Trust. This is an important milestone in the conservation of the most endangered carnivore in Southern Africa. There are an estimated 3,000-5,000 individuals left in the wild, of which only around 550 live in South Africa.
Painted dog conservation in Hluhluwe-iMfolozi
Established in 1895, HiP is the oldest proclaimed reserve in Africa. It is most famously known for helping to save the white rhino from extinction. However, a lesser-known accomplishment is the integral role the park has played in saving the African painted dog.
During the Population and Habitat Viability Assessment Workshop held in 1997, the plight of the painted dog was laid bare. At the time, the only functional packs were thought to be in the Kruger National Park. The workshop’s main objective was to boost painted dog numbers through the ‘Managed Metapopulation and Range Expansion Project’ and, in so doing, create a second viable population outside Kruger.
The project continues to capture and transfer individuals between reserves to mimic natural dispersal and colonisation events. These transfers are fundamental to ensuring good genetic flow in the metapopulation, reducing inbreeding and safeguarding individuals from disease outbreaks and persecution while searching for new mates.
Due to its large size (90 000 hectares at the time) and conservation record, HiP was chosen as the first reserve to receive painted dogs back into KwaZulu-Natal (KZN). The first pack of nine arrived in 1980. Since then, Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife has had great success in boosting painted dog numbers. The park’s population grew to 85 individuals by 2017.
This success has allowed HiP to be a primary contributor to the South African Wild Dog Metapopulation Strategy, with several single-sex cohorts being moved off the reserve to supplement and build new founder populations around South Africa. These relocation operations (50%), coupled with a number of natural dispersals (15%), natural deaths (30%) and human-wildlife conflict (5%) have led to a recent decline in the local population.
Through these natural and anthropogenic events and in line with the HiP’s management approach, the parks’s wild dog population is currently in a phase of rebuild, consisting of 19 animals. These individuals will now form the foundations of a new and genetically resilient population.
The Mbhulunga pack before and after release into Hluhluwe-iMfolozi
The Mbhulunga Pack
The new pack, aptly named the ‘Mbhulunga Pack’ after the area where they were held in a boma, was composed of five males brought in from Tswalu Kalahari Reserve and four females which naturally dispersed from the Maphumulo Pack in the Hluhluwe section of the park. The Tswalu males brought a much-needed injection of new genetics to the area.
Initially, the males and females lived in two adjacent compartments of a predator holding facility (or boma) in the iMfolozi section of the park. This passive bonding method allowed the dogs to get to know each other through the separating fence. Over time they began to sleep on the central fence line and greet one another through the wire when they woke up.
Once the monitoring team were comfortable with the interactions, they opened the interleading gate and the males and females formed a cohesive pack. They spent another few weeks in the boma before being released into the park. While the pack was in the boma, the Wildlife Act iMfolozi monitoring team completed daily checks, maintenance of the fence and feeding.
All nine pack members are fitted with tracking collars to enable daily monitoring of their movements, behavioural dynamics, ecological influences, disease, snaring incidents and any other human-wildlife conflict issues. The information gathered allows for informed decision making – both at the reserve and the species level.
Following their release, the Mbhulunga Pack has moved north into the Hluhluwe Section of the park, into the natal range of the pack’s females. Wildlife ACT’s monitoring teams based in the Hluhluwe and iMfolozi sections will continue to work closely with Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Management to monitor the progress of the fledgeling Mbhulunga Pack.
The future
‘HiP remains an ideal setting for ecological research and information gathering on these endangered species, and so contributes to their effective management and overall conservation strategy,’ says Dave Druce, park ecologist – Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park.
The survival of painted dogs depends on how they overcome competition for resources from lions, leopards, spotted hyenas and crocodiles. Other potential threats include injuries from pursuing prey, disease outbreaks (rabies and canine distemper) and human-wildlife conflict. Hopefully, the Mbulungas will mitigate these challenges, establish a territory and raise pups of their own to boost HiP’s painted dog numbers and strengthen the genetics of the species countrywide.
This project is a partnership between Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, Wildlife ACT and the Endangered Wildlife Trust. It is supported by generous contributions from the Hans Hoheisen Charitable Trust, the Gabrielle Faickney Charitable Trust and a group of passionate individuals, the Jocks of the Bushveld.
The Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) is one of the largest and oldest conservation and sustainable use agreements in the world. The treaty was ratified almost half a century ago, designed to control the trade in plant and animal species to avoid over utilisation. Naturally, times have changed since the treaty was initially conceived, and there are many instances where antiquated systems have failed any kind of conservation agenda. A recently published article by experts in sustainable use delves into these weaknesses and cautions against changing a species’ CITES listing without carefully considering the complicated set of conservation implications.
CITES listings determine where a species fits into one of three appendices of increasing regulation and restriction. The trade in species on Appendix I is all but banned except under exceptional circumstances, and more stringent restrictions apply to species in Appendix II than Appendix III. (For a more detailed explanation, see What exactly is CITES and how does it work?) However, under the treaty, the decision to list is based on a simplistic set of biological and trade criteria that relate little to the potential impact of such a decision.
The one-dimensional assumption of the treaty is that more stringent trade regulations automatically result in conservation benefits. However, the authors argue that this is not always supported by evidence or experience.
So, when should a species be considered for an Appendix I listing? The article argues that this is relatively uncomplicated where international trade is a significant threat to an endangered species; the species is threatened across its range; international trade plays no positive role; and where a realistic, achievable strategy for conservation is established.
However, there are other scenarios where a listing on Appendix I may fail to improve or even hinder conservation efforts, such as:
When a species is threatened by drivers other than international trade – for example, by climate change. The restriction of trade income to local communities could reduce cooperation in conservation efforts and see increased human-wildlife conflict.
The conservation status of an animal varies considerably across its range. Though split-listings are possible under CITES (where a species receives different listings in different countries), this has been discouraged.
Unsustainable trade will persist despite its illegality. According to the authors, where a thriving illegal trade exists, an Appendix I listing will only be effective if accompanied by well-funded and robust management interventions. The trade in rhino horn is an example of how a powerful and established illegal trade, facilitated by corrupt governments may make an Appendix I listing more of a token gesture.
Here, the authors’ argument is not against the listing of a species on Appendix I but rather that the consequences are often unpredictable. Real-world complexities are seldom considered when making a decision. An untested assumption forms the listing basis, but the outcome is often continued illegal and unsustainable trade devoid of any monitoring or management tools.
The article also suggests that Appendix II, which allows for regulated trade, is not utilised to its full potential, given the flexibility to tailor management options to local contexts. As in the case of Appendix I, increased trade restrictions may help conservation, but they may also come at no advantage and high cost. The example used by the authors is the recent listing of the giraffe in Appendix II. Legal international trade does not pose a significant threat to the species, but habitat loss, civil unrest and illegal bushmeat hunting are key drivers in population declines. The authors question how CITES trade controls will benefit the conservation status of giraffe, even though the public widely hailed this as a conservation success.
Thus, the article proposes three critical changes to the CITES listing decision process:
The development of a formal mechanism for consideration by parties of the likely consequences of the decision. This would entail careful consideration of the practical effects of the decision, rather than reliance on the baseline assumption. The listing criteria and process would need to be overhauled but would mean that listing decisions are not made as futile gestures of conservation concern.
Broadening the range of criteria used to make listing decisions and basing these on the best available information. This would include the use of conservation-based, scientific information and socio-economic sciences.
The implication of the input of local communities living alongside wildlife. Given that local people disproportionately bear the socio-economic costs of trade decisions, they need to be included in the decision-making process. This is a moral issue, but it is also a pragmatic one – effective decision-making requires insight and information from every stakeholder, particularly those with a field-level perspective.
Wildlife trade is not a one-dimensional process taking place in a vacuum – it involves a complex overlap of social, economic, cultural, and ecological elements. No doubt CITES has failed to evolve as needed in the past 50 years, but, equally, the State Parties have failed to drive the necessary change for CITES listing. Instead, they have fallen back on oversimplified assumptions that do not accurately reflect realities on the ground.
The article concludes that a failure to reform the treaty “risks CITES being stuck in a 1970s conception of conservation that ignores complexity, fails to achieve its objectives, and satisfies only a set of constituencies with little responsibility or impact on field-level conservation. The question is not if these modernisations will happen, but when and how. This is a matter of strategic vision that needs to be addressed with urgency and commitment if CITES is to avoid senescence, and mature into a potent and effective conservation regime, well-equipped to address contemporary conservation challenges.”
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I find myself confused and at odds with what I understood about the possible origins of Covid-19 after reading this well-constructed article. I am no scientist and cannot fully grasp the many layers of technical analysis, but I can follow an argument, and I do have a good bullsh1t radar. I never bought the conspiracy theories about the intentional release of a human-made virus, and I do/did favour the theory that this horrible pandemic originated in the wildlife markets of Wuhan, China via a natural zoonotic process. But now I realise that there is at least another potential causal theory on the table.
Was Covid-19 unleashed on us by human error – a mistake by scientists who have been mandated to engineer a virus that could potentially wipe out humanity (to protect us from that exact risk)? The ramifications of this option are chilling, to say the least. The author Nicholas Wade is a gifted science writer, but he is not an expert virologist, and what he is saying is being refuted in parts by expert virologists. But then the theory of a natural zoonotic virus from the Wuhan wildlife markets has also been refuted by certain scientists. At the very least it’s good to consider all possible explanations until we find the answers.
Whatever the truth, it’s unlikely that Africa’s wildlife industries (including tourism) will recover fully for several years – if not longer. What are the chances, do you think, that the powers that be will deflect some of the enormous financial resources that they spend daily on weapons, natural resource extraction and space travel into healing our home planet?
Your thoughts? Please read the link before commenting below (if you are reading this on our website) or in a private discussion with me on ceo@africageographic.com.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
African safari….the idea conjures all sorts of images: Denys and Karen flying over the Mara in a Gypsy Moth; a lion roaring atop a rock as he surveys his singing, dancing prey at dawn; a gargantuan tusker framed by the snow-topped peaks of Mount Kilimanjaro. It is to the last of these iconic imaginings that we turn our attention this week. In our first story below, you can stimulate your post-Covid wanderlust with the wonders of Amboseli National Park (and the greater Amboseli region).
Our second story below is good news. Amboseli, like most conservation areas in the world, is not safe. Some pillock decided that growing avocados there would be a fantastic idea. Yes…avocados. In a semi-arid region that attracts thousands of tourists intent on seeing the wilderness and supports thousands of local pastoralists. Well, the local Maasai herders (who live in relative peace with the Amboseli wildlife) and some conservationists decided that this avo farming malarky wouldn’t fly. They banded together, and, for now, the avo people must go and ply their trade elsewhere.
Our third story below is important. So many people on both sides of the trophy hunting debate spend their days yelling moth-eaten arguments at each other across an ideological chasm. While numerous human beings are allergic to actual science, those who seek real data will have a hard time finding it. Many of the arguments by both sides of the hunting war are usually not supported by hard data, often because the relevant research has not been completed.
Now you can relax and enjoy the start of your weekend with a delightful view of Africa at her most spectacular in this week’s Photographer of the Year selection (enter here) there are only two weeks to go. I would suggest you enjoy it with a calming piece of music, a late lunch and the rest of the afternoon off.
While you are wondering what to do with the afternoon I’ve granted you, check out our video of the week. It’s a Google Earth timelapse from 1984 until now of anywhere on earth you care to look – see how we are changing our home.
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
There is ineffable magic about spending time in the company of elephants. Nothing else in the world compares to the ethereal emotions felt in their presence – a complex awareness of ancient wisdom and profound intelligence. Of all creatures, elephants perhaps best epitomise a wild sense of the divine. Nevermore is this the case than in Amboseli National Park, where these imposing animals stand against the backdrop of ice-capped Mount Kilimanjaro – one of the most iconic images of Africa.
Craig – one of Amboseli’s ‘super tuskers – and an askari
The Park and the broader ecosystem
Formerly Maasai Amboseli Game Reserve, Amboseli National Park covers just 392 square km (39,206 hectares) in Kajiado County, Kenya. However, the park is a core part of the much larger Greater Amboseli ecosystem (also termed the Amboseli-Tsavo-Kilimanjaro ecosystem or various iterations thereof). This massive area of some 8000 square km encompasses Amboseli, Chyulu Hills, Tsavo East and West, Mount Kilimanjaro National Park, and everything in between. Africa’s tallest mountain, Mount Kilimanjaro, is just 50 km to the southeast in neighbouring Tanzania and its looming form dominates the Amboseli skyline on clear mornings.
Apart from its contribution to the scenery, Mount Kilimanjaro has shaped Amboseli’s habitat and wildlife in more fundamental ways. The constant supply of melting water from the mountain’s glaciers flows off the slopes and sinks below ground before rising through the porous soils in Amboseli to create freshwater springs. The result is that while Amboseli itself is relatively arid with low rainfall averages, some of the park is dominated by species-rich marshes, with Enkongo Narok, Ol Tukai, and Olokeya the three largest.
Exciting animals abound. Clockwise from top left: cheetah on the hunt; a male lion on patrol; the iconic shot everyone wants; a spotted hyena making soup
The western section of the park also encompasses part of a dry, Pleistocene lake basin. Within this basin, Lake Amboseli is typically dry except during heavy rainy seasons, when it fills with shallow, alkaline water accompanied by a pink flush of opportunistic flamingos. Away from the lakes and marshes, the park is characterised by sparse vegetation and dusty volcanic soils. The name Amboseli is a corruption of the Maa word ‘Empusel’, which translates roughly as “salty, dusty place”.
On the outskirts of Amboseli, there are several conservancies dedicated to conservation and tourism. These increase the available protected land considerably while offering the discerning traveller a more exclusive experience. The conservancies are supported by the Amboseli Ecosystem Trust, which was established to maintain the larger ecosystem and reduce human-wildlife conflict as wild animals move along ancient migratory paths between the various formally protected parks.
Elephants everywhere
Thanks to the combination of sparse, arid vegetation and the readily available water in the swamps, Amboseli offers spectacular wildlife viewing despite its relatively small size. However, the park’s most celebrated residents are the elephants, present in high densities and sporting some of the largest body and tusk sizes in Africa. Elephants are everywhere in Amboseli, revelling in the waters of the marshes, treading dusty pathways led by a trusted matriarch or, occasionally, posing against the backdrop of Kilimanjaro for awe-struck, camera-wielding tourists.
This alone is sufficient to send visitors home elated, having garnered a new appreciation for Africa’s largest land animal, but the elephants of Amboseli have a further claim to fame. Many of these herds and bulls have been the subjects of the longest-running study of elephant behaviour in the wild. The Amboseli Elephant Research Project, initiated by Cynthia Moss and Harvey Croze and operated by the Amboseli Trust for Elephants, has centred around researching and monitoring the elephants of Amboseli for five decades. The life histories of individual herds have been painstakingly documented across generations, contributing immeasurably to our understanding of elephant behaviour and the bonds within and between herds.
The story of Echo, the matriarch who led her family for over forty years before her death in 2008, captivated people worldwide and changed perceptions around elephants’ complex emotional lives. Her family are still the subjects of ongoing research and remain permanent fixtures around the park’s centre. Tim, a bull elephant who died last year of natural causes, had a penchant for trouble. He also gained considerable fame as a ‘super tusker’ – as has Craig, another gentle giant. Amboseli and Tsavo’s elephant populations are some of the last genetic repositories of Africa’s great tuskers.
While elephants may well be the main event, the park’s other creatures never fail to provide a stirring, supporting performance. Lumbering hippos wallow in the shallows of the marshes and lakes during the day, emerging to mow their way through the park as the heat dissipates. Herds of zebras and wildebeest dominate the plains, while shy gerenuks nibble their way around the legs of towering giraffes.
In the past, Amboseli’s predator populations, particularly lions, have born the brunt of human-wildlife conflict and resentment born of the park’s complex history. Fortunately, comprehensive conservation programmes and work with local communities are showing results. While throughout Africa, lion populations have plummeted, the lion numbers in Amboseli have grown consistently over the past decade. Visitors are now regularly treated to sightings of Africa’s largest cat.
Amboseli’s unique blend of semi-arid savanna and marshlands attracts various birds, and over 420 different species (including, miraculously, once, a shoebill) have been recorded in the region. Time spent around the marshes could well reward a keen-eyed birder with the pale flash of the endangered Malagasy pond heron in between the leggy egrets, herons, and grey-crowned cranes. Away from the water, the grasslands obscure the vocal Pangani longclaws, and the vachellia woodlands hide dry country species like the steel-blue whydahs and Von der Decken’s hornbills.
Clockwise from top left: yellow baboons; lappet-faced vulture; white-browed coucal; greater flamingos; grey crowned cranes
The Amboseli experience
Want to go on a safari to Amboseli? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
Given the extraordinary wildlife sightings on offer and the best views of Kilimanjaro in Kenya, it is unsurprising that Amboseli is Kenya’s most popular safari destination after the Maasai Mara. The high tourist time coincides with the dry season and arguably the best wildlife viewing as the animals congregate around available water. However, this does mean contending with higher costs and visitor densities. The two rainy seasons – the short rains from November to December and the long rains from March to May – can make traversing the park and spotting wildlife tricky. That said, the scenery is arguably at its most spectacular with the dampening of the dust.
Weather-wise, Amboseli is typically hot and dry, and the park’s proximity to the Equator ensures relatively consistent temperatures. Naturally, sun protection is a must, as are malaria preventative measures.
Lots of wild safari activities and accommodation for most budgets in Amboseli
As a national park, Amboseli is subject to certain restrictions necessary to safeguard its ecological integrity. Normatior (also known as Observation Hill) is one of the few places where tourists can exit their vehicles and soak in the park’s atmosphere. Rough-hewn stairs lead to the top of Amboseli’s highest point, which offers astonishing views of the surrounding marshes and lakes, and, on clear days, Kilimanjaro. However, for more intrepid travellers, neighbouring conservancies are not subject to the same constraints (due largely to their more exclusive nature). Here visitors can explore through guided night drives, on foot or even on horseback. Naturally, this comes at a cost. A stay in one of the private conservancies is typically more expensive (and luxurious) than the national park’s more budget options.
The polarised debate between anti- and pro-trophy hunting advocates is almost invariably incendiary and centred around far-reaching claims and emotional responses, from whether or not recreational hunting benefits specific species to its impact on local economies. The debate is seldom informed by available research, at least in the public sphere. Now a new study analyses half a century’s worth of scientific literature on recreational hunting. It concludes that little is directed at answering the most critical questions in the hunting debate despite the extensive existing research.
Historical research
The authors of the new study set about analysing over 1000 peer-reviewed papers focused primarily on the recreational and trophy-hunting of large mammals between 1953 and 2020. The majority of historical research had been conducted in North America, Europe, and Africa. [Editorial note: the research includes trophy hunting as a category of recreational hunting]. The study identifies seven dominant topics commonly discussed in recreational hunting literature, including:
Ecological, evolutionary, and population consequences of selective harvesting;
Population dynamics in response to hunting, including assessments of survival rates, reproductive rates, and population trends;
Hunting as a source of and management tool for invasive alien or conflict species;
Health and toxicological dimensions of hunting;
Social dimensions of hunting, including hunter attitudes, identities, and preferences;
Economic, social, cultural, political, and ethical dimensions of hunting
The authors show that there is a significant bias towards mammal species over birds in previous research, and eleven of the twelve most commonly studied species are large mammals. In an African context, the lion was the fifth most popular subject of such research, while the leopard claimed the eighth spot.
The distribution of studies focusing on the recreational hunting of specific species
The impact on species populations in Africa
For around a third of the species studied, the conclusions on the impact of trophy hunting on the population numbers of specific species were highly variable. This was likely due to the diversity of studied locations and times. Trophy hunting was linked to population declines of lions in certain regions (such as Zambia, before the trophy hunting ban) and shown not to have caused population declines in others (in Mozambique’s Niassa, for example). The same disparities applied to leopards and elephants.
However, there was no evidence of any negative impacts of recreational hunting on population abundance for the remaining species. The authors warn that due to the limited amount of available research and the fact that so many studies returned inconclusive results, this should not be interpreted as evidence of sustainability. According to the authors, while many studies focussed on the impact of hunting on the ecology and evolution of target species, fewer assessed the effects on animal population numbers.
The impact of recreational hunting on the population abundance of targeted species
The impact on ecosystems, local economies, and livelihoods
One of the most common arguments in support of recreational hunting is that it protects wild ecosystems over alternative, less eco-friendly land uses such as agriculture or mining. In addition, the revenue can theoretically aid conservation initiatives, support human livelihoods, and be fed back into local communities. This is a matter of considerable debate.
Historical research seems to indicate that in much of Southern Africa, in particular, the loss of recreational hunting would negatively affect both conservation initiatives and local livelihoods. However, hunting operations in West and Central Africa have been less successful in this regard, and the cost of establishing, maintaining, and protecting hunting areas seems to be prohibitively high.
Notably, the authors emphasise that even though these are some of the most pressing academic and societal questions, there is surprisingly little research or evidence to inform the argument either way. While there is a considerable body of research quantifying the revenue drawn from hunting, few studies followed through by documenting the benefits (or lack thereof) to conservation and local communities.
For the future
The new study provides important insight into how previous research on the impact of recreational hunting has been conducted and directed. Naturally, given that it was drawn from over 1,000 different studies conducted across the globe, the conclusions are extensive. However, the essence of the study boils down to the fact that we urgently need further research to understand the effects of hunting and address the unknowns that define the current debate.
To this end, the authors put forward several suggestions for future research, including:
Assessments of the impact on species’ populations in diverse contexts;
The interactions between recreational hunting and other anthropogenic threats such as habitat loss;
Investigation of the impact on less charismatic species, including non-targeted species (for example, the effects of hunting large carnivores on prey dynamics);
Empirical evidence on whether or not hunting increases the quantity and quality of ecosystem conservation;
Investigating the links between hunting revenue and conservation initiatives/support of local communities;
Assessment of the moral complexity of recreational hunting and its impact/benefits for people living alongside wildlife. In particular, whether hunting creates sufficient benefits to incentivise conservation in local communities.
A dearth of empirical evidence will only perpetuate the circular arguments prevalent in public discussions on recreational hunting. The urgent need for focussed research to address the current unknowns is patently clear, especially in the face of increasing opposition to the practice on ethical grounds. Whatever the future holds for recreational hunting, it needs to be based on a solid understanding of the ‘influence of local social-ecological dynamics on hunting outcomes, and the voices of the people co-existing with wildlife’.
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My heartful thanks to Minister Creecy for issuing a firm commitment to rid this wonderful country of the SCOURGE of the captive lion breeding industry (our second story below refers). The insidious tentacles of this rotten crime against lions permeate deep into our wildlife industry, and this will be no easy process – but at least she has now got the ball rolling.
THAT SAID, I have the following observations:
1. Expect the evil ones to find LOOPHOLES that will allow them to continue after cosmetic changes;
2. Others will simply operate illegally and increase the MAFIA-style methods to avoid jail time (rhino horn and lion bone combo?);
3. Some will MOVE their operations to other countries;
4. The existing caged lion populations in South Africa will likely be DESTROYED – although the most likely process will be agonising deaths as they are abandoned by an industry that operates on zero compassion. Or maybe many will be moved to accredited sanctuaries – time for the animal rights movement to DIG DEEP to fund this lengthy process?;
5. This government strategy of cleaning up this obviously rancid aspect of the wildlife industry is most likely building blocks for plans to expand the HUNTING industry as a contributor to a sustainable conservation future. This quote from the report refers: “‘The development of a national approach for increasing the opportunity, quantity and quality of hunting the five iconic species in wild areas of South Africa…”. Watch that space.
Lastly, a SHOUT-OUT from team AG to Craig Foster and the crew of ‘My Octopus Teacher’ for winning the Oscar!
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
‘…the vuvuzela has been used to mitigate lion conflict…’ When I read that for the first time, the coffee I was drinking emerged from my nose. I imagined the King of Beasts’ horrified, incredulous visage as an enraged rural villager charged, blasting on the world’s most tuneless instrument. On the Chobe River, the human-lion conflict continues. However, there is hope, and, as our first story below explains, some good people are coming up with innovative solutions (including plastic trumpets) to help humans and lions live in peace.
This week is a lot about lions – which is good, after all, we need more lions. Believe it or not, Panthera leo used to be the most widely distributed mammal on the planet. In our second story below, the South African government has taken the first steps to ending the national disgrace that is captive lion breeding. Once you’ve read the AG story, perhaps peruse the full report (600 pages). If your life is too short to wade through the whole thing, I can recommend the goals and recommendations that start on page 278.
And that’s a neat segue into our third story below – a remarkable, horrifying and, if you’re a South African, embarrassing expose of the lion bone trade. The story and accompanying trailer will show you, sometimes in ghastly detail, just how imperative it is that our government does something to end captive lion farming and the bone trade. Kudos to the brave filmmakers for the risks they took to expose the cruelty in South Africa and the markets in Southeast Asia.
After all that heaviness, it’s time to take a deep sigh, relax with a tipple and peruse this week’s selection for our Photographer of the Year. It’s a beautiful tribute to our magnificent continent. Not much time left to enter if you’d like a chance to win 10 000USD and a glorious safari to Botswana.
For your second Friday aperitif, our video of the week showcases the Kalahari Desert in the rainy season – a thousand shades of incongruous green with gobsmacking wildlife to match.
An agribusiness planning to operate an avocado farm in the Amboseli region – a water-stressed landscape of southern Kenya famous for its elephants – has lost its license after local Maasai and conservationists joined forces to protest the plans.
Kenya’s National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) revoked the license it gave to KiliAvo Fresh Ltd after questions about how the developer assessed the environmental impact its farm would have on the local ecosystem.
NEMA said concerns included: the proposed farm was in a wildlife corridor; that it violated official plans that zone the area for livestock and wildlife, not cultivation; and that the developers failed to consult widely enough on their plans.
Right: the start of the KiliAvo’s avocado farm; left: The farm fenceline (red) and the movements of a collared elephant (blue) in January 2021
Conservationists and communities stand together
Conservationists, including Big Life Foundation and Dr Paula Kahumbu, CEO of Wildlife Direct, worked alongside the Amboseli Land Owners Conservancies Association (ALOCA) to campaign against the farm.
“Big Life commends NEMA for following to the letter the relevant processes drawn up to balance development with environmental protection in circumstances such as these,” said Benson Leiyan, Chief Operating Officer for Big Life.
“The decision to reject KiliAvo’s insistence that it be allowed to continue operations sends a very clear message to anyone considering commercial farming in this area of Amboseli: only sustainable enterprises that fit with local land use plans and that conserve the environment for people and wildlife are welcome.”
The farm sits in a buffer zone of wildlife habitat and Maasai grazing land just east of Amboseli National Park, a magnet for Kenya’s wildlife tourism famed for its herds of elephants grazing with the backdrop of Mt Kilimanjaro.
The proposed farm in the greater Amboseli area
Tourism threatened
In 2019 close to 200,000 people visited the national park, generating millions of dollars for the Kenya Wildlife Service. KWS does not release exact figures.
But the park itself is small – at less than 400 square kilometres. To thrive, the multiple endangered animal species and the population of 2,000 elephants that live there need to be able to disperse and migrate through neighbouring, locally-owned rangelands.
Significant threats pressure this pocket of remaining wilderness in East Africa – habitat loss, agriculture and climate change are the principal ones.
The region is heavily dependent on tourism
Privatisation of communal land
After this previously communal land was subdivided into a patchwork of private titles, conservationists worked with the majority of the new landowners to group their plots into a series of community-owned conservancies.
Members pledged not to fence or farm their land, and in return, gain access to open rangeland to graze their cattle. Conservation and tourism operators pay regular fees for the protection of this crucial wildlife habitat.
However, there are a number of locals who chose not to group their land into the conservancies. Some have sold their land to people from outside the landscape, including speculators and brokers who, in turn, sold plots on to investors.
KiliAvo Fresh Ltd acquired their three plots of 60 acres each in this way, buying from a third party who bought them from the original Maasai landowners. There are no restrictions on buying or selling such plots.
There are, however, restrictions on land use plans agreed by the Maasai landowners’ association, ALOCA, for the immediate area and in the Amboseli Ecosystem Management Plan, for the wider landscape.
The ultimate land planning authority, the local county council, is overhauling its Spatial Plan but currently designates the area for “agriculture”. Initially, this was understood to mean cultivation but the chief lands officer from the council later clarified it was for “livestock grazing”.
This confusion, in part, led to NEMA issuing KiliAvo Fresh Ltd a license in August 2020 to develop 180 acres for growing avocados and other fruits and vegetables. This followed an earlier rejection of the same proposal, prompting critics led by ALOCA and the Kenya Wildlife Service immediately to cry foul when the new application was approved.
Samuel Ole Kaanki, chairman of ALOCA, said: “The majority of us are united against this farm because it could threaten water supply in this semi-arid place, block where we can graze our livestock, and deter tourism investors who pay us to bring visitors to see wildlife. These concerns were not addressed in the EIA, and we were very surprised to learn KiliAvo had been given a license.”
They complained that the license was issued without enough consultation with local people and environmental experts who would have objected, they said, because the farm stands squarely in an area zoned only for livestock and wildlife tourism.
Movement of collared elephants from Amboseli National Park into the surrounding buffer zone and wildlife corridors
Setting a precedent
Farm operations that encroach on wildlife land disrupt the natural balance of the ecosystem. Boreholes need to be dug for water-thirsty crops like avocados. These wells impact the water table, robbing surface water sources for wildlife and putting severe pressure on the groundwater resources and springs that support tens of thousands of people.
Faced with what it termed “new information and issues” that had come to its attention, NEMA ordered the farm to stop and threatened to revoke its license. The farm appealed that order at Kenya’s National Environment Tribunal (NET). After seven months of hearings, on April 26 the Tribunal dismissed KiliAvo’s appeal citing a lack of evidence or witnesses. The next day NEMA finally revoked the license.
The farm’s owners said their 180 acres would have a negligible impact on the 38,000 acres of habitat in the Kimana Wildlife Corridor. Even if that were true – and it is unlikely – the key issue was that this case would have set a precedent and many other farms could follow, fragmenting the landscape and devouring essential resources like water needed by wildlife, farmers and livestock downstream.
Revoking KiliAvo’s license has been seen as a positive sign that Kenya is listening and seriously considering the health of an ecosystem and the concerns of local communities when dealing with the negative consequences of corporate-led agribusiness.
However, KiliAvo is expected to appeal these rulings. Conservation organisations including Big Life, KWS, the Conservation Alliance of Kenya, the Amboseli Trust for Elephants, Wildlife Direct, ALOCA, and tourism investors will remain vigilant in opposing KiliAvo’s plans for the farm and any other farming development that encroaches on wildlife corridors and pastoralist land use.
“This is not yet the end, we will continue until this farm has gone, and we are sure no others can follow it,” said ALOCA’s Ole Kaanki.
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
By: Johannes van Jaarsveld, biologist and Chobe resident
Introduction
The Chobe River lions face an uncertain future with various barriers hampering recruitment, dispersal and immigration. To the north, hostile farmers in the Zambezi region of Namibia are intolerant of apex predators on their farms. In every other direction, fragmented protected areas and human settlements impede lion movement.
Background to the Chobe Riverfront
The Chobe River stretches from Lake Liambezi (Namibia) in the west to Kazangula in the east, where it flows into the Zambezi. The western section of the river is populated by cattle, goat and small-scale crop farmers. The Botswana-Namibia border, which is the Chobe River, cuts the floodplain, with the majority falling on the Namibian side (Zambezi Region).
The Chobe National Park protects the lions on the Botswana side where they tend to hunt along the river or on the floodplains. They seldom stray too far into the sandveld teak forests south of the river because of the limited prey.
Pride history
In 2017, there were approximately 20 lions on the riverfront: ten cubs, two old males (at least ten years old), a subadult female, and six adult lionesses. In early 2018, the pride swam across the Chobe River to the Namibian side. It was a fatal day. Five of the six lionesses were shot by Namibian farmers. A Chobe guide with his guests watched in horror as a Namibian farmer cut off the lions’ paws and waved them at the tourists. Over the next month, all the cubs died from starvation.
The subadults survived and the remaining adult lioness (called Broken Tail) settled in a small territory of her own around the Serondela picnic site. In October 2020, she birthed three cubs. The two subadults, possibly siblings, were gradually joined by four lionesses from the south. The young male disappeared and was not seen after July 2018. Possibly not coincidentally, about that time, two new males arrived – Caller and Tom-Tom. Scarface, one of the older males, had his leg broken in a skirmish with the new males and the Department of Wildlife and National Parks euthanised him when he took refuge at Chobe Game Lodge. The other old male died in the territory not long after.
Caller and Tom-Tom
The current pride
Two of the lionesses soon fell pregnant. One, Snips, had five cubs in December 2019, and the other, Teddy Bear, had two cubs in February 2020. One cub, called Lost and Found, wandered into the village of Kasane and was rescued by some tourists, who put him at the edge of the park away from people and traffic. His mother found him eventually, and he was safely back with the pride as of November 2020. Another lioness, Small Girl, mated with one of the new males in early 2021.
The two males roam from west to east all along the river, seldom staying with the pride for long. They are very attached and every greeting after separation is marked with joyous, cub-like playing. They have enjoyed an unchallenged three-year run.
Lone lioness – Broken Tail
Broken Tail, the lioness which returned from Namibia after the massacre, remains alone and produced three cubs (most likely sired by Tom-Tom) in November 2020. She occupies a territory opposite Serondela Lodge on the Botswana side of the river. During the green season from late November to mid-April, the vegetation is very thick and she hunts smaller game. In the dry months, she targets buffalo calves when the herds come onto the floodplains.
The northern Chobe Lions are not troubled by hyenas, of which there are very few. Other predators such as wild dog are sporadically distributed but seem to avoid any area that the lions occupy.
Snips (pride lioness)
Threats
The lack of new males indicates a dearth of immigration. Researchers have noted lions at Ngotsaa in Chobe National Park, about 50 km south of the Chobe River. This is the next pride to the south. There are lions in the Kachikau area, 76 km west as the crow flies, but this is a village region. It is apparently not a big pride and is likely struggling to survive given the farming activities and villages.
The Chobe west of Kabulabula sometimes dries up and lions can easily cross to Namibia. North of the border, the Namibian farmers allow their cattle to graze right up to the border and sometimes over it at Ngoma. It is an irresistible temptation to lions and they quickly learn what soft targets the cattle are. The discovery probably encourages hunting forays north over the border in search of cattle.
Once the lions are in Namibia, the laws become murky – Botswana cannot protect them. The Namibian farmers can legally kill lions if their livestock is threatened. The lions, therefore, depend on the goodwill of the farmers – difficult to muster if they have just lost cattle to border-hopping predators.
Broken Tail (lone lioness)
Conflict mitigation
Chobe is part of the Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA) which aims to secure the sustainable use of natural resources for both wildlife and local people in a cooperative effort by Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, Angola and Zimbabwe.
In Chobe and the Enclave (comprising the villages of Mabele, Kavimba and Kachicau), WildCRU (a conservation research unit) has been running several human-predator conflict mitigation programmes. Communities are encouraged to kraal their cattle at night in predator-resistant kraals. These kraals are funded and built mostly by WildCRU. Owners must make a small contribution to the total costs and help to erect the structures. WildCRU also employs community guardians from each village who investigate any reports of lion conflict. To date, WildCRU has built 26 predator-resistant kraals in the Enclave. They hope to build a further 20 during 2021.
WildCRU, through Dr Jess Isden, has also introduced a lion chasing programme. By using vuvuzelas and running towards lions, the lions disperse. Astounding and insane as this sounds, the vuvuzela has been used to mitigate lion conflict with some success in parts of Zimbabwe.
Some of the lodges in the area, such as Chobe Game Lodge and Serondela Lodge, have established a compensation scheme for farmers who have lost cattle to lions. Farmers are also rewarded if they can prove they have chased lions back into the park.
In the Zambezi Region of Namibia, east of Ihaha, where the pride spends most of its time, farmers don’t have the same tolerance. There seems to be an unsustainable number of cattle feeding on the floodplain, many of which do not belong to the herders but to owners who send their animals to the area for grazing. There are more than 300 000 cattle feeding on the floodplain between Sedudu and Ngoma. Game is naturally scarce due to human and livestock pressure. Recently, another NGO in Namibia, the Kwando Carnivore Project, has started conflict mitigation work in the area and this will hopefully help protect the lions and other predators.
Mosadimogolo (pride lioness)
Conclusion
Lions are a major attraction for tourists and their absence will drastically, negatively affect tourism along the Chobe River.
All the tourism enterprises on both the Namibian and the Botswana sides would like to see better protection for wildlife and cooperation between Namibia and Botswana. Tourism could have long-term benefits for the area. Not only does it create jobs, but it trains people who can form their own tourism-related businesses. Rural communities need to see the potential in tourism without necessarily giving up their farming practices.
Negotiations with various stakeholders in Namibia continue and seem to be bearing fruit. A lion group has been created with several Namibian officials and a few cross-border meetings have seen some commitment from both sides. There are already several lodges on the Namibian side, thanks to the vaunted community conservancy model. The future for the Chobe River lions is uncertain but hopeful.
What is the link between trophy hunting, deadly infectious diseases and traditional Chinese medicine? The not so obvious answer is lions. Paradoxically, these apex predators are now farmed on an increasingly industrial scale in South Africa (note that a recent announcement by the SA government may change this). The estimated number of farmed lions in the country is already four to five times larger than that of wild lions. And there is another paradox – in 2019, the South African government amended legislation to reclassify lions and 32 other wild species as farm animals. Lions, Bones & Bullets (see video link below) tells the astonishing story of how the lion farming industry adapted to survive losing two-thirds of their trophy hunting clients following Cecil the lion’s shooting and the US boycott that followed.
Lions bred in captivity on an industrial scale in South Africa
If trophy hunting was dying out, then what was stimulating the boom in lion farming? Penguin Random House author Richard Peirce and the Jagged Peak Films team went in search of the answer. They discovered that while canned hunting had decreased, a parallel increase in demand for lion bones from Southeast Asia was fuelling demand, leading the South African government to establish an annual quota for lion skeleton exports. Richard followed the lion bone trail from farms in South Africa to street dealers in Vietnam and Laos.
Following the wildlife trafficking trail led to dangerous situations, but the team persisted in their quest for the truth. An undercover informant in Southeast Asia confirmed that lion bones were being imported and passed off as tiger to be used in tiger cake, tiger wine, and various other ‘tiger’ products consumed in traditional Chinese medicine. The filmmakers exposed how easy it is to buy ‘tiger’ or ‘lion’ products, which are supposed to be illegal by international trade laws. Between the South African skeleton sale value and the end consumer price, they discovered a 60-fold increase. These huge profit margins and the fact that it’s cheaper to import a farmed lion skeleton and pretend it’s a tiger than to rear an actual tiger, drive the South African lion bone trade.
Richard goes undercover to investigate the trail of lion parts in Southeast Asia. Clockwise from top left: Richard is offered illegal pangolin scales in Vietnam; Richard is offered illegal ‘tiger wine,’ ‘tiger bracelets’ and a mysterious ‘tiger whip’ in a marketplace in Laos; List of companies that have imported lion skeletons from South Africa to Laos. While tracking down each address, Lions, Bones and Bullets proved that most are front companies for the true importer; Entrance to the office of ‘Societe Mixte de Transport’ in Laos, an import-export company which has imported lion skeletons from South Africa to Laos on behalf of a client.
This timely and groundbreaking film is much more than a straightforward exposé. The threats lion farming and the lion bone trade pose to conservation are tremendous. Richard, the author of several books on wildlife, explains: ‘Lion farming and the increasing sale of lion bones to Asia involve exploitation, cruelty, injustice, misconception, fraud and corruption. They are a threat to wild lion populations. It is mind-blowing in terms of the huge negativity involved and has no redeeming aspects. Lions are a flagship species; what happens to lion populations will be a major factor in determining the future of wild animals in Africa.’
The threats to global public health are even more significant. The world is paralysed by a pandemic that came to humans via wild animals. Lions, Bones & Bullets reveals how shockingly easy it is to legally develop an expanding wildlife farming industry and then transport products that could be infected with tuberculosis, the ‘world’s deadliest infectious disease’. The disease is still South Africa’s leading cause of death.
Richard Peirce
The world festival premiere of Lions, Bones & Bullets is being hosted by the 60th Monte-Carlo Television Festival in June. The Prince Albert II of Monaco Foundation, competition partners to the festival, is dedicated to environmental protection and sustainable development globally. Olivier Wenden, Vice-President and CEO, notes: ‘Lions, Bones & Bullets sends a clear and vital wake-up call to the world, inviting us to open our eyes and rethink our relationship with nature and wildlife.’
The team behind Lions, Bones & Bullets includes Kiwi director and executive producer Anton Leach, who has filmed in more than 20 countries, including war zones in Iraq, Syria and Gaza. Also from New Zealand is the film’s producer, writer and editor, Jasmine Duthie. Her work focuses on character-driven wildlife stories. Lions, Bones & Bullets is narrated by leading British actor and campaigner Peter Egan (Harry Potter, Downtown Abbey, Chariots of Fire).
Minister Creecy of the Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment (DFFE) today announced that the Government of South Africa will act on the High-Level Panel’s recommendations to bring an end to the commercial captive lion industry in South Africa.
Her announcement accompanied the release of the 600-page High-Level Panel Report, which identified that South Africa’s captive lion industry:
Poses risks to the sustainability of wild lion conservation resulting from the negative impact on ecotourism which funds lion conservation and conservation more broadly;
Does not contribute to the conservation of wild lions;
Carries significant zoonotic risks associated with intensive breeding and keeping of lions;
Does not represent ecologically sustainable use;
Threatens South Africa’s reputation as a leader in the conservation of wildlife;
Provides very little economic activity benefiting relatively few;
Negatively impacts the authentic wild hunting industry;
Risks stimulating poaching and illegal trade.
The majority of the Panel Members recommended that the Minister put in place a process to halt and reverse the domestication of lions due to captive lion keeping, breeding, and commercial use. They also recommended that policy decisions should be made for an immediate halt of the sale of captive lion derivatives, the hunting of captive lions and tourist interactions with captive lions.
“I have requested the department to action this accordingly and ensure that the necessary consultation in implementation is conducted”, said Minister Creecy. “In adopting the recommendations, it is important to indicate that the key outcomes for the country will include… the ending of certain inhumane and irresponsible practices that greatly harm the reputation of South Africa and the position of South Africa as a leader in conservation”.
She did not, however, address the Report’s recommendation that the DFFE establish an independent committee to formulate a process for the ethical and humane euthanasia of the lions currently in captivity, in consultation with captive lion breeders and keepers, and other stakeholders.
The Minister’s announcement also references the Panel’s recommendations regarding the safeguarding of rhinos in South Africa in the future. Her announcement acknowledges that South Africa protects the largest component of the global rhino population. As such, the country should play a global leadership role in their conservation. As such, the Government will make no further proposals to CITES for trade in rhino horn until certain conditions are met, including developing a global consensus on the legal international trade in rhino horn.
The High-Level Panel was established on the 10th of October 2019 after the then Portfolio Committee on Environmental Affairs requested the DFFE to initiate a policy and legislative review to put an end to captive lion breeding. The Panel comprised 25 individual members, including experienced conservationists, ecologists, hunting industry representatives, wildlife ranching experts, animal welfare scientists, traditional leaders, and a representative of the captive predator industry. They were tasked to “review policies, legislation and practices on matters related to the management, breeding, hunting, trade and handling of elephant, lion, leopard and rhinoceros”.
The Panel’s goals and recommendations are based on a vision of “secured, restored and rewilded natural landscapes with thriving populations of elephant, lion, rhino, and leopard, as indicators for a vibrant, responsible, inclusive, transformed and sustainable wildlife sector”.
The Report also expresses concerns over the listing of wildlife under the Animal Improvement Act. It warns that the potential intensification of management practices poses significant welfare risks that will exacerbate the current challenges being experienced. While the Minister makes no reference to this in her announcement, she states that South Africa will be adopting a One Welfare approach to wildlife welfare. (The ‘One Welfare’ approach highlights the interconnections between animal welfare, human well-being, and the environment.)
In a joint media statement, Blood Lions and World Animal Protection, two organisations at the front of the fight against the captive lion industry, “congratulate the Minister on these bold steps and offer their full support in developing and implementing a responsible phase-out plan in order to ensure that the commercial predator breeding industry is successfully closed down in South Africa, once and for all.”
The comprehensive 600-page report, including the minority opinions on captive lion breeding and rhino management, can be accessed here. The relevant recommendations regarding the captive lion industry can be found on page 328.
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Last week we published an incredible gallery by Kenyan guide and Photographer of the Year entrant James Nampaso – of lions targeting a mom giraffe and her tiny calf. Like many of you, I suspect, images like this toy with my emotions – although of course I respect the necessity of this brutal process playing itself out in countless ways in the natural world. After seeing the above gallery, Barbara Westbrook from Australia sent us an enthralling video clip of a similar encounter of a few years back – in the same area. Again, such a brave giraffe mom and calf. This time though, the outcome was different – watch the video featured after our stories below.
Speaking of 2021 Photographer of the Year, May is the final month of entries, before we start the judging process in June. Some epic images already submitted are competing for the title, which comes with US$10,000 in prize money and a Botswana safari for the winner and two runners-up + their partners. Please get your entries in now to avoid the usual last-minute rush.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
‘When is the best time to go to Africa?’ The safari guide’s eyes roll heavenward. He forces a smile and answers with something like, ‘You do realise that Africa straddles the equator, covers six time zones, is a vast area more than three times the size of the US of profoundly different vegetation, climate, topography, wildlife and home to over a billion souls of unimaginably diverse looks, languages and cultures. Which bit of Africa were you referring to exactly?’. Luckily for our jaded safari guide, we at AG have come to the rescue with a series of four stories about the best times to visit the many fascinating parts of Africa. In our first story below, we cover the most popular safari season of June to August.
A few years ago, I was shooting a short documentary on the Maasai people who graze their livestock (legally) in the Mara Triangle during the quiet season. Even a blind moron with a faulty pinhole camera could have captured gorgeous images of the scene: backdrop of the Mara at sunrise, the Maasai’s colourful clothing and the odd elephant wandering past the cattle. What struck me most, however, was the fact that the herders, contrary to their cliched portrayal in popular media, are not relics of a bygone era. They were chatting on their smartphones and doing banking transactions dressed in shukas and car-tire sandals while whistling at their cattle. These were modern, 21st-century Maasai. In our second story below, Benoît Feron and Anne-Françoise Tasnier travelled to South Sudan to spend some time with the Mundari people; to learn about their cattle culture and photograph their interaction with the 21st century.
Our third story below is exciting. New research by the big hitters of African elephant conservation lead by Jake Wall with support from doyen Iain Douglas-Hamilton and many others, asserts that elephants occupy just 17% of their potential range. Whether we, as a species, can learn to share this land with them is another matter – but there is hope, and there is more space than we thought.
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
The Mundari tribe is a small ethnic group from the Republic of South Sudan, numbering between 70,000 and 100,000 people. South Sudan, the world’s youngest country, gained independence from the Republic of the Sudan in 2011 after a 21-year civil war. During the war, Mundari militias organised themselves into commando units under the leadership of the present governor of the Central Equatoria State. They fought in Eastern Equatoria, Eastern Sudan, and Darfur.
The Mundari are one of the ethnic groups indigenous to the Nile valley (Nilotic). Their main homeland is approximately 75 kilometres north of Juba, the capital of South Sudan. Their lands are bounded on the east by the White Nile, an important source of water for livestock.
The Mundari follow a mixture of Christian and animistic beliefs, with symbols playing an important role. As for many people in the area, the Mundari culture is transmitted orally in songs, dance, poems and other body expressions that reflect good, generosity, and other core values. Ritual scarification is an important part of cultural identity. Men must undergo initiation rites where initiates live together in nature and spend three months with a village elder, away from the community. The rite of passage to adulthood is completed with V scars cut into the forehead.
Friendly and peaceful by nature, the Mundari are nevertheless armed, like most tribes in South Sudan. Decades of war have made guns ubiquitous and easy to obtain. That said, the Mudari seem to have no interest in warfare – weapons are used to protect their herds from cattle rustlers. Mundari men take up wrestling as a serious hobby from a very young age. They regularly organise wrestling competitions, and the best proponents keep going until they are too old to compete.
Cattle Culture
The Mundari are agro-pastoralists with an economy centred on agriculture and herding livestock. Their famous, massive-horned Ankole-Watusi cattle are considered the ‘kings of the cattle’. They are part of the Sanga family of African cattle breeds which originated over 2,000 years ago from a combination of the Egyptian longhorn cattle of Africa and Zebu longhorns originally from India. Sanga cattle spread throughout eastern Africa, and many different breeds developed. Some studies suggest that the big horns of the Ankole-Watusi are an adaptation to hot climates, facilitating the dispersal of excess body heat.
While elders (from 38 years old) and maternal relatives settle villages with beautiful huts, the youngest (young men and women, teens and children) go to cattle camps to tend livestock, moving according to the rhythm of rainy seasons. This part of South Sudan is extremely vulnerable to drought with low rainfall and high temperatures. Sometimes the herds can number as many as 850 animals, and finding enough forage for such large herds in arid areas necessitates constant movement. At the end of the dry season, camps are pitched around the Nile, the only place still sufficiently green to accommodate the appetite of their livestock.
In Mundari culture, like for many tribes of the region, cattle play an important role in religion, birth and marriage. They are symbols of wealth and power. Every life event includes a reference to cows, the lives of which can be sometimes deemed more important than those of humans. A person’s position in society is established through the ownership of cattle – the size and shape of the horns being the most important features. Traditionally, Ankole-Watusi cows are considered sacred, with an owner’s wealth counted in live animals. Unfortunately, cattle are also the main source of conflict. Clashes seldom arise over common resources such as land but rather over animals and their ownership.
Before the civil war, each Ankole-Watusi was worth as much as $500. This was the reference value used to calculate the bride price paid to a woman’s family. Following the end of the war, the number of middle-aged men in search of wives dramatically increased. This had a direct impact as it doubled the bride price from an average of 20 cows per bride to 40. This inflation has made cattle even more precious and has also increased the frequency of lethal cattle raids.
Cattle camps
In a cattle camp, everyone plays their role. The men lead the cows into the fields during the day and regroup them in the camp before sunset. The women clean and prepare food for everyone. The children clean the ground of the camp every morning by collecting the dung and burning it at sunset. The smoke drives away mosquitoes and also creates a unique atmosphere for photographers.
Ashes are then used as a natural antiseptic to protect the skin of the people and cows from insects and the sun. The Mundari also use ash as talcum to massage their cattle twice a day and as toothpaste for themselves.
Cattle urine is used to wash hands, faces, teeth and bleach hair. The Mundari also drink it in the belief that cow urine infuses purity. They also combine urine with ashes to polish the magnificent horns of the cattle.
At night, music played on horns floats through the camp. The people sing close to the heat of fires until they fall asleep under the stars with the cattle just a few feet away. Sleep is not always easy, and the herders must often protect their livestock from jackals, hyenas and even painted wolves (African wild dogs). The main threat to livestock, however, is from raiders. Indeed, cattle rustling is a common cultural practice among many pastoral communities in East Africa – the Nuer, Dinka and Murle often participate in cyclical raiding.
The future
The Mundari’s apparently sustainable way of life is no doubt changing. Today, young Mundari dream of another life, and it is somewhat incongruous to observe young people looking at the outside world on Chinese smartphones while looking after the cattle. The modern world is on its way, and China is financing and building a highway that will link Juba to Terekeka, the county where Mundari live. This highway is part of the Chinese oil exploitation program in South Sudan, which started even before its independence in 2011. This war-ravaged region boasts 3.5 billion barrels’ worth of crude oil in proven reserves, and petroleum geologists will likely find more in the two-thirds of South Sudan they have yet to explore. Despite the challenges of working in a war zone, China dominates what analysts have assessed to be the third-largest oil reserve in Africa.
The Mundari way of life faces an uncertain future. We believe, however, it will still take years for the traditions we’ve described to change. They remain the basis for the whole social structure of the tribe – despite cell phones and a few other modern conveniences. Cattle and not cash remains the foundation of society in two main ways.
Firstly, cattle is a financial asset – a kind of “mobile bank account”. Most Mundari people keep cattle and sell them to pay for their essential needs, like food or school fees and – possibly most importantly – the bride price. Secondly, cows produce food. Although very seldom killed for meat, their milk and blood are hugely important parts of the Mundari diet.
With the COVID-19 pandemic, world aid for development in South Sudan has slowed. The majority of humanitarian workers are stuck at home. As in other African countries, South Sudan has immense tourism potential, but it will take years to develop the necessary infrastructure. The official political mentality is still much influenced by long years of war.
We believe that traditional Mundari’ society will remain relatively unchanged for many years to come. Perhaps we might ask whether their relatively sustainable way of life has lessons more widely applicable – lessons we need to absorb before the tide of modernisation changes the Mundari way of life forever.
It goes without saying that humans have significantly reduced the habitat available to elephants across Africa (as is the case for almost every wild species). Though greatly accelerated over the last century, this has been an incremental process and unpicking the strands of our influence to quantify historical and potential animal ranges is a tricky process. Newly published research from leading elephant conservation organisations clarifies the extent of human impact on elephants: Africa’s giants now occupy just 17% of their possible range.
The new paper details how multiple elephant research and conservation organisations pooled over 15 years’ worth of data on the ranges of 229 individual elephants across the continent. The work was coordinated by Save the Elephants and included researchers from the Mara Elephant Project, the University of British Columbia, Oxford University, Colorado State University, the Wildlife Conservation Society, the University of Stirling, and Elephants Alive. It goes to the heart of why long-term research and in-depth understanding of elephant movements are pivotal to elephants’ conservation. “Consistent data recorded over a number of years plays a vital role in our understanding of how elephants adapt to shrinking ranges and variable climatic effects” explains Dr Michelle Henley, CEO of Elephants Alive.
The data were collected at 19 sites across the four major biomes of Africa: Sahel (the border region of the Sahara Desert in the western section of the continent), forest (central), savannah (east), and bushveld (south). When analysing the data, the new study lays out three questions:
How do elephant home ranges vary in size across sexes, species, and biome?
How influential are the following factors on range size?
a. Individual (sex and species)
b. Biotic (vegetation and tree cover)
c. Abiotic (temperature, rainfall, water, slope/gradient)
d. Anthropogenic (human influence and protected area use) factors
How much suitable elephant habitat remains across Africa, and how much of this suitable habitat is currently occupied?
The study demonstrates that elephant range size is affected by multiple factors, including species (forest elephants utilised smaller home ranges than savannah elephants), sex (bulls occupied more extensive ranges than cows in the long term), and resource availability. The elephants were also influenced by tree cover, temperature, rainfall, and the slope/gradient of the area. Most importantly, elephant movements and range usage were impacted by human factors. From the tracking data, elephants in protected areas occupied smaller ranges. The researchers believe that this is part of a human avoidance strategy – the elephants do not feel safe roaming into areas of human habitation. However, some 57% of the current elephant range falls outside these protected areas (as per the IUCN).
The researchers then used this data to inform an elephant habitat suitability model (HSM) across the entire continent. The HSM predicts that elephants could occupy a range of over 18 million square kilometres – 62% of the whole continent. “We looked at every square kilometre of the continent,” says lead author Jake Wall of the Mara Elephant Project in Kenya. “We found that 62% of those 29.2 million square kilometres is suitable habitat.” As adaptable and generalist megaherbivores, elephants would only be precluded from occupying extreme habitats in the Sahara, Danakil, and Kalahari deserts, as well as high mountain tops and, of course, urban centres.
From the range of conditions encountered by the tracked elephants over 16-day periods, an HSM was extrapolated to each kilometre square grid of Africa (shown in green). Currently, 18,169,219 km2 is suitable range for elephants, which is 62% of the whole continent but for extreme deserts, cities, and high mountain tops. Of the HSM, 85% falls outside of protected areas. It was the likely range of elephants two millennia before the present. The current elephant range (orange) is 3,132,238 km2, according to the African Elephant Specialist Group, of which 57% falls outside of protected areas. The combined elliptical time-density 90th percentile ranges (red), of our sample of 229 collared elephants is 72,113 km2. The protected area boundaries (black hatched areas on the inset maps) are from the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA).
Iain Douglas-Hamilton, founder of Save the Elephants, explains that through the model, “we used the movements of living elephants to tell us where the dead once roamed. This gave us a new line of evidence to suggest how much range has been lost in the last 2000 years”.
In essence, the study confirms that elephants would once have roamed almost the entire African continent – a conclusion supported by both historical, anecdotal evidence and recent genetic studies. The researchers detail how accounts from navigators and explorers from over 500 years ago record the presence of elephants on the Atlantic coast of North Africa and the mountainous and thickly wooded parts of present-day Tunisia. The HSM indicates that the same stretch of North Africa where elephants once roamed remains suitable habitat to this day. An analysis of ivory recovered from a Namibian shipwreck recently showed a massive reduction of elephant genetic diversity in the last five centuries.
The vast amount of data and extensive analysis demonstrates that elephants could spread back to parts of their former range if given a chance. Their habitats have been severely fragmented by fences, agriculture, infrastructure and human habitation and conflict. However, since their potential range is enormous, there is likely still room within parts of this range for peaceful coexistence between people and elephants. In particular, the authors identify swathes of land within the Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of Congo, whose forests once held hundreds of thousands of elephants, now reduced to fewer than 10,000 remaining individuals. Naturally, the researchers also acknowledge that there are also parts of this identified range where conflict with people would make the return of elephants unrealistic.
Unfortunately, while the elephant range could expand, current trends are moving in the opposite direction. With the human population expected to grow over 25% from 2019 to 2050 (along with the associated increase in human footprint), there is an urgent need for development scenarios that take wildlife (and human) needs into account to secure the long-term survival of elephants. The researchers hope to refine the current model to aid in quantifying human densities and human-elephant coexistence and exploring the connectivity of potential habitats. The study concludes with the following sentiments:
“In the face of increasing human pressures, proactive landscape planning at the local, national, and continental scales are critical, as well as fostering an ethic of human-elephant coexistence if the future of elephants is to be secured. Is that too much to ask, to protect and conserve this signature animal even in a world where human well-being is paramount?”
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Last week was ugly. We published a story where scientists estimate the Namibian elephant population to be several times higher than the go-to estimate by several loud keyboard experts. The data and results were peer-reviewed by the IUCN African Elephant Specialist Group. The story unleashed some pretty unfortunate backlash from those whose narrative demands far lower numbers. The backstory is that the Namibian government, like many African governments, supports trophy hunting as a wildlife conservation tool. Now you know that I am no fan of trophy hunting, and I have the scars to prove it. BUT I also believe, as do my team, that science is the framework for effective conservation and that our layman opinions, while being essential tools for dialogue and problem-solving, are ultimately subject to scientific reality.
One hysterical Namibian activist took to social media to drum up echo chamber support from his adoring fans with hurtful fabrications about the veteran conservation journalist. He also laid into AG – and demanded that he be given the raw elephant population data to come up with his own statistics. He of zero relevant qualifications, experience or training. His premise is that observations from his occasional journeying through elephant territory are a more reliable yardstick for Namibian elephant numbers than what peer-reviewed science estimates, and that we (scientists, AG and those who support science) are in cahoots with the Namibian government to kill more elephants.
It is what it is.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
When I started guiding, too many years ago than I care to admit, showing my guests a kill was the ultimate goal. I’m not sure why – perhaps it was because so many nature documentaries climaxed with a takedown. The first time I saw the light leaving the eyes of a terrified impala ram with a leopardess’s jaws clamped around his trachea, I wasn’t sure I wished to see it again. In our first story below, Kenyan guide James Nampaso, treats us to a terrific photo gallery of nature’s sometimes heartrending reality.
In our second story below, we look at new research investigating the use of African grey parrots in traditional west African medicine. The Marché des Fétiches in Lomé, Togo has an astonishing array of wild animal parts for sale, including primate heads, antelope and predator skins, crocodile skulls, dried snakes, domestic dog heads and, of course, birds. A brief google image search will net you a gallery of horrors. Next step is to engage with the sellers and users to come up with sustainable alternatives.
Our third story below is more cheerful. When I was at university, I remember walking past kilometres of shelving full of masters and PhD dissertations thinking, ‘what a waste, no one is ever going to read this stuff.’ While most theses can look forward to long centuries of gathering dust unobserved, one, by an Australian ecologist called Ken Tinley, completed in 1977, resurfaced in the early 2000s. It became the blueprint for the restoration of Gorongosa National Park in Mozambique – it’s a wonderfully unlikely story.
Our Photographer of the Year gallery for this week is another marvel of African nature and human creativity. We are nearing the end of the competition, so either head into the wild and take some snaps or trawl your archives – you might like to win 10 000USD and a luxury safari to Botswana. You can enter here.
Finally, have a look at our video of the week. The Last Horns of Africa is a scary look at what it means to be on the frontline of defending rhino in South Africa – when rangers have to find the courage to become soldiers.
Story 1 https://africageographic.com/stories/giraffes-vs-lions/
LIONS VS GIRAFFES
This exceptional photo gallery by Kenyan guide and Photographer of the Year entrant James Nampaso showcases wild Africa at her most brutal
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
The following is the foreword by Greg Carr to a recently re-published thesis by Dr Ken Tinley who developed an ecological model for Gorongosa National Park in Mozambique. The magnificent thesis was completed in 1977 and remains relevant to this day.
Introduction
I saw Gorongosa National Park for the first time from a helicopter on March 30, 2004. It looked magnificent from above. There were multiple forest and woodland types, grasslands, rivers, a lake, and fascinating geological formations. When we landed, however, it was clear we had trouble. The historic Chitengo Camp lay in ruins—former buildings were rubble. Where tourists once wandered, burned-out vehicles lay amongst grass that was higher than my head. That year, the Mozambican government asked me to help restore Gorongosa, once one of the most popular wildlife parks in all of Africa.
Devastation – historic Chitengo Camp in ruins
Process and response
In the 1960s, scientists said that Gorongosa had the densest abundance of wildlife of any natural area on the continent. This was no longer true. On our visit in 2004, we could drive an entire day and see perhaps one warthog or one baboon. Whatever other wildlife there was hidden in dense forests and had every reason to fear vehicles. Approximately 95% of the large animals were killed during and in the aftermath of one generation of war. How could we possibly restore a landscape of 400,000 hectares (one million acres)?
If we were going to help the Government of Mozambique re-wild this ecosystem, we needed to understand it. We needed to create a Park Management Plan.
My very small team and I searched the literature. We found popular accounts of Gorongosa in newspapers and even in the prestigious National Geographic Magazine, dating back to the early 1960s. However, we also needed scientific data. A Harvard University friend found a reference to a doctoral thesis called Framework of the Gorongosa Ecosystem published in 1977 by a Kenneth Lochner Tinley, but not the actual thesis. At the time, Google was a ‘child’, just six years old, and one did not find nearly every imaginable piece of information online. We learned that a physical copy of the thesis existed at the University of Pretoria, South Africa. We used ‘interlibrary loan’ to get that actual document (not a facsimile) sent by the postal service to Harvard and then to us. Helping me was Sydney Kwiram—a brilliant young woman and recent Harvard graduate.
The manuscript’s abstract included this paragraph: “The chapter titled ‘Process and Response’ is the central pivot of the thesis containing the kinetic aspects of geomorphological landscape changes with coevolutionary sequences of biotic communities which change (expand, contract and recombine) kaleidoscopically in space and time, in appearance and content.”
Tourism in Gorongosa before the Mozambican civil war
Wow. I am not a biologist. I wondered if I should return to the friendly, popular newspaper articles about Gorongosa! However, the Tinley masterpiece is written by an incredible hand. It is the kind of literature that a layperson can follow if one reads carefully, even as an expert will gather much more from the same page. Sydney and I devoured this tome. The thesis had chapters on landscape setting, geology, soils, hydrology, climate, wildlife—covering an area in central Mozambique larger than the Park boundaries themselves—under the labels of “Gorongosa Mountain Summit”, “Gorongosa Mountain Slopes”, “Midlands”, “Rift Valley”, “Coast Plateau”, and “Land-sea Junction”. There were graphs of data and hand-drawn maps by Dr Tinley. He did all of this prior to the existence of the personal computer, GPS, digital photography, drones and the Internet. He with his spouse, Lynne Tinley, and their two small children lived in Chitengo (the place where I had landed in March 2004) from 1968 to 1973.
Where on earth is Dr Tinley?
We had the document, but what about Ken Tinley? Was he still alive? Did he live in South Africa? We would not find those answers in 2004.
Meanwhile, our team of scientists used insights from the Tinley thesis as we wrote a proposal to the Government of Mozambique to co-manage and restore Gorongosa. Among many critical observations, Ken Tinley—speaking through his thesis—told us that, in order to save the ecosystem over the long term, Mount Gorongosa needed to be added to the Park. Mount Gorongosa holds one of only two true rainforests in Central Mozambique, full of endemic and near-endemic species. The mountain is the critical source of most of the Park’s surface water during the dry season. At this time, it did not have protected status.
We continued our studies, our visits to Gorongosa, and our talks with the Government of Mozambique. I expanded our team. In 2005, on one of the luckiest days of my life, I met Vasco Galante. Vasco became the Director of Communications for the non-profit ‘Gorongosa Restoration Project’. He is a human connector: he makes friends, then he becomes friends with their friends. He remembers everyone, every encounter, every event. We call him ‘Vascopedia’. Vasco’s records tell me that we found Ken Tinley in 2005. I sent him an email (which, of course, Vasco saved) on November 28, 2005, that says: “We are in communication with Dr Tinley (who now lives in Australia), and we have his thesis, which you will enjoy. I’ll ask Bridget to send you a copy.”
“In communication with Dr Tinley” actually meant that we had found an email address for his spouse Lynne (from someone who knew someone) and contacted her. Lynne is equally brilliant and is Ken’s lifelong teammate. She is an artist of Nature. She wrote Drawn from the Plains, a book about living in Chitengo Camp, Gorongosa Park’s headquarters, for five years. The book includes her original artwork. We located a copy.
I remember reading my first email reply from Lynne. I now felt that the legendary Gorongosa of the 1960s was no longer just a storybook place to read about in articles. I was talking to someone who had lived there, seen it, smelled it, heard it, and breathed it. Soon, I started receiving messages on Lynne’s email account written by Ken. I was finally talking to the person who had written Framework of the Gorongosa Ecosystem when I was still in middle school.
We corresponded with Ken steadily from 2005 on, sharing ideas and receiving welcome advice. Ecologist Dr Marc Stalmans was a consultant to us and later became Director of Science for Gorongosa National Park. He helped us plan the restoration. “Ken was truly ahead of his time,” Dr Stalmans explains, “applying a landscape ecological perspective well before this approach gained popularity in the 1980s-1990s. Ken manually applied GIS principles before the electronic tool was available. Whereas many studies conventionally only provide a snapshot in time, Ken’s work takes a long term, geomorphic and geo-ecological view of the Park in terms of the formation, evolution and long-term outcome of its ecosystems and constituting components. That’s why the work is still hugely relevant one half-century later. Even more astonishing is that this magnum opus resulted from Ken spending only five years in the Gorongosa ecosystem.”
Hand-drawn images from Ken Tinley’s thesis. Clockwise from top left: Salient landscape features; Cheringoma Plateau example of geo-ecological succession; soil map; Rift Valley example of geo-ecological succession
On top of that, Dr Tinley still found time to sketch landscape perspectives of Banhine National Park in Mozambique and an area next to the Kruger National Park in South Africa that would later become part of the Limpopo National Park. Thirty years later, in the early 2000s, these perspectives became the foundation for the first landscape maps for both parks, which now form part of the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area.
In 1990, well after his five years living in Gorongosa Park, Ken worked with landscape architects in Pretoria. They agreed that the existence of a large number of national parks and nature reserves along the frontier between Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe and Swaziland opened the possibility for multi-national transfrontier resource areas (referenced by Dr Stalmans above).
It was exciting to think that existing protected areas could be linked by some of the little populated areas in between—to create one of the largest conservation zones in the world. Rural communities living within the resource areas, as well as the governments of the various countries, would benefit. Ken was one of the originators of the idea that became known as ‘Peace Parks’. President Nelson Mandela, a founder of the Peace Parks Foundation, believed national parks could link nations or regions that had previously seen conflict. His theory: The connected ecosystems would be good not only for wildlife but deliver benefits and peaceful relations to people as well.
Clockwise from top left: lioness in a tree; elephant in a natural pan; malachite kingfisher; African painted wolf; common waterbuck
We completed the first draft of our Park Management Plan and finalised our co-management contract with the Government of Mozambique. In January of 2008, I signed a 20-year agreement with the Government to co-manage and restore the Gorongosa ecosystem and to bring human development services to the communities that live adjacent to the Park. (That agreement has now been extended to 35 years, until 2043.)
In 2008 we revitalised the ranger team. The team began removing wildlife traps and snares from the Park; some left over from the war. We started a health care programme in nearby communities. We began our first attempts at tourism.
Meeting Ken Tinley
Yet, I had still not met Ken Tinley. I invited him to come and see what we were doing. In October 2010, Ken spent five days with us in Gorongosa.
Clockwise from top left: Bob Poole (camera), Mateus Mutemba, Fernando Ussene, Ken Tinley, Tonga Torcida and Vasco Galante; Ken Tinley, Vasco Galante, Fernando Ussene; Greg Carr and Ken Tinley; Ken Tinley
On the last day of his visit, Ken shared a poignant story with us. This trip was not the first time he had been to Gorongosa since 1973. In 1994, after the war ended, Ken and a man named Paul Dutton, along with José Tello (ex-warden of Gorongosa), were contracted by the IUCN to survey the condition of the National Park. Like Ken, Paul had begun his career as a Game Ranger in the Zululand Provincial Game Reserves and later continued his education to earn a graduate degree in Ecology. They became lifelong friends. In his own small Piper Cub airplane, Paul helped Ken and José perform the first aerial surveys of the vast herds of large ungulates during the first year of Ken’s research in Gorongosa. In 1994, they found what I saw a decade later: no wildlife and destroyed infrastructure.
The Future
The Gorongosa Restoration Team has made great progress from 2010 to 2019. Our rangers removed over 27,000 traps and snares. We reintroduced some species that we obtained from other national parks, such as buffalo and wildebeest from Kruger. But mostly, in a safer environment, the remaining small populations of wildlife were able to increase on their own. In 2018 we conducted an aerial wildlife survey and counted more than 100,000 large animals. (This represented just the fifteen largest species we could count from the air, not the innumerable smaller species that are also thriving.) The press has been kind to us. National Geographic refers to us as perhaps Africa’s greatest wildlife restoration story.
Clockwise from top left: A group of rangers on parade; Carol Wilson, activities coordinator at Gorongosa; Dominique Gonçalves at an elephant collaring exercise; a student researcher
We also made headway on our human development programme in the traditional communities that share the greater ecosystem with the Park. Our after-school Girls’ Clubs keep teenage girls in school and out of child marriage. We help small farmers get better yields on their land. We’re restoring the rainforest on Mount Gorongosa by planting shade-grown coffee. We provide healthcare to more than 100,000 people per year.
This idea that national parks should benefit the local people was one of Ken Tinley’s early insights and it forms the core of our philosophy at Gorongosa Park. But not only that, we also believe that local people should lead the management of these protected areas. They have knowledge and expertise about the healthy functioning of these ecosystems that they have inhabited since time immemorial. and they can combine that wisdom with 21st Century ecological science.
During the Colonial era, most Mozambicans were not allowed to go to school beyond the fourth grade. It is a painful and unpleasant fact, but one we should remember. At the Gorongosa Project, our goal is to empower the next generation of Mozambican scientists who will lead this ecosystem to the 22nd Century. They face of a new set of challenges, perhaps even greater than the wars of the 20th Century – climate change, pollution, invasive species, habitat loss and over-harvesting. Thus, we created a Master’s in Conservation Biology, a two-year program located in the park. It is the only master’s programme in the world taught entirely within a national park. We’ve already graduated our first cadre of twelve Mozambican women and men. The second group will finish at the end of 2021.
We also help Mozambicans continue their education to earn PhDs. Dominique Goncalves, a Mozambican woman who grew up near Gorongosa, is completing her PhD in Wildlife Ecology at the University of Kent in the UK. She also is the Manager of Elephant Ecology at Gorongosa Park. In October of 2018, I travelled with Dominique to Perth, Australia, to meet Ken and Lynne Tinley in their home. The walls of their apartment were covered with Lynne’s original artwork, some paintings of Gorongosa. Ken and Dominique talked for two days. He gave her unpublished notes from his research as the two of them exchanged ideas, passing the torch of Gorongosa science to the next generation.
Greg Carr
April 14th, 2021.
Ken Tinley’s thesis is available for purchase at 150 USD plus shipping. If interested, please email Megan Carolla at megancarolla@gmail.com.
The African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) is one of the most heavily-traded bird species globally, prized for its attractive looks, intelligence and propensity for mimicry. While most trade supplies the exotic pet trade, a new study confirms that grey parrots are also being sold in traditional medicine markets and consumed for belief-based use in some West African countries. Feathers, whole parrot remains, and parrot heads are traded for various medicinal and spiritual uses.
African grey parrots in the wild
According to the study and previous research, over 1.2 million wild-sourced African grey parrots have been traded internationally since the 1970s. The unsustainable trapping and trading of wild parrots, along with habitat loss, has resulted in dramatic population declines across the ranges of both African grey parrots and Timneh parrots (P. timneh). In some countries, populations have declined by as much as 90% over the past 25 years. Though there has been little research into the use of grey parrots in traditional medicine, researchers have now made inroads into understanding the dimensions of this established trade.
Researchers interviewed five vendors at the ‘fetish’ market – Marché des Fétiches – in Togo, West Africa to investigate the purpose and socio-economic drivers of belief-based use. The market is the largest of its kind for belief-based medicine in West Africa, and here wildlife trade is conducted openly, even when certain species are protected by national legislation. The vendors were selected on the basis that they had been previously observed trading parrot parts. The questions asked of the vendors focused on the body parts sold, the purpose and price, the source country, and the species availability.
Their findings suggest that approximately 900 grey parrots were traded over the past ten years in the marketplace. The majority of parrot heads were sold for improving memory and spiritual ‘protection from witchcraft’ and ‘good luck’. Feathers are purchased for spiritual use, ‘attracting clients’, ‘love’, and ‘help with divorce’. According to the vendors, parrot heads were the most valuable parts, fetching several times the value of parrot feathers. Concerningly, the majority of the vendors reported a decrease in the availability of grey parrot parts.
This use of African grey parrots for belief-based practices is not a new phenomenon, and the vendors reported that all purchases over the past decade had involved regular customers. This, in turn, indicates a local demand for the trade in parrot parts beyond the international trade in live parrots. However, the researchers emphasise that further research is needed to understand the relationship between the two different trades, as evidence suggests a degree of connectivity. It is likely that some of the parrot remains in the markets were sourced from parrots that died during the trapping/transport process for the pet trade. (The trapping and trading of wild parrots raise serious welfare concerns and is estimated to have a 40-60% mortality rate.)
Related to the relationship between the two types of trade is whether the increase in scarcity of parrots reflects the collapse of local wild populations or the recent reduction in international trade (precipitated by increased international legal restrictions). The vendors all stated that Benin and Togo were the main source countries for parrot derivatives. Yet, experts believe that wild populations of grey parrots in these countries are negligible or even extinct. The grey parrots in neighbouring countries such as Ghana have also shown a precipitous population decline. If there are small remaining populations, even low exploitation levels would be disastrous and could result in further local extinctions.
As is the case with any wildlife species, it is challenging to assess the impact of belief-based use. As the study acknowledges, aspects of the trade (such as the trade in feathers) may prove sustainable. The authors also emphasise that the study’s intention was not to determine the extent of the trade – the information provided by the vendors may have been either exaggerated or underestimated. Instead, the interviews were conducted to inform further research and direct future conservation efforts. Immediate intervention initiatives could include education initiatives and the provision of herbal alternatives.
The conservation efforts directed at saving the surviving African grey parrot populations are intricate and multi-faceted, involving everything from international trade policy to dangerous anti-poaching and sting operations. While the study identifies the need for further in-depth research into this threat to grey parrots, it is only through understanding the patterns and drivers of the trade that effective strategies can be developed to mitigate its effects.
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I watched this trailer for an African-themed movie and was not sure whether to laugh out loud or vomit in the back of my mouth. If you can get past the horrendous type-casting of African people and gobsmackingly misinformed portrayals of predators waiting around every corner to eat you alive – then you are a better person than I. Apparently, there are rhinos in Amboseli (which attack and flip vehicles), and the hyenas there whoop like gibbons when hunting humans. Breathe deeply Simon, move on …
Back to reality, and after a really good wet summer here in the Greater Kruger region, the seasons have turned, and our autumnal grass and woodlands are rapidly turning golden brown as we prepare for a long dry winter. We are heading into the best wildlife-viewing time, and intrepid travellers are taking advantage of Covid-impacted low prices and few tourists. Need I say more?
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
This week is much about the elephants – one a good news, if rather technical, story and the other, another blight on humanity’s appalling environmental report card. In the first one below, veteran Namibian conservationist Gail Thomson describes exactly how the Namibian government arrived at their population figure of 24 000 elephants. Despite what naysayers might argue, it would seem that Namibia’s elephant population is thriving and increasing. Long may that last.
Our second story below leaves me bemused. Quite how it has taken the IUCN so long to recognise the species status of the forest elephant despite science having known about it for almost 20 years, is beyond me. What on earth have they been doing? With the speed of frozen treacle oozing uphill, the politicians, lawyers and scientists have finally made it official and the news is not good – the forest elephant is critically endangered.
After all that, our third story below should be much more fun and encouraging. Mix yourself a pina colada (yes, I know you’re at work but that might make it taste even better). I’ve always had a fascination with remote ocean islands. This story of Mauritian conservation – pristine beaches, coral reefs, tropical fishes, lush forests, endemic animals and cascading waterfalls – had me yearning to feel the sand between my toes, hearing the drum of the ocean and the primordial sound of the island jungle.
Finally, our Photographer of the Year is heading into the final stages. Please send this link to anyone you know who takes good shots of Africa – they might like to win 10 000USD and a luxury safari to Botswana. Mix another pina colada and enjoy the 14th celebration of our magical continent!
Kenyan guide James Nampaso entered a few startling images of giraffes and lions for our 2021 Photographer of the Year. See his submitted images in this weekly selection. We were interested to know more about what happened, and James submitted the following images and story:
“The event took place in the Maasai Mara ( Olare Motorogi Conservancy) in Kenya. During a morning game drive I saw two female lionesses watching a female giraffe and her calf from the cover of a croton bush. Soon the lions started stalking the giraffes and I told my guests to get their cameras ready. The lions managed to jump onto the calf, but the mother giraffe chased them away. Once the rest of the pride arrived they surrounded the giraffes, and after about half an hour, a lioness managed to jump onto the mother giraffe’s back and so distract her. During that separation, the lions killed the baby while the mother giraffe managed to escape.” James Nampaso
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
With over 160km of talcum-powder sand beaches, turquoise lagoons, luxury resorts and protected on all sides by an encircling coral reef, Mauritius is an island paradise. That said, there is so much more to Mauritius than just the beach. Away from sunbathing, water sports and busy beaches, the island is a world biodiversity hotspot, a land of volcanic mountains dotted with pockets of ancient forest. It is home to an incredible diversity of wildlife, including some of the world’s most threatened animals and plants. Mauritius is increasingly focusing on ecotourism and, together with several forward-thinking operators, the island has its eye on becoming a world leader in green tourism.
A spectacular view in Kestrel Valley. Away from the beaches the Mauritian interior is equally beautiful.
When you live on a small island in the Indian Ocean, you are sensitive to every tiny environmental change that happens around you. As awareness of the importance of maintaining the island’s ecosystem grows, Mauritius is working hard towards its goal of conservation and sustainable tourism. It is this side of Mauritius that I had come to experience on my travels there.
I had been invited to the opening of the Kestrel Valley Nature Reserve, a 200-hectare private nature reserve located in an indigenous Mauritian forest. Previously a deer hunting farm, Kestrel Valley is now under new management and has switched focus to conservation and the protection of endangered species. It serves as the base from which eco-volunteers participate in a variety of conservation programmes. Though the project is primarily targeted at gap-year students and conservation enthusiasts of a generally younger age group than myself (I was, in fact, old enough to be the mother of some of the other participants), I was fortunate enough to experience their hands-on approach to conservation.
The rustic setting of Kestrel Valley accompanied by spectacular views
The valley is also home to the Mauritian kestrel (Falco punctatus), once one of the most endangered birds in the world but which has since been brought back from the brink of extinction by the concerted efforts of conservationists and scientists. My fellow volunteers and I spent our first few days monitoring and carrying out census counts of the kestrels as well as the endangered Mauritian fruit bats (Pteropus niger – which also roost in the valley). We also took part in alien plant eradication, quite literally weeding in the forest by hand. This particular project, which turned out to be surprisingly rewarding, saw us pulling up and carting out armfuls of invasive plant life to make way for the indigenous plants.
A pair of Mauritian kestrels – in 1974 there were only four of these birds left in the wild.
Like most of the Indian Ocean, Mauritius has seen a sharp decrease in its coral reef, primarily due to climate change and aggressive fishing methods. When we had time out from our dry land projects, the volunteers and I got involved with some reef and lagoon conservation projects. We spent a couple of days underwater, gaining hands-on experience in saving the island’s marine environment. Donning masks and snorkels we set off, looking for signs of coral bleaching and invasive species, as well as monitoring some of the island’s critically endangered hawksbill sea turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata).
As we swam through the lagoon, we saw the devastation of previous coral bleaching incidents, times when a sudden rise in water temperatures kills off the coral, leaving it white, desolate, and somewhat depressing.
An endangered hawksbill sea turtle surfaces for a quick breath
The following day, we took part in a coral farming project that aims to grow corals and replenish these damaged areas of the island’s reefs. As part of the project, we started the day collecting small fragments of coral from a healthy section of the reef, later transporting them to the ‘farm’. A lot like an underwater garden, the coral farm consists of submerged ‘tables’ that the coral fragments we’d collected were attached to. This attachment process was a bit harder than I had anticipated, and the strong currents tossed me about as I tried repeatedly to get the job done. Eventually, I got the small coral pieces firmly anchored down and hoped they would all flourish!
These coral ‘farms’ form part of vital efforts to save the remaining reefs
On a day off from active conservation, we were given a guided tour of the tiny rocky wildlife sanctuary of Ile aux Aigrettes. Resident scientists offered a series of talks and guided walks around the islet and introduced us to some of its more endangered inhabitants, including the pink pigeon which has been brought back from the brink of extinction, along with the Mauritian kestrel and the echo parakeet (Eretmochelys imbricata). We also saw the rare olive white-eyes (Zosterops chloronothos), the brightly coloured Mauritian fody (Foudia rubra), and numerous startlingly vibrant Mauritian ornate day geckos (Phelsuma ornata) as well as the island’s extensive nursery for indigenous and native plants. The passion of the scientists here was contagious, and we left at the end of the day with a new appreciation of the dedication that goes into conservation, habitat restoration and the saving of species.
Everywhere you look, Mauritius is bursting with colour, like this blue-tailed day gecko (Phelsuma cepediana).
It was time to move on and see what is being done for conservation elsewhere on the island. After a week of ‘work’ at Kestrel Valley, I was invited to Vallée de Ferney to see their impressive plant and animal restoration project. With less than 2% of the indigenous forest ecosystems of Mauritius remaining, Ferney is one of the last nature reserves on the island – a biodiversity sanctuary where some of the rarest plant and animal species on the island are found.
The valley is another old hunting concession that has been turned over in large part to conservation. There is a stunningly beautiful lodge here and, with only four rooms, you have the feeling of having the place to yourself. Sitting by the pool that night, with our feet dangling in the water, we felt like we were in a lost valley, nestled between the mountains with fruit bats flying overhead as the stars twinkled in the night sky.
Chamarel Waterfall – few people realize that these precious ecosystems exist in Mauritius
A highway was scheduled to be constructed through Vallée de Ferney. Fortunately, before work could commence, surveys of the area led to the discovery of several plant species that were either new to science or were thought to have been extinct. Most exciting of all was the discovery of a handful of specimens of the critically endangered Bois Clou tree (Eugenia bojeri). Local protests saw the highway project scrapped, and in 2006, a 200-hectare nature reserve was established in partnership with Mauritian Wildlife Foundation (MWF) to conserve and restore the indigenous forest in the valley.
The Ferney team have already achieved some remarkable progress. Invasive plants have been removed by hand from 10 hectares of the forest so far, and over 30,000 endemic trees have already been planted, with plans to plant an additional 4,000 indigenous trees in the valley by the end of the year. Another rare tree, Le Manglier Vert (also known as the “manglier rouge” – Sideroxylon puberulum), was also discovered to be growing in the valley and is now under protection. There is also a nursery with a stock of over 11,000 native plants, many of which are rare or critically endangered.
Plants are not the only focus at Ferney. 150 endemic birds have been released into the valley, including endangered echo parakeets, pink pigeons (Nesoenas mayeri – which have bred there successfully) and Mascarene paradise flycatchers (Terpsiphone bourbonnensis). There are also 14 or 15 pairs of Mauritian kestrels in the reserve.
Clockwise from the top left: an Aldabra giant tortoise (Aldabrachelys gigantea – introduced from the Seychelles), a brightly coloured Mauritian fody, a Mauritius fruit bat (also known as a Mauritian flying fox) and a pink pigeon.
Of course, no trip to Mauritius would be complete without a trip to the beach. But even on a beach holiday, more and more travellers are now looking for a commitment to sustainable development and responsible tourism from their intended destination. Lagoon Attitude, a 182-roomed hotel that overlooks one of the largest lagoons in Mauritius on the northern side of the island, has stepped up to answer these needs. Without doing away with all the glamour of a tropical beachside resort, Lagoon Attitude has introduced a swathe of innovations to keep even the most eco-minded guest happy.
The crystal clear waters of Mauritius
In removing all single-use plastics from the resort, the hotel estimates they have eliminated 690,000 items of plastic litter per annum. The introduction of eco-workshops in upcycling ocean waste and a ‘blue net bag’ collection programme encourages guests to collect litter from the ocean. Switching the cleaning products used on their boats to eco-friendly products prevents further reef degradation, as does providing guests with 100% natural, non-polluting, and locally made sunscreen. By providing reusable water bottles, solar water heating and much more, the hotel has embraced the idea of green tourism. Plans are underway to roll out these changes in all eight other hotels in the Attitude group, making an enormous positive impact on the local environment.
Lagoon Attitude offers tourists the chance to enjoy paradise with a clear conscience
In addition, a Marine Discovery Centre within the hotel grounds houses a marine laboratory employing two full-time scientists who work with a consultant marine biologist. The lab is a base for marine research, coral reef monitoring, a coastal mangrove rehabilitation project. It regularly hosts school visits so that local children can learn about and appreciate how unique their island is.
The United Nations General Assembly declared the 2011 – 2020 the Decade of Biodiversity, aiming to promote the benefits of biodiversity, conservation, sustainability, and a vision of living in harmony with nature. As the decade draws to a close, it is initiatives like the eco-focused places I visited in Mauritius, that demonstrate that you can enjoy paradise without destroying it.
Blue Bay Marine Park in the southeast corner of Mauritius.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR, SARAH KINGDOM
Travel writer, mountain guide and mother, Sarah Kingdom was born and brought up in Sydney, Australia. Coming to Africa at 21, she fell in love with the continent and stayed. Sarah guides on Kilimanjaro several times a year, and has lost count of how many times she has stood on the roof of Africa. She has climbed and guided throughout the Himalayas and now spends most of her time visiting remote places in Africa. When she is not travelling, she runs a cattle ranch in Zambia with her husband.
Counting elephants is not easy. It takes experience, skill and funding. The good news: elephants are thriving in Namibia. Gail Thomson, veteran journalist and conservationist, delves into the incredibly complex process of elephant censuses.
Based on interviews with Kenneth /Uiseb, Debbie Gibson and Colin Craig
The African savannah elephant was recently classified as Endangered[1] by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), citing a decline throughout Africa of 60% over the past 50 years. Yet in Namibia elephant numbers are increasing and their range is expanding; a testament to sound long-term conservation policies. But how do we know that they are increasing? How do you assess the status of an animal that ranges over thousands of square kilometres with any degree of confidence? I spoke to the experts to find out.
The small four-seater Cessna aircraft is full. The pilot is flying slowly in a dead straight line, maintaining an altitude of 300 feet above ground level. Behind him, two passengers stare intently out the windows; searching the ground between two black rods fixed to the plane’s wing struts. One passenger suddenly calls out: “left, elephant bulls, two,” followed shortly by the other: “right, elephant cows, ten in, five out.” The fourth person in the plane, sitting next to the pilot, decodes their cryptic messages and jots them down on a datasheet.
Once they have reached the end of this straight line (known as a transect) on their GPS, the pilot will turn the plane around, find the next parallel transect line and fly back along it – keeping flying speed and height as constant as possible. They keep it up until they have flown a planned number of transects for the morning, at which point they will return to base for a much-deserved rest. Every day for the next few weeks they will fly many transects each morning and afternoon until they have covered the target landscape sufficiently to estimate that population of elephants.
How do aerial surveys for elephants work?
There is a lot more to aerial surveys than flying around looking for big grey shapes in the savannah. Debbie Gibson, a key team member who plans and co-supervises aerial surveys in Namibia explains, “Before we even start flying, we use our knowledge of the area to identify and map strata that are sub-blocks of the whole area that we can cover in a day or two.” Strata in areas with higher elephant densities are covered with more tightly spaced transects (e.g. 2.5 km apart) than those with lower elephant densities (e.g. 5 km apart). This increases precision in areas with high densities without introducing bias into the overall count.
The strata (top map) are blocks of the overall area that can be covered in a reasonable length of time. Transects (bottom map) are then mapped onto the strata according to the expected elephant densities in each of them – the density of transects matches the expected density of elephants in each stratum. Source: (Gibson & Craig 2019a.)
“Once we get out to the survey area, we run several calibration flights over the airstrip to measure exactly how much of the ground we are seeing from the air,” Debbie continues, “and to ensure that the observers are searching similar widths of ground on either side of the plane using the rods fixed to the wing struts as guidelines.” Besides allowing for calculations of the ground covered, these rods set realistic limits for searching. Although observers can see all the way to the horizon from an airplane, they are highly unlikely to see all of the elephants in that huge, undefined area. Instead, they focus their search on the known area covered between the rods, where they are less likely to miss any distinctive grey shapes.
This small family herd of elephants are counted as “in” the sample area between the black rods.
If the sharp-eyed observers happen to see elephants outside of the defined search area, then they are recorded as “out” elephants – i.e. beyond the measured sample area. These sightings are mapped and their numbers reported, but only the “in” elephants are used in the statistical analyses to generate a population estimate. Surveys are also done in the dry season when the vegetation is less dense and visibility is high to reduce the chances of missing elephants.
Debbie further emphasises the importance of highly experienced observers – “Our regular observers, Ngoni Chitemamuswe and Fungai Muroki, have counted elephants and other wildlife on aerial surveys since the 1990s and have worked with us in Namibia, Malawi, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Finding such experienced, reliable observers can be difficult for those doing aerial surveys for the first time in other countries.”
Biologists and conservation managers are rarely able to count all of the animals in their area of interest with 100% accuracy, so the more realistic option is to count the animals in a sample of the area and use statistical methods to estimate population size for the whole area. These estimates also give us an idea of how precise they are, which is expressed as our “confidence” in the estimate. In simplified terms, an estimate of 20,000 ± 4,000, for example, tells us that we are 95% confident that the actual number lies between 16,000 and 24,000.
Even with all the detailed planning, experience and analyses in the world, one aerial survey is not particularly useful on its own. Scientific wildlife monitoring of all kinds (by road, air, or even remotely using camera traps) only becomes useful when surveys are repeated many times using the same or very similar methods. While trying to get extremely precise numbers of elephants ranging over huge areas in northern Namibia is nearly impossible, repeat surveys can be used to show a trend over time. Trends are especially important in conservation because they tell us if the population is healthy and growing, or under severe threat and declining.
Namibia’s Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism (MEFT) has conducted aerial transect surveys since 1979. The earliest surveys, however, were not as refined as they are today and important variables (e.g. height above ground level) were not kept constant. Colin Craig has been involved in standardising aerial surveys in Namibia since 1994, having learned these survey techniques while working for Zimbabwe National Parks (the techniques were originally developed in East Africa). “Although our equipment has improved and we have refined our survey design over the years,” he points out, “the surveys done in Etosha and the northeastern parts using the same methods since 1994 are all comparable. The MEFT, therefore, has a fairly good handle on the trends in elephant numbers over time for each of the major subpopulations in the country.”
Aerial survey techniques have thus been developed and refined specifically for counting elephants in Africa’s savannahs over several decades by many different scientists (it is far more difficult to count their forest cousins, which are now Critically Endangered[2]). Colin compiled the best practices generated from scientists’ accumulated experience in 2012[3] for the IUCN’s Monitoring of the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) project. The Great Elephant Census (GEC)[4] in 2014-15 used these techniques for the first standardised survey of elephants completed in multiple African nations at the same time[5].
Mr Chitemamuswe and Mr Muroki, two highly experienced observers, searching for elephants during an aerial survey.
Namibia and the Great Elephant Census (GEC)
This is where the story of counting elephants in Namibia becomes strangely controversial. Thinking that Namibia’s official estimates are too good to be true, some commentators have guessed that the number of elephants in the country is much lower than official estimates (e.g. “probably closer to 5,600[6]” – less than a quarter of the official estimate). These guesses are often accompanied with the accusation that Namibia refused to take part in the GEC because they wanted to inflate the elephant numbers for nefarious reasons[7].
In reality, Namibia’s aerial surveys were done at the same time as the GEC in other countries (in both 2014 and 2015) and were coordinated with the GEC’s Botswana survey of 2014 and Zambian survey of 2015. Most of the surveys in Namibia and the 18 countries that were part of the GEC were done using the transect sample method described here (sometimes local conditions favour other methods). Not only were the data collected the same way, but all of this information was sent to the centralised African Elephant Database[8] managed by the IUCN’s African Elephant Specialist Group[9]. A team of independent experts from this Specialist Group reviewed all of the results (including Namibia’s) and collated them for the 2016 African Elephant Status Report (publicly available here,[10] pp. 169-174 covers Namibia).
Since there is a huge variation among African countries in terms of the resources they devote to monitoring and conserving wildlife, the Status Report includes an objective assessment of the quality of the data produced and the status of elephants in each country. Having trawled through the raw data and examined the methods used by aerial survey teams through the years, the expert review panel concluded that for southern Africa: “There is reliable information available for Botswana, Namibia, Swaziland, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe.” And further: “In Namibia the elephant population has increased, notably in the north-east Kavango and Zambezi Regions.” The actual estimate given for the Namibian population in this 2016 report was 22,754 ± 4,305.
Elephant distribution in Namibia from the 2016 African Elephant Status Report (Thouless et al. 2016). Dark green indicates known distribution, light green is the possible distribution, hatched areas are data input zones (i.e. areas from which data were collected, mainly through aerial surveys) and X marks individual sightings outside of their known range.
Considering the above, why was Namibia not included in the GEC’s results, which were published separately from the Status Report? Kenneth /Uiseb, Deputy Director of Wildlife, Monitoring and Research at the MEFT, shed some light on this matter. “Vulcan Inc. [established by Microsoft billionaire Paul Allen] funded the GEC[11] aerial surveys in the other countries on condition that their raw data would be provided to the GEC team for analysis.” He explains further, “but we had our own budget within the MEFT for the 2014-15 surveys, and we trusted our usual team of surveyors to maintain high standards for collecting the data and doing the analyses.”
For many countries that do not have the resources to fund their own surveys, Vulcan’s support was gratefully received and the conditions were accepted. Yet as Mr /Uiseb indicates: “We had no need for external funding and consequently saw no reason to send our raw data to the GEC team for analyses that we could do ourselves. As a member of the IUCN, however, we willingly contributed our data to the African Elephant Database.” Interestingly, the Database itself received support from Vulcan at the time that the 2016 Status Report was published.
The latest elephant numbers and trends
The MEFT commissioned Colin and Debbie to do another aerial survey in the northeastern part of the country in 2019 to update the information on the elephant population in this crucial area. They also completed a survey in the northwest during 2016[12] to update the numbers for this relatively small but important elephant population. Elephant numbers for Etosha National Park are still based on a 2015 survey (published in the Status Report), but long-term trends reveal that this is the slowest-growing population in the country.
The 2019 survey produced two reports covering the western and eastern sections of the northeast, respectively. The western section[13] covers Khaudum National Park, nearly all of Nyae Nyae Conservancy and some parts of other neighbouring communal conservancies (hereafter referred to as the Khaudum survey). The eastern section[14] covers the entire Zambezi Region, including the Bwabwata, Mudumu and Nkasa Rupara National Parks, the State Forest and 15 communal conservancies (hereafter the Zambezi survey).
These maps were produced from the Khaudum (top) and Zambezi (bottom) surveys in the dry season of 2019. Darker green colours indicate higher elephant densities. Source: Craig & Gibson (2019a and 2019b)
The 2019 estimate for the Khaudum survey was 7,999 ± 3,028 and the estimate for Zambezi was 12,008 ± 2,598. The 2015 estimate from Etosha was 2,911 ± 697, while the 2016 northwest estimate was 1,173 ± 681. If we assume that elephant numbers have not changed in these latter populations between 2015 and 2019 (it is more likely that they have grown slightly), we can conservatively estimate the whole Namibian elephant population at 24,091 ± 4,107 in 2019. The claims that there are only 5,600 elephants in the whole country are easily debunked from the observers’ datasheets produced during these surveys. If one includes elephant sightings both “in” and “out” of the sample area, the observers actually saw 10,051 elephants in just a fraction of the total area for which the national estimate was generated.
Since the survey methods were standardised in 1994, the Khaudum survey has been completed six times, Etosha seven times and Zambezi nine times using the transect sample counts described here. Repeat surveys are the gold standard for wildlife monitoring and provide the all-important population trends, which tell us how successful (or not) local conservation efforts have been.
Counting elephants in the northwest is far more challenging than in the northeast, as there are relatively few elephants in a huge area and the mountainous terrain makes flying at a set level above the ground all but impossible. Consequently, counting methods have changed much more in this region than the others, as scientists are still refining their methods to balance cost-effectiveness with accuracy. The most recent count in 2016 employed three different methods that were allocated to different parts of the region based on the ruggedness of the terrain and knowledge of the elephant population. Even though this is the best count thus far for the northwest, it is still the least precise estimate of all the subpopulations. This population makes up only about 4% of Namibia’s elephants, however, so the lack of precision here has little influence on the national total.
Aerial surveys were completed in the four key elephant areas in 1995, 1998, 2004-05, 2011 and 2015-16, thus providing nationwide estimates for each of these points in time. When these estimates are plotted on a graph, we find that the overall trend for the Namibian elephant population during 1995-2016 is increasing. The slope of the trendline that runs through the estimates is then used to calculate an annual growth rate of 5.36%. This is biologically realistic, as elephant population growth rates can be as high as 7% under ideal conditions[15] that are rarely met by free-ranging elephants.
The elephant estimates for each of the nationwide surveys are represented by black dots with the confidence interval shown as lines extending above and below each dot. The black line gives the “best fit” for the data, from which we calculate the rate of increase over time. The red lines show the likely limits within which the true population lies at any time (Source: Draft Elephant Management Plan, MEFT 2020).
Under-counting elephants and transboundary movements
The national elephant estimate of about 24,000 was calculated only for those populations that have been surveyed repeatedly from the air and is therefore likely to be an underestimate. Mr /Uiseb clarifies: “Based on farmer reports[16] to us of conflict with elephants, we know that elephants are expanding their range in Namibia; they are moving into areas that have not been regularly surveyed. National population numbers also exclude elephants in private game reserves.”
Another concern that is frequently voiced is that elephants in the eastern Zambezi Region move freely between Botswana and Namibia. We therefore cannot be certain if the growth recorded for this large population is due to births or immigration, or an unknown combination of the two. Nonetheless, the aerial surveys are always done in the late dry season (September/October), which tells us that the part of the elephant population that usually spends the dry season in Namibia is increasing. Doing surveys in different seasons would only show short-term elephant movements and tell us little or nothing about long-term population health (reduced visibility in the wet season would also introduce counting errors).
Under high poaching pressure, one would expect the elephants to spend less time in Namibia and those that do come over would experience high levels of mortality, which would together result in decreasing numbers. In terms of Namibian elephant conservation efforts, which are especially focused on reducing poaching in this part of the country, the increasing elephant population is good news. This is confirmed by recent poaching statistics, which show that only 11 elephants were killed illegally in 2020[17], down from a high of 78 in 2014.
Elephant movements recorded using satellite collars on individuals captured in Namibia. Blue dots are GPS points taken in the wet season, red dots in the dry season; the arrows indicate key movement patterns. While there is occasional transboundary movement from Khaudum in the west, the main movements are from the Zambezi population into other KAZA countries (especially Botswana). Source: MEFT (2020) data from WWF-Namibia.
Since conservation policies differ from one country to another, it is important to find out how elephants are faring in each country that contributes to the Kavango-Zambezi (KAZA) Trans-frontier Conservation Area. Nevertheless, a multi-country aerial survey of elephants in KAZA with several experienced survey teams flying simultaneously in their respective countries is high on every elephant conservationist’s wish list.
Conclusion
Elephants are highly valued within African cultures and economies, perform irreplaceable ecological functions, and are loved and revered around the world. Monitoring them to inform conservation action is therefore a weighty responsibility that the Namibian government takes extremely seriously. This is why they commission professional teams of dedicated people who plan meticulously, search carefully for thousands of hours from cramped little aircraft, and finally analyse and report their results with careful attention to detail. This work is an important contribution to our knowledge of elephants, and Namibia’s successful conservation efforts for this endangered species are an example for the rest of the world.
The forests of West and Central Africa are vibrant, impenetrable worlds of their own: breathing ecosystems bursting with life at every turn yet defined by a pervasive sense of mystery. Enfolded by towering trunks, creeping vines and lush ferns, the forests’ enigmatic creatures flutter through the canopies and wander ancient paths in an increasingly dangerous world at the mercy of human impact. Their largest residents, African forest elephants, are close to the brink of disappearing entirely.
As of March 2021, the forest elephant is officially listed as ‘Critically Endangered’ by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
The world’s smallest elephant is elusive and poorly understood while centuries of persecution have made them understandably mistrustful of humans. Our belated recognition of their species status and desperate plight has left scientists and conservationists scrabbling in a race against time to learn more about these grey forest ghosts.
Quick introduction
The African forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis) is one of two African elephant species, mainly confined to West and Central Africa’s forests from Cameroon to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Roughly 72% of the remaining populations are found in Gabon and the Republic of the Congo. Forest elephants are smaller than their savanna cousins (Loxodonta africana – also referred to as the African bush elephant) cousins. Forest bulls rarely exceed three metres at the shoulder and seldom weigh more than three tonnes. (This compared to a big savanna elephant which may reach close to four metres and weigh over six tonnes.)
Forest elephants consume an enormous variety of plants and are recognised as essential seed-dispersers in forest ecosystems. Scientists have labelled them “megagardeners” of the forests. Their movements seem to be guided by the ripening of fruits, which occurs at different times in different parts of the forest. They seek out minerals to supplement their diets and are attracted in large numbers to the salty waters of the forest baïs. As a result, much of what we know about forest elephant behaviour comes from observations at these large forest clearings.
For now, our understanding of forest elephants is primarily extrapolated from the extensive behavioural research of savanna elephants, though scientists are now more focused on learning about forest elephant peculiarities. By all accounts, their social structure is similar to that of savanna elephants, with the females living in small family herds, which display “fission-fusion” patterns of behaviour. (That is, they are not territorial and will form temporary associations with other herds or individuals for a while.)
The differences (a summary)
The ears of forest elephants are more oval than those of the savanna variety (hence the specific name cyclotis). The tusks are most distinctive, however, growing relatively straight and usually pointing straight down rather than out. The differences are subtle to the inexpert eye and manifest more as a sense of “something different” when images of the two species are viewed side-by-side. A quick way to distinguish between the two is to count the number of toenails: forest elephants have five on their front feet and four on the hind feet, while savanna elephants only have four on the front feet (occasionally five) and three on the back foot. This method is, of course, contingent on being able to see the feet.
One central behavioural and physiological difference is the breeding age and breeding rate. Savanna elephants usually start breeding at around 12 years old and, under optimum conditions, will have a calf roughly every 3-4 years. In contrast, forest elephants only have their first calves at an average age of 23 and have a birthing interval of up to six years. The estimated population doubling time is roughly triple that of savanna elephants. This intensely slow population growth rate means that it would take approximately a century to recover to their pre-2002 numbers (without continued human impact).
Left: Forest elephant, Right: Savanna elephant
Disappearing ghosts
This is a distressing thought, given our current understanding of how forest elephant numbers have declined over the last few decades. There are, at present, no reliable estimates of the overall number of forest elephants throughout their range. Researchers believe that their numbers have crashed by over 86% in the past 31 years. One study revealed that populations had declined by 62% in just nine years, between 2002 and 2011. Before then, centuries of massacres to supply the ivory trade would have resulted in the demise of untold numbers.
In recent years, much of the damage has been caused by a significant rise in poaching, often fuelled by civil unrest in certain countries. According to the IUCN, this remains the single greatest threat to forest elephants. Naturally, most of the poaching is motivated by the ivory trade, and there is a preference in specific markets for forest elephant ivory due to its higher density than that of savanna elephants. In addition, the bushmeat trade likely includes sizeable volumes of elephant meat.
Habitat loss has also been labelled a “silent killer” of forest elephants. The direct loss and fragmentation of their remaining habitats to agriculture, roads and fences are projected to increase in the coming years. Recent research also indicates that climate change may be having unforeseen effects on the physical health of the elephants.
Considering precipitous population declines and irreversible habitat loss, the IUCN’s first official assessment of African forest elephants concluded that they are now critically endangered. (The IUCN also announced the change in the savanna elephant’s conservation status from vulnerable to endangered.)
The third elephant
Given their precarious position, it seems almost bizarre that IUCN recognition of the forest elephant’s status as a separate species took so long. Especially given that genetic scientists had reached that conclusion as early as 2001. Not only are there two different species of African elephant, say recent studies, but they likely diverged between two and five million years ago (depending on the study). This would have occurred around the same time as Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and woolly mammoths began to diverge. Some researchers argue that the two elephant species may be further removed from each other than lions and tigers and that the split goes back as far as the divergence of humans and chimpanzees.
However, the idea that the forest elephant is not a subspecies of the savanna elephant was far from universally accepted or straightforward, not least because there are known hybrids. Tracing any animal’s evolutionary process through existing genetics is no small task. Hybridisation and gene flow between diverging species are common complications. (Classifications of the African golden wolf and domestic cats/wild cats have faced similar challenges). The matter was finally concluded through a series of genetic studies over the last decade and a decisive report on the limited extent of hybridisation.
The elephant in the room
So, what practical impact, if any, does the forest elephant’s new-found IUCN status have? Especially given that most ground-level research and conservation efforts were essentially treating this fact as a given already? The short-term answer is probably that little will change, apart from temporarily catapulting forest elephants onto media pages across the globe. It also begs the question of how many smaller, less iconic species we lose before they are even recognised as separate species.
However, far from being irrelevant, the forest elephant classification is one of the most high-profile examples of how science, international law, and politics all play a role in the conservation of a species. The classification should allow for more nuanced conservation policies, particularly at an international level, and a complete estimate of remaining population numbers is also likely to be forthcoming. Moreover, it changes how savanna elephant populations are measured since forest elephants were included in past counts and probably accounted for around a quarter of previous estimates.
Given that the IUCN informs CITES’ decision-making (which governs international trade in animals), a distinction between the two species should see increased restrictions to make it harder to launder illegal ivory on the legal market.
Hope for the future?
Most importantly, conservationists hope that this new classification will aid in efforts to protect African forest elephants – long overdue though it may be. It is a frightening thought that upon the official recognition of a new elephant species in 2021, it was immediately classified as critically endangered.
Fortunately, there are protected areas where forest elephant populations are stable, if not growing. Though our acknowledgement of their predicament has probably come too late to ever rectify the damage entirely, perhaps their new ‘Critically Endangered’ label will serve to galvanise the international community into action. These magnificent and unique elephants have paid the price for human greed and conflict, and their value has been undermined by the grindingly slow bureaucracy of international conservation politics. If nothing else, this should serve as a very steep learning curve for the future.
Last week: Our 2020 Photographer of the Year winners on safari in the Greater Kruger. A great time was had by all!
CEO NOTE: 09 April 2021
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I spent much of last week with a talented and wacky group of photographers in the Greater Kruger area. Our 2020 Photographer of the Year WINNERS and their plus-ones finally got to enjoy the Covid-delayed safari prize – with my soulmate and me along for the ride. Watching them work their cameras was an education in itself, and the fantastic wildlife encounters and fun-filled moments made for an epic safari :-). More later, when we publish a portfolio of their awesome images.
Our video below is really worth watching – is this plan to mine the Okavango region just another hyped-up ‘pump-and-dump’ investor SCAM? Time will tell. Another issue to watch is the threat to open-cast mine the scenically stunning and sensitive Selati Game Reserve. Read this and weep.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
The biological travesty that is the Lion King (yes, I know it’s a good story) has created a world of pain for safari guides. Before actual animal behaviour can be discussed, the hapless guide must dissuade his guests of notions like East African dwelling suricates and birds that clean crocodile’s teeth. Let’s not start on the implications of incest that came with Nala and Simba’s nuptials. Possibly the most bizarre addition to the film was Rafiki – a mandrill who had apparently defied science in innumerable ways by coming out of the forests of Gabon to preside over the spiritual well-being of an East African lion pride and its subjects. In our first story below, we set the record straight regarding the fascinating mandrill – a primate who has achieved rudimentary tool use but not discernable contact with the spirit world.
The second story below is not quite so cheerful. It is an op-ed on the Botswanan government’s recent decision to grant 287 licenses to hunt elephants. Part of the reasoning is to mitigate human-elephant conflict, which does not seem logical. We’d be interested to know what you think.
Finally, as the week draws to a close, your escape into the wilderness (albeit digitally) in the 13th week of our Photographer of the Year. Sit back, turn on some tunes and enjoy a brief respite from work – also let it inspire your next trip to the wild! There are only two months left to win that 10 000 USD and luxury safari to Botswana. Here’s how to enter.
Story 1 https://africageographic.com/stories/mandrill/
MAKEUP MONKEY
The mandrill is a colourful, tool-using, socially complex monkey that lives in groups called hordes in the forests of western Central Africa
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
One relatively inauspicious day in May 2005, the alpha male mandrill at the “Monkey Islands” exhibit in the Chester Zoo in England stunned the researchers who had been filming his movements for a behavioural study. JC, a 12-year-old Czech-native (or at least, born at Usti Zoo in the Czech Republic), was observed breaking twigs, bark, sticks and wood chips and then using the splinters to clean his toenails. Unbeknownst to him, his primate pedicure was to make headlines the world over: JC had just demonstrated the necessary cognitive ability to create and manipulate a tool for a specific purpose.
Thus, the mandrill joined the elite ranks of non-human primates known to use tools alongside chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, and a couple of other monkey species. JC’s pursuit of good hygiene proved that the world’s largest monkey species is more than just a pretty face (in a somewhat flamboyant outfit).
A male displaying his colourful snout
Introduction
The mandrill (Mandrillus sphinx) is a large, almost tailless monkey confined to the tropical rainforests of southern Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, and the Republic of the Congo. Their morphology is superficially similar to that of baboons, so both mandrill and drills (Mandrillus leucophaeus) were once considered to be part of the Papio genus. They have since been reclassified as the only two species belonging to the Mandrillus genus, and researchers have confirmed that they are more closely related to the much smaller mangabey species.
Chacma baboons and mandrills are similar in size – the chacma baboon is fractionally taller and longer, but mandrills are heavier, more compact, and muscular. Mandrills display considerable sexual dimorphism, with the males being almost triple the mass of the females. The ferocious-looking males weigh an average of 32.3kg, with some massive individuals recorded at over 54kg. Like baboons, the mature males sport enormous canines of around 6cm (longer than those of a leopard). These they use to intimidate aspiring rivals and deter potential predators.
Mandrills are omnivorous and feed on over a hundred different plant species, with a particular preference for fruits where available. They also consume various invertebrates, eggs, birds, and reptiles and are known to hunt small antelope and rodents. They spend most of their days foraging on the ground but are equally comfortable in forest canopies, leaping from tree to tree with an agility that defies their considerable bulk.
A female with curious youngster
Multicoloured monkeys
Not only are the males larger than the females, but they are also more lavishly adorned in a spectrum of vivid colours. A strip of crimson runs down the middle of their elongated muzzles and extends over their lips, flanked by a pair of electric blue ridges. A bright yellow goatee spreads down across their chests and up over their shoulders as they mature, blending with tufts of white into an impressive mane. One would think that this alone would be sufficiently eye-catching, but both ends of the male mandrill are equally flashy. Their rainbow rumps are coloured red, pink, blue and purple in what has to be one of the least subtle examples of sexual signalling in the animal kingdom.
Such gaudy displays of colour, while prevalent in many bird species, are uncommon in mammals. Primates are one exception to this rule, and many different monkey species have colourful genitals. However, the mandrills’ colouration is so over-the-top that even Charles Darwin noted that “no other member in the whole class of mammals is coloured in so extraordinary a manner.”
A male mandrill’s ensemble is directly related to his testosterone levels and dominance within a strict social hierarchy. If a male successfully challenges an alpha, his testosterone levels will rise, and the red colours will become more vibrant. His genitals will increase in size, and a gland on the sternum will secrete an odour designed to tempt females. These dominate males are known as “fatted” males. Conversely, a fall from grace will mean the opposite for an unfortunate male as he gradually becomes “nonfatted” once again.
Colourful on both ends
Scintillating sociability
One theory behind the males’ excessive colouration is that it evolved to compensate for exceptionally high competition between males – essentially a method of conflict avoidance in the gloomy rainforest habitat. A group of mandrills is referred to as a ‘horde’ – a large and stable troop consisting of females, offspring, and young males. Research from Lopé National Park in Gabon calculated an average horde size of 620 individuals, with some hordes numbering up to 845 mandrills. One group of researchers counted 1,300 mandrills in one group, making it the single largest non-human primate aggregation ever recorded.
Mandrills are usually found in challenging habitats for bipedal researchers. This, combined with their natural shyness, has made it difficult for scientists to observe mandrill behaviour in the wild consistently. As a result, surprisingly little is known about their social structure. Most monkey troops demonstrate a strict social hierarchy, even between females. Fascinatingly, mandrill experts have yet to discern a consistent pattern of leadership, though it is clear that they have dynamic social networks and that certain females are central to the cohesion of the horde.
The females remain in their natal groups throughout their lives, while the males disperse once they reach maturity at around six years of age. Rather than forming bachelor groups, the males tend to live somewhat solitary lives outside of the breeding season. From June to October, when the females are in oestrus, the males join the hordes and follow their own strict, linear hierarchy. DNA analysis of one horde indicated that the alpha males of hordes had sired 80-100% of the offspring over five years. Disputes between males are usually resolved through posturing and threat displays, but the rare fights between equally matched males are brutal and, occasionally, fatal.
As with other monkey species, grooming plays a vital role in reinforcing the bonds between horde members and winning favours from the alpha males. Both males and females are highly vocal, expressing themselves through various sounds from mighty roars to expressive grunts and screams. Naturally, the bright colouration also serves to emphasise body language cues and facial expressions. The famed “silent bared-teeth face” is just one of their many varied communication methods, with most researchers agreeing that despite appearances, this is not an aggressive body language cue.
Communication with ‘silent bared teeth’
Protected primates?
In the wild, leopards are the mandrill’s main predator, though the likelihood of predation decreases as individuals mature. A large male mandrill is more than a match for most leopards, and males exposed to models of leopards were observed to pace back and forth, baring their impressive teeth in a threat display. Birds of prey, notably crowned eagles, and snakes also pose a threat to incautious youngsters. Interestingly, when presented with a potential threat, these otherwise noisy primates seem to follow a silent cue and noiselessly melt away into the forest canopy.
Despite limited natural predators, the mandrills are listed as ‘Vulnerable’ on the IUCN Red List. While there are no current population estimates available, researchers believed that their numbers might have decreased by more than 30% over the past 24 years. This is partly due to wide-scale habitat destruction across most of their natural range but has been compounded by the more immediate threat of subsistence hunting. Mandrills, particularly large males, are a prime target in the bushmeat trade. They are a long-lived species (with a lifespan of over 30 years in captivity) and are slow to mature, so sustained hunting pressure has had a pronounced effect on their populations.
For the same reasons, the mandrill’s close cousin, the drill, is under even more pressure, and they are now one of the most threatened of all mainland Africa’s primate species. There are believed to be fewer than 4,000 left, scattered in fragmented populations in Nigeria, Cameroon, and Equatorial Guinea. Even though the mandrills and drills are listed under Appendix I of CITES and protected by national legislation across their range, these spectacular monkeys face an uncertain future.
Like gorillas, the mandrill’s best hope of survival lies in their tourism value. Fortunately, the largest populations of mandrills are still flourishing in Gabon’s protected forests. At present, there is only one habituated horde of wild mandrills in southern Gabon. There are plans in place to collar and habituate more hordes as part of a larger move towards improving ecotourism opportunities in Gabon. These last remaining sanctuaries offer eager tourists the best opportunities to meet with one of Africa’s most intelligent, colourful, and fascinating monkeys.
Conclusion
We still have much to learn about mandrills, and unravelling the complexities of their social lives promises to be a fascinating process. As intelligent primates living in enormous social groups, their individual relationships, kin bonds, and hierarchies must be dynamic and complicated. As JC and his clean(ish) toenails demonstrated, mandrills still have the capacity to surprise us and probably will for a long time to come.
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What’s in a name? Whenever we refer to ‘painted wolf’ in our stories for what many refer to as ‘wild dog’, we come under heavy artillery fire from a few members of our tribe – even experienced safari-goers and bushveld citizens. Of course, strictly speaking, Lycaon pictus is neither dog nor wolf. Our choice of ‘painted wolf’ is because the name itself is beautiful and conjures up a positive image – whereas for many people, ‘wild dog’ symbolises feral domestic dogs that rummage through city garbage dumps. Read more about this fascinating topic here.
However you refer to these totally fascinating creatures is up to you – so long as you respect them for what they are – apex predators.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
In our first story below, some science (albeit from a small sample) shows that relocating cats that come into conflict with human beings is not particularly successful. That said, you’ll be able to find studies that show relocations can be successful. The results are not necessarily conflicting but show how important it is to understand the myriad, nuanced factors that apply to each situation.
Our second story below delves into the fascinating lives of Africa’s 11 species most closely related to man’s best friend. Interestingly, no African canid has ever been domesticated. No doubt that there are some cretinous individuals who’d love to have a fennec fox peeping out of their handbags or a painted wolf jogging with them on the beach. Let’s all make sure that Africa’s wild canids remain just that – wild, forever.
This week’s gallery showcasing the 12th week of our Photographer of the Year is a delight for the senses. It’s a perfect way for those who dream of wild places to escape their urban domesticity for a little while. One of the ways to take yourself into the wilderness is to enter – you could win 10 000 USD and a six-day safari to Khwai in Botswana. Here’s how to take part.
Botswana has granted permission for 287 elephants to be hunted as it gears up for its first trophy elephant hunting season since the ban was controversially lifted two years ago.
With Covid-19 restrictions disrupting last year’s hunting season, 187 existing elephant licences have been tagged onto this year’s 100 licences. The licences were auctioned for up to US$43,000 each.
A variety of other species are also allowed to be shot between April and September, including leopard.
In the face of a global outcry, president Mokgweetsi Masisi reopened trophy hunting in 2019 after former Botswanan president, Ian Khama, banned it in 2014 to conserve the country’s wildlife. Masisi’s government cites that the sport provides a solution to growing human-elephant conflict and provides income for local communities.
“Human-driven habitat loss is fast becoming the ‘silent killer’, almost as big a threat as poaching is to elephants,” says Adrienne West of Political Animal Lobby (PAL). “We are losing Africa’s elephants at a rapid rate, and it is outrageous that one of their most important range states would choose to put their lives up for sale.”
Conservationists and ecological experts dispute hunting as an effective measure against human-wildlife conflict.
“Shooting these elephants will do nothing to reduce the incidence of crop-raiding in farming areas, as most of the killing would take place in trophy hunting blocks that are some distance away,” says Dr Keith Lindsay of the Amboseli Trust for Elephants.
“In fact, shooting elephants could increase tensions between farmers and elephants – they can communicate over many kilometres, and when elephants are killed in one area, the alarm and disturbance would be felt some distance away.”
Elephants are a keystone species, and scientists say there is no ecological reason to reduce their numbers by killing them as they play an important role in ecosystem health and diversity.
Over the past decade, Africa has lost more than 30% of its elephants to ongoing ivory poaching, which is having devasting effects on populations across the continent.
Figures on the CITES international trade database reveal that Botswana’s trophy hunting ban of seven years saved more than 2,000 elephants and 140 leopards from being shot.
Botswana holds the world’s largest population of approximately 130 000 elephants, which share transboundary migrations routes with neighbouring countries, including Namibia and Zimbabwe. During the hunting ban, reports of increased numbers in Botswana suggested that migrating elephants sought refuge in the safety of the then hunt-free country.
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
Over four years, Kalahari Research and Conservation has monitored the fates of 13 lions known to have killed livestock in rural Botswana. The lions were translocated into protected areas by the Botswana Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) as part of a management strategy to reduce human-lion conflict. A short communication recently published in the African Journal of Wildlife Research analyses the success of this approach: of the 13 lions, ten died less than a year after release. This research adds to a growing body of evidence that suggests translocating lions does not often reduce conflict and the relocation of “problem” animals is not always a practical solution.
Kgalagadi lion
Human-wildlife conflict is undeniably one of the greatest threats facing the remaining wildlife across the planet, particularly in Africa. It is an intensely complicated issue, and conservationists and philanthropic organisations alike are eternally searching for ways to mitigate the collision between potentially dangerous animals and the people who live on the fringes of protected areas. One such potential solution is the relocation of the escaped wild animal to a place where it is less likely to come into contact with people or livestock. Unfortunately, while this may seem an ideal answer, such efforts seem to have limited success.
DWNP captured 13 lions from areas around the Central Kalahari Game Reserve and the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. Both parks are surrounded by Wildlife Management Areas and community lands used for livestock grazing. Before their release into new areas (120km or more from the original point of capture), researchers fitted the lions with satellite telemetry collars to monitor their movements.
Of the 13 lions, ten had died an average of 275 days after release. Six of these died outside of the protected areas, five killed by farmers. The cause of death of the other five was not established. The collars initially provided four locations per day, but scientists increased this to 13 in situations where the lion showed signs of returning to livestock areas. Six of the translocated lions continued to kill livestock and were recaptured and released back into the protected areas. One lion required a third translocation.
Study area and movement of 13 lions post translocation in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. The DOTS represent point of release. The DIAMONDS represent the last location. In the key, letters after numbers indicate multiple translocations of the same animal.Study area and movement of 4 lions post translocation in the Central Kalahari Game Reserve.
A more thorough analysis of the lions’ movements and activities after their release suggests that targeting groups of adult females could potentially yield higher success rates for translocating lions. However, this could prove problematic in practice and relocating only some pride members may reduce the chances of survival for both the translocated lionesses and those that remain behind. Furthermore, the soft release of predators (that is, the translocated animals are kept in an enclosure for a period of adjustment before release) could also increase the chances of success.
The researchers conclude that their results are in line with similar studies involving the relocation of “problem” animals such as lions, leopards, and cheetahs, mainly where the animals concerned are repeat livestock raiders. These translocations are associated with a high mortality rate and also come with high financial costs. Previous studies involving the relocation of cheetahs indicate a cost of between $5,000 and $7,330 per cheetah translocation. Though the cost was not analysed in this instance, it is likely to be significantly higher for lion translocation, given the substantial size difference between the two cats.
In addition to high mortalities and costs, there is a shortage of suitable areas for translocating lions. Ideally, lions should be translocated to areas with sufficient prey, low lion densities and low poaching levels. Yet, most of the protected areas within Southern Africa have already reached their carrying capacity (itself a testament to the success of conservation efforts in these areas). In addition, translocating lions ideally requires adequate information about the lion demographics within the intended release site, which are not always available to researchers and managing bodies. The effects on the established territories and demographics of the resident lions and the potential spread of the disease are also potential concerns.
Based on these results, the authors argue that translocation/relocation is not an effective solution for addressing human-wildlife conflict. Instead, they suggest that limited available resources should be used to improve livestock husbandry, strengthen livestock kraals, and promote livelihoods beyond farming. Seizing a problem animal and putting it somewhere else may seem convenient and immediate, but overwhelming evidence indicates that it is simply not a practical approach.
Today, 11 African canids, from excitable African painted wolves and shrewd jackals to the tiny fox species, hunt the continent’s desert, alpine grassland, savanna and woodland.
Some 40 million years ago, the first identifiable canid (dog) species, Prohesperocyon wilsoni, arose in what is now Texas. The fossilised remains were classified as Canid partially because of the absent, upper third molars and an enlarged bulla (a hollow structure in the ear). As canids diversified across North America, evolution favoured them with several cursorial adaptations including long limbs and lightweight bodies. They were built to run from the start – a family trait that served them well and has survived in most species. When cooling climates exposed the Bering land bridge, canid ancestors raced, trotted, and slunk across to spread through Asia, Europe and eventually Africa.
African painted wolf or wild dog
African painted wolf (Lycaon pictus)
The most well-known African canid, African painted wolves (wild dogs), are the third-largest extant canid in the world and the largest in Africa. They are coursing, cooperative hunters, with lithe, athletic bodies built for speed and stamina. Their frenetic hunting style exploits panic and confusion, creating fast-paced, exhilarating sightings for those fortunate enough to encounter a pack on the move.
African painted wolves live in tight-knit packs, and there is little so heart-warming as watching pack members affectionately reaffirming their bonds. In social situations, the intimate relationships are expressed in joyful greeting ceremonies and play sessions, accompanied by an endearing array of squeaks, yips and whines. The alpha pair typically monopolises breeding, while the rest of the pack devote their attentions to feeding and caring for both the mother and her pups during the denning period.
They are the only member of the Lycaon genus and the only canid to have four toes on the front foot (they lack a dewclaw). Human persecution, habitat loss and fragmentation, and disease have all played a role in devastating African painted wolf populations. They are currently listed as “Endangered” on the IUCN Red List. Further reading: What’s in a name?
Black-backed jackal
Black-backed and side-striped jackals (Canis mesomelas and Canis adustus)
It is bewildering that the average safari-goer dismisses jackals, intent rather on chasing down traditionally iconic creatures. This is unfortunate because jackals are attractive and adventurous little predators in their own right. Both species are consummate survivors with an indiscriminate palate and a boldness that belies their slender physiques. Jackals are opportunistic omnivores that can quickly and efficiently dispatch invertebrates, birds, reptiles, or even small antelope, but will also readily wolf down fallen fruit or seeds. Furthermore, any animal that dares to snatch the scraps out from beneath a hungry lion’s nose should be entitled to automatic respect.
Jackals are monogamous and territorial, though they may gather in larger numbers when there is a more substantial carcass. Grown offspring from the previous year’s litter occasionally stay and help their parents with subsequent pups – before dispersing. Interestingly, though the black-backed jackal is the smaller of the two, where black-backed and side-striped jackals do occur in the same place, the black-backed tends to dominate interactions.
African golden wolf (Canis lupaster)
The African golden wolf is notable mainly for the insights it has provided researchers of African canid evolution. Until recently, it was classified as an African variant of the golden jackal, which is widespread throughout the Middle East and Asia. Though scientists had long argued for a distinction between the two species, it was only in 2015 that a series of genetic studies revealed that the golden wolf is more closely related to grey wolves, Ethiopian wolves, and coyotes than it is to Asian golden jackals.
Slightly larger than the two jackal species, African golden wolves can catch and kill prey nearly three times their own mass. This is unusual however, and golden wolves tend to confine themselves to smaller prey species such as rodents, birds, lizards, snakes, and insects.
The wolf-like ancient Egyptian deities such as Anubis (the god of death) may have been based on African golden wolves.
Ethiopian or Simien wolf
Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis)
The Ethiopian wolf has the lamentable honour of being the most endangered carnivore in Africa. Fewer than 500 individuals remain, though this is an optimistic estimate. An IUCN estimate made in 2011 suggested a declining population of just 197 mature individuals.
They are endemic to the Ethiopian Highlands and found at altitudes over 3,000m above sea level, with more than half found in the Bale Mountains. The remaining five populations are isolated and fragmented; threatened by habitat degradation, conflict with humans and diseases carried by feral domestic dogs.
While most canid species are fairly generalist feeders, these beautiful, russet-coated Simien wolves are particularly adept at hunting Afroalpine rodents, especially big-headed mole-rats. The wolves wait patiently until a rodent emerges from its underground burrow before pouncing and digging frantically at the entrance. Interestingly, some wolves form temporary associations with geladas, and research indicates that their hunting efforts are more successful when they associate with these foraging troops. The wolves do not attempt to hunt the geladas, and the primates appear unconcerned by the canids’ presence.
While Ethiopian wolves tend to be solitary hunters, they live in small packs with an established hierarchy and one breeding female, who, when she dies, is usually replaced by one of her daughters.
Bat-eared fox
Bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis)
These little canids are the only insectivorous canid species in the world and, despite their common name, are not true foxes (genus Vulpes). Instead, they are the only Otocyon member, set apart by their unusual dentition adapted for demolishing invertebrates. They have up to 50 teeth (most canids have around 42), with reduced shearing surfaces on the molars and unique morphological adaptations which allow for extremely rapid chewing. The majority of their prey consists of harvester termites.
Bat-eared foxes are highly social and live in mated pairs or small family groups that forage, play and rest together. Somewhat unusually, the males take on the majority of caretaking activities where the young are concerned.
They are easily identified by their enormous ears (second only to the fennec fox below), and their scientific name refers specifically to this characteristic: “mega” meaning large and “otus” meaning ear.
Cape fox
Cape fox (Vulpes chama)
The only true fox species in sub-Saharan Africa, the delicate Cape fox prefers semi-arid and arid habitats. In true fox fashion, they are omnivores with a taste for everything from small mammals to seeds and fruit. Though common throughout most of Southern Africa, Cape foxes are nocturnal and seldom seen except in certain reserves where they have become habituated to people.
Though they appear to form monogamous bonds, Cape foxes prefer to forage alone, and the male and female usually only associate during the breeding season. When the kits are born in underground burrows, the male will care for and defend both the mother and young for the first few weeks.
Fennec fox (Fuchs zoo specimen)
Fennec fox (Vulpes zerda)
The fennec fox is the smallest canid species on the planet, weighing less than 2kg. They are perfectly adapted for the aridity and blistering temperatures of their Sahara Desert habitat. Most noticeably, their enormous ears, proportionately the largest of any canid species in the world, help dissipate heat – not unlike the ears of an elephant. Their tiny paws are covered in dense fur to protect against extreme heat and maintain traction on the desert sands. Fennec foxes’ most astonishing achievement is the ability to pant at 690 breaths per minute (over ten breaths per second!) without the expected adverse effects of hyperventilation.
They forage for insects, reptiles, small mammals and birds at night. Plants supplement the diet and aid with hydration.
The fennec fox’s Disney-like appearance has made it a popular exotic pet, even though it is ill-suited to a domestic existence away from its natural desert habitat. Though they are highly social, little is known about the intricacies of their societies, and most behavioural observations have been gleaned from captive individuals.
Pale fox
Pale fox (Vulpes pallida)
Pale foxes are the least studied of all African canids, and little is known about their day-to-day lives or individual numbers. They inhabit the Sahel region of the African continent (the transition zone between the Sahara Desert and savannahs further south). They are distinguished from the Rüppell’s fox (see below) by the black tip on their tails. Just a fraction smaller than the Cape fox, pale foxes are omnivorous and predominantly nocturnal.
Rüppell’s fox
Rüppell’s fox (Vulpes ruepelli)
The Rüppell’s fox is confined to the continent’s northernmost reaches and is distinguished by a white-tipped tail and black markings under the eye. Like all desert-dwelling foxes, they have enormous ears, though not quite to the same degree as the fennec fox. Though the species is widely distributed, there is little available information on Rüppell’s foxes.
Red fox (this is an individual photographed in Europe. In Africa, the red fox tends to be much smaller and greyer than in Europe.)
Red fox (Vulpes vulpes)
Typically associated with the countryside and alleys of European cities, few people realise that red foxes also occur in Africa’s northern fringes. This species is largest of the true foxes, though the southern grey desert subspecies is significantly smaller and less brightly coloured than its European counterparts. These animals are not as well adapted to truly arid areas as other desert foxes and tend to be more common around rivers and oases where there is better access to water.
Barking up the family tree
As the canid ancestors loped their way across Asia and into Africa, they faced competition from the two other hyper-carnivorous predator families: the Felidae (cats) and the Hyaenidae (hyenas). For all predators, the competitive landscape was changing as prey species evolved to run faster through increasingly open habitats. This evolutionary arms race was to shape all three families. The felids came to rely almost exclusively on stealth and ambush, while the dog-like hyenas (distinct from their bone-crunching relatives) all but disappeared (with one exception).
And the canids of Africa? They took on the various forms described above – most are lightweight and fleet of foot and all are bright-eyed, intelligent, and adaptable.
[Editorial note: Blanford’s fox (Vulpes cana) has been recorded on the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt. There is only one record of an individual collected west of the Suez Canal. While it is possible there are resident populations in the African portions of Egypt, this is unconfirmed, and we have thus omitted this animal from our list.]
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If social media is an accurate measure of how we communicate as a species, then humankind now ranks virtue-signalling above coalface reality, and we trash distinguished track-records and careers overnight if enough cloistered people feel offended.
In the African conservation context, what does this mean for Africa’s ground zero conservation workers, who don’t have the time or inclination to participate in this race to algorithmic dominance? And what about the Internet-bereft rural people who live amongst Africa’s wild animals and carry the cost of doing so – are they considered by the machine to be irrelevant? Just asking
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
For many people, bats are not creatures that conjure emotions of warmth, joy or affection. Let’s face it, few of us have willingly cuddled a bat or expressed the desire to do so. Those that have touched one have normally done so while flapping and screaming in an undignified manner while the terrified little chiropterid tried to untangle itself from hair, mosquito net or shirt. Well, cast those irrational fears aside as you read our first story below – a story of the world’s largest mammal migration in the gorgeous Kasanka National Park of Zambia.
Fairies, strictly speaking, are not of African origin. Yes, there are many other sprite-like or magical semi-humans littering African folklore – but no fairies. So it was always unlikely that a European hobgoblin would ultimately be found responsible for the strange, vegetation-free circles that litter parts of the Namib and Kalahari deserts. Well, science has come to the rescue – not fairies but Euphorbias. Our second story below is a fascinating explanation of the strange circles.
Finally, the 11th week of Our Photographer of the Year which carries a prize of 10 000 USD and a six-day safari to Khwai in Botswana. This week’s edition has everything from tiny, sparkling spiders to endless African landscapes – best enjoyed on a large screen with inspiring music in the background. Here’s how to enter.
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
It’s the end of November, and there are at least 8 million straw-coloured fruit bats (Eidolon helvum) filling the skies at eye level as we perch in our tree-top hide. The annual Kasanka bat migration – the planet’s largest mammal migration – has arrived. It is one of the natural world’s best-kept secrets, and for years this startling sight remained virtually unseen by African travel enthusiasts. It is an animal carnival to astound the senses.
At 3:45am I emerged from my room, rubbing sleep from my eyes, coming face to face with a tiny lesser bushbaby, who stared at me, unblinking with surprise, gripping the spindly branch of a small tree overhanging the deck in front of our room. I’m not sure who was more startled. The bushbaby was simply doing what bushbabies do in the early hours of the morning. I, on the other hand, instead of being tucked up in bed, was off to see millions of fruit bats returning to roost after a night of foraging.
Kasanka is 39 000ha – one of Zambia’s smaller national parks.
Between October and December each year, the bats descend into a tiny patch of evergreen swamp forest inside Kasanka National Park, northern Zambia. The African straw-coloured fruit bat is the second-largest fruit bat on the continent, can have a wingspan up to a metre, and the adults weigh up to 350g. They come to feast on the pod mahogany, musuku, mufinsa, milkwood1 and other wild fruit that appears with the first rains. Scientists are not entirely sure where these bats spend the rest of the year, though they do know that for some of them, it is somewhere deep in the rainforests of the Congo. The bats in Kasanka are at all different stages of the breeding cycle, with some mating, some in various stages of pregnancy, and some with young. It’s known from observation of individual colonies around Africa that these bats are seasonal and synchronise their breeding within the colony, so the diversity seen in Kasanka implies that they are coming from various areas.
Straw-coloured fruit bats resting in the midday heat.
Eidolon helvum are predominantly recorded around the edges of equatorial rainforests, but no-one knows as yet if large colonies live deep inside the rainforest. The ecological implications of 3,500 tons of flying mammals arriving over a three month period are profound. Researchers from the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behaviour, who visited in 2019, say they are yet to fully explain the sheer scale of the Kasanka bat migration. Researchers indicate that the number of bats is far greater than the sum of individuals in all known colonies within several thousand kilometres. So it would seem that Kasanka’s special significance to straw-coloured fruit bats is a question that science is not yet able to answer. Hopefully, ongoing satellite tracking research will yield further information on both their migration routes and the species as a whole. While this incredible spectacle is not typically at the top of the traditional safari traveller’s bucket list’, it is a unique experience.
We arrived at Kasanka the previous evening and almost immediately headed to one of the park’s bat hides. We held tightly to the 13m of wooden handrails that wrapped around the trunk supporting the wooden viewing platform. Thirteen metres is not really that high, but it certainly gave a spectacular perspective of the area. Three white-backed vultures perched in a nearby tree. Catching sight of them, my husband, who is not fond of heights, commented that they looked like they were waiting (in vain) for us to plunge to our deaths! A beer for him and a G&T for me restored our equilibrium. We waited and watched as the sun sank.
As the sky turned orange and lightning streaked the sky in the far distance, in a hectare of forest below, the tree silhouettes began to tremble – the bats hanging from their branches started to wake. The branches were so tightly packed with bats that some of them, unable to grasp the branches, were left clinging to their neighbours.
A sunset winged carnival.
As dusk fell, they fluttered off in search of wild fruits, their large, leathery wings filling the air with loud rustling and heavy flapping. As the flock took to the sky, the drooping branches of the bat forest lifted back into place. The bolder bats took to the air first, followed in fits and starts by the rest of the colony. Some headed out, then, appearing to change their minds, turned back, only to try again a few minutes later. The sky was soon filled with chatter as the bats darted in and out of the trees, in a cloud-like mass resembling a giant swarm of overgrown bees.
We waited in our treetop eyrie until it was almost too dark to see the ladder down. By then, the sky was empty; the bats had vanished. The sound of thunder drew closer as we felt our way back down the ladder and, by the light of torches, made our way back to the vehicle. Fat drops of rain began to fall as we drove back to camp.
When morning came, it was only me, the bush baby and my guide Ruston, who seemed to be awake. My husband snored contentedly from under his bed covers. After hot tea and biscuits, I climbed onto the back of the vehicle, wrapped myself snugly in a blanket, and we set off for the tree hide in the bat forest. It was still dark as we walked through the forest with torches in hand, the bats fluttering and feasting in the waterberries above our heads – last-minute snacks before sunrise. As day broke, the bats returned to roost. It was like watching a film of the previous night’s action in reverse but even more breathtaking. Vivid splashes of scarlet, tangerine and gold lit the sky, silhouetting the bats like prehistoric pterodactyls as they flocked, in droves, back to the colony.
They tumbled into the trees pushing, shoving and clambering noisily over one other to find a space to sleep during the day. The area became so overcrowded that I could hear the occasional snap of a branch and then squeaks as a few fruit-bloated Eidolon helvum plummeted, ungracefully, to the ground. Finally, one by one, they settled, and silence descended over the bat forest again. We headed back to camp for breakfast.
Returning to roost after a night out foraging for fruit.
Researchers have found that most of the females in the colony are either pregnant or nursing pups during their migration to Kasanka. The abundant fruit helps support the increased energy they require. They gorge themselves on seasonal fruit, one study finding that they eat up to twice their body weight in a night. By the time they depart Kasanka, the bats will have consumed over a billion fruits! All this provides them with the reserves needed for their long migrations across Africa. No wonder the branches strain and crack under their combined weight, and why, at the end of the bat season, the forest they leave behind looks rather dilapidated.
Even now, scientists don’t really know exactly where the participants in the Kasanka bat migration come from and where they go. At roughly 39 000ha, Kasanka is one of Zambia’s smallest national parks, yet it is home to the world’s largest mammal migration. A small park with a massive treasure.
Wasa Lodge, managed by the not-for-profit Kasanka Trust.
FUN FRUIT BAT FACTS
– The Kasanka bat migration plays a leading role in the regeneration of forests. The bats’ role as pollinators and seed dispersers is significant, and their ability to travel great distances helps them maintain genetic diversity and connect plant populations across fragmented landscapes.
– According to GPS tagging studies by the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior in Germany, straw-coloured fruit bats have the furthest migration routes of all mammals, including other bats, in Africa, travelling thousands of kilometres annually – a distance unheard of in any other fruit bat species.
– Each individual of this species has its own unique scent and call. This allows mothers to find their young in large colonies of millions
– Research by the Kasanka Trust has found that the bats fly on average 50 km from their roost every night to feed in the surrounding forests, covering an area of more than 500,000 hectares!
WHEN TO GO
The bats start arriving in Zambia’s Kasanka National Park towards the end of October. Their numbers steadily increase over the next few weeks. Mid-October to mid-December is the best time for the bats. By the end of December / beginning of January, the forest is bat free.
It’s not just the bats you will see at this time of the year. The rains bring green grass, bright flowers and plenty of migratory birds. Although Kasanka isn’t a place for the ‘Big Five’, you are almost guaranteed to see the rare and special sitatunga.
WHERE TO STAY
Wasa Lodge, located on the shores of a lovely lake, is the closest lodge accommodation for the Kasanka bat migration. There is also a seasonal fly camp, Kapabi, which is well situated. Kasanka also has several self-catering campsites.
Want to see the Kasanka bat migration? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
Across the deserts of Namibia and the Northern Cape in South Africa, certain areas are dotted with barren sand patches where nothing seems to grow. These peculiar ‘fairy circles’ have captured the imaginations of scientists and tourists with everything, from termites to UFOs, being mooted as potential causes. A new study from the University of Pretoria, South Africa and ITMO University in Russia indicates that dead Euphorbia plants are the culprits for the famous circles. Or, more accurately, the long-term effects of these toxic succulents on soil properties and chemistry.
Fairy circle marked by Theron (a) and remains of E. damarana (b) on Giribes Plain
The multidisciplinary study began six years ago with researchers investigating the impact of Euphorbia species on the circles’ soil properties. They examined the effects on soil chemistry, germination inhibition and antimicrobial activity on rhizosphere bacteria (which many plants need to ‘fix’ nitrogen in a usable form). The researchers then compared the spatial patterns of the fairy circles with the current growth patterns of Euphorbia species, including E. damarana, E. gummifera and even E. gregaria. All of these roundish succulents contain a highly poisonous, latex-like sap.
The scientists propose that the Euphorbia species colonised the sandy soils when climatic conditions were more favourable. Research indicates that Namibia has experienced periods of significant temperature increase over the past few centuries. In the last three decades, temperatures have increased roughly three times more than the global mean. These high temperatures and increasingly arid conditions would have seen the Euphorbias competing for access to water and nutrients, particularly in soils with a low water-holding capacity. As a result, many would have died.
E. damarana and FCs in the background and the dead plant remains in the front on the Giribes Plain
However, the researchers theorise that while the plants may have died off, their legacies remained deep within the soils. As the dead plants decomposed, the sticky, toxic latex would have soaked into the soils and changed its chemical properties, making it more hydrophobic (repelling water). Other compounds capable of inhibiting plant growth and microbial activity would have entered the soil, trapped around soil particles as the latex solidified. This is an example of allelopathy – where organisms produce biochemicals that inhibit the growth of other organisms.
Their theory was supported by soil analysis which revealed that soil from the fairy circles and soil taken from beneath decomposing Euphorbia plants had very similar phytochemistry (chemicals produced by plants.)
The idea that dead Euphorbias may be behind the formation of the ‘fairy circles’ has been around since the 1970s, when botanists observed the co-occurrence of the plants and fairy circles. Researchers marked dead and decaying E. damarana plants in 1978, and these circles were not covered by grasses when rechecked in 2016. By integrating rainfall, altitude and landcover into a sophisticated suitability model, the researchers in this study were also able to predict where fairy circles would be expected to occur. This model largely overlapped with the distribution of the three Euphorbia species and also resulted in the discovery of more fairy circles in the South African section of the Kalahari Desert.
Site suitability prediction map for fairy circle distribution
However, this ‘fairy circle’ explanation has proved contentious, and there are still several scientific theories as to their origins. Sand termites (Psammotermes allocerus) were previously shown to be present in 100% of newly formed fairy circles, leading researchers to theorise that they were responsible. A recent research paper proposed that the circles are natural vegetation patterns that arose due to competition between different grass species.
For a hypothesis on the cause and maintenance of one of nature’s most mysterious phenomena to be accepted, it would have to explain all of the most important properties of the ‘fairy circles’ themselves. These include the mostly circular shape, their unusually high densities, their size and their changing diameter at different latitudes. The new study proposes an explanation of all of these characteristics, particularly given the almost circular shapes of the Euphorbia species.
If this hypothesis is correct, it also means that there is an astounding historical ‘footprint’ of hundreds of thousands of succulent Euphorbias, stretching from Angola in the north to South Africa in the south. It also explains the life-expectancy of the ‘fairy circles’ themselves. As rainfall gradually washes away the hardened latex from the soil particles, the toxins break down and allow for the natural plant succession process.
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In this instance, I will leave most of the talking to my phenomenally capable colleague James. Just this: today some 20,075 sunrises ago, my mother gave birth to me. I don’t celebrate human dates, but I do worship the ground that my mom walks on. Peace out.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
I would suggest that before you delve into the meat of our main stories, you pour a cup of tea/ coffee/ malt whisky, don a pair of headphones and push play on our video of the week (scroll down). It’s an inspirational tribute to Namibia by some tremendously talented Namibians and will kindle your wanderlust for wilderness.
Our first story below is not quite as inspirational as the video. The Okavango has lost all its rhino in the past, and it looks like the ignominy of another local extinction is on the cards if the government doesn’t acknowledge the upsurge in poaching.
For our second story below, you might want to pour your second tea/ coffee/ malt whisky before marvelling at the magic of Laikipia – a spectacularly beautiful collection of conservancies in central Kenya. It must be one of the most progressive attempts to incorporate the needs of human beings and wildlife in one protected space; a mosaic of commercial farms, rangelands and wildlife conservancies with huge biodiversity and endless choices for travellers of every bent.
In our third story below, some extremely dedicated souls from Elephants Alive have developed a coding system for identifying individual elephants based on their ages, tusks and ear features. The system has some hugely important applications for elephant monitoring and management.
Finally, the tenth week of Our Photographer of the Year carries a prize of 10 000 USD and a six-day safari to Khwai in Botswana. It’s an eclectic collection of Africa’s exuberant life from desert to ocean. Here’s how to enter. If you’ve captured an image that makes you smile or ponder, send it in – it might just do the same for everyone else!
Story 2 https://africageographic.com/stories/laikipia/
SAFARI MECA
Laikipia in Kenya – a land of staggering beauty & biodiversity – a mosaic of wildlife conservancies, ranchlands & commercial farms
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
Laikipia – “It was not just the beauty and wildness of the landscape. It was not just the smells, intense of dust and elephant, of jasmine and moonflower, nor the incredible concert of birds singing with liquid voices in the golden afternoons. It was not just the profile of the hills and the short purple sunsets, nor the vivid colours of the hibiscus and of the sky and of the yellow grass, nor the emotions of a sudden rustle of leaves of a scared francolin while I was walking alone in the bush, nor the surprise of the leopard, still as a statue in the full moon.”
As Kuki Gallman so vividly describes in her iconic novel, I Dreamed of Africa, Laikipia is a land of staggering natural beauty and biodiversity, enriched by complex cultural strands of human history and influence. The plateau is a mosaic of wildlife conservancies, ranchlands, rangelands and commercial farms that bridge the gap between East Africa’s savannas to the south and the arid lands of the Horn of Africa to the north. Here, endangered species often roam alongside Boran cattle and camels across a conservation landscape unlike any other in Africa.
Game drives, conservation experiences, horse safaris and camel rides – just a few of the myriad wilderness activities on offer in Laikipia.
The basics
Laikipia (‘treeless plain’ in Maa) is one of Kenya’s 47 counties, covering an area of 9,500km2 (9.5 million hectares) and part of the much broader Ewaso ecosystem. The Ewaso Ng’iro River flows north-east through the county, fed by tributaries flowing off Mount Kenya’s glaciers. For the most part, the entire region is open to wildlife and fences are limited to the wetter southern areas where farming is more prevalent, and human-wildlife conflict is a common occurence.
The landscape is dominated by ancient gneisses, which form rocky outcrops and hills, while the western lava sheets bear testament to the tumultuous history of the Great Rift Valley. The Aberdare Mountains run along Laikipia’s southwestern boundary, while Mount Kenya’s shadow looms large to the southeast. Most of the county lies at altitudes over 1,500m, so, despite lying across the Equator, the climate is relatively cool and temperate, becoming increasingly dry towards the central and northern regions.
Laikipia is wild, magical, whimsical
A different kind of wild space
Apart from Mukogodo and Rumuruti Forest Reserves, none of Laikipia’s various wildlife areas has formal protected status (that is, none of them is a game reserve or national park). Instead, the guardianship of the wilderness is based on the Kenyan conservancy model. Here, the lines between wild spaces and humanity are blurred. Many of the properties involved in wildlife conservation and tourism combine these efforts with raising livestock. Several group ranches are run by community-owned companies, many of which have dedicated their energies to conserving vast swathes of land.
Scattered throughout Laikipia are wildlife conservancies supported by a thriving tourism industry. The Laikipia Conservancies Association consists of 24 member conservancies which cover an area of 3,500km2 (350,000 hectares), including:
Ol Pejeta Conservancy
360km2 (36,000 hectares)
Ol Ari Nyiro (also known as Laikipia Nature Conservancy)
365km2 (36,500 hectares)
Naibunga (a group ranch composed of 9 ranches)
477km2 (47,700 hectares)
Loisaba Conservancy
226km2 (22,600 hectares)
Borana Conservancy (contiguous with Lewa Conservancy)
120km2 (12,000 hectares)
Il Ngwesi (a group ranch)
93km2 (9,300 hectares)
Lekuruki Conservancy
92km2 (9,200 hectares)
Ol Jogi Conservancy
240km2 (24,000 hectares)
Sosian Samburumburu
97km2 (9,700 hectares)
Ol-Lentille
162km2 (16,200 hectares)
The above list of operational conservancies is complemented by several unfenced private ranches, many of which offer their own intimate safari experience. Under the Laikipia Wildlife Foundation’s guidance, this extensive ecosystem is managed as a cohesive ecological entity. It is also open to the renowned Lewa Wildlife Conservancy to the east and attached to the Mount Kenya Forest and National Park to the southeast.
Laikipia’s precious wildlife treasures
The plateau’s gradual transition from intensive livestock farming to wildlife haven is a testament to the success of a progressive and inclusive conservation approach. Laikipia’s heterogeneous landscapes now offer some of the most magnificent wildlife viewing in Kenya, from the standard Big 5 experience to more unusual and elusive creatures. The county is home to the second-largest elephant population in Kenya, and many of these herds now migrate north to Samburu during the two rainy seasons. Naturally, big cat sightings are regular and always exciting, but equally enthralling are the opportunities to spot the sloping back of a striped hyena, the absurdly elongated neck of the peculiar gerenuk and the spear-tipped horns of the Beisa oryx. The exceptionally fortunate may even see one of the melanistic leopards recently confirmed to be lurking in some conservancies.
However, part of Laikipia’s real magic lies in its inordinate concentration of endangered species, particularly rhinos. Perhaps most famously, the Ol Pejeta Conservancy is home to the last two northern white rhinos in the world, vigilantly guarded day and night. Najin and her daughter Fatu were given to the Ol Pejeta Conservancy by the Dvůr Králové Zoo in Czechoslovakia in 2009. Najin’s father – Sudan – was the last surviving male northern white rhino until he died in 2018. At present, scientists are working towards creating embryos using sperm collected. Until this project succeeds, a visit to Laikipia offers the last opportunity to see the northern white rhino.
White rhinos aside, Laikipia is also home to nearly half of Kenya’s black rhinos. Many of the conservancies and ranches have dedicated rhino sanctuaries that have contributed immensely to rhino conservation in East Africa. The county is an important stronghold for the endangered Grévy’s zebra, reticulated giraffe (also known as the Somali giraffe), and Jackson’s hartebeest (regarded as a rare hybrid between the Lelwel and Coke’s hartebeest). African painted wolves (wild dogs) course across the vast woodlands and open plains, their propensity for covering large distances supported by the size of the ecosystem available to them. The Sweetwaters Chimpanzee Sanctuary in Ol Pejeta is also the only place in Kenya where visitors can see chimpanzees, as they do not occur naturally.
Clockwise from top left: The endangered Grévy’s zebra; the endangered reticulated giraffe; endangered and curious wild dog puppies; lion mother spots supper over the grass; white rhino mum and calf
Variety and adventure – the Laikipia experience
Want to go on a safari to Laikipia? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
Apart from its remarkable wildlife, the Laikipia experience can be defined by two quintessential principles: exclusivity and freedom. The private conservancies and ranches guarantee that visitors can immerse themselves in the wilderness, free from the almost crushing pressure of tourist numbers in the more renowned national parks and game reserves. This high quality, low-density approach to tourism has opened up unique experiences for visitors, such as accompanying ecological teams in the field to monitor endangered species, track lions or walk with baboon troops. Variety is the order of the day, and tailored adventures are the norm in Laikipia.
Free from the rules and restrictions of national parks, the lodges offer expertly guided walks, night drives and horse safaris. Intrepid visitors can opt to explore the landscape on a mountain bike or quad bike, rolling along paths inaccessible to the average vehicle and discovering hidden nooks and crannies. Those that prefer a more sedate pace can hop on the back of a camel and enjoy the scenery from a novel vantage point, accompanied by the gentle tinkle of camel train bells.
As a general rule, Laikipia does not stint on comfortable accommodation, though there are options available to suit tighter budgets. There are a number of either community-owned or community-operated lodges for conscience-driven travellers. However, it is important to note that access to the vast majority of the conservancies and ranches is restricted to guests, and only Ol Pejeta offers access to day visitors. Like the Maasai Mara, there are two rainy seasons: the ‘short’ rains in October/November and the ‘long’ rains lasting from March until June. Though rainfall levels are not as high as they are in the Mara, high rainfall may affect the activities and the wildlife viewing.
Camps for all tastes and pockets
A triumph of conservation
Though Laikipia offers various habitats and experiences for the discerning visitor, these are all underscored by a common theme – authenticity. In Laikipia, the fortunes of people and wildlife are inextricably linked. This is not to say that this process has been without its own challenges, and indeed, Laikipia has seen its fair share of conflict and heartache. However, the inclusive approach that values livelihoods and biodiversity has successfully used tourism to galvanize the creation of one of the largest wilderness areas in Kenya.
The concept of individually- or community-owned conservancies should be considered a Kenyan conservation success story. Tourists that visit these conservancies and ranches play an enormous role in ensuring the future of these protected wilderness areas and supporting a continuous revenue stream for the local communities. With over 65% of Kenyan wildlife existing outside of government-protected wilderness areas, it is easy to see why conservancies will be critical to conservation efforts in the future. The sprawling plateau of Laikipia, home to some of the most endangered species in Africa and steeped in complex history, is the perfect example of this process in action.
To the novice eye, most wild animals of the same species look mostly identical to each other unless marred by a prominent scar or perhaps sporting a different colour variation. However, closer observation reveals that each individual, whether leopard, lion, or elephant, possesses a set of identifying characteristics as unique as human fingerprints. For researchers monitoring these animals, being able to identify individuals is extremely useful for estimating populations and understanding demographics. However, the process is often time-consuming, labour intensive and subject to human bias. For 25 years, the team at Elephants Alive, spearheaded and led by Dr Michelle Henley (last author), have developed their own solution for elephant identification: a System of Elephant Ear-pattern Knowledge (SEEK).
Despite their size, monitoring elephants to estimate populations and demographics comes with its own set of complications. Traditional capture-mark-recapture techniques are expensive, dangerous, and impractical, large-scale aerial surveys are prohibitively expensive, and dung counts vary depending on vegetation type. This has necessitated the use of alternative techniques such as mark-resighting studies which in turn generally rely on photo-identification. The use of photographic records depends mostly on manual matching techniques and human memory, and while automated software models are in use, they still require further development.
The Elephants Alive team monitor elephants across the Associated Private Nature Reserves (APNR) on the western boundary of the Kruger National Park and have been conducting field research since 1996. The team began putting together their own simplified coding system at the start of the period which initially entailed creating detailed drawings of the ear features of individual elephants. The study was officially registered with South African National Parks (SANParks) in 2003 and has continued until the present day.
In 2012, the first comprehensive coding system was developed. The animal was grouped first according to sex and age and then incorporated into a feature and element system. The method was refined over time, to simplify the system and exclude observer bias for more complex shapes.
Today, each elephant assigned to the database has been given a unique code that corresponds to specific aspects of that individual. The first letter of the code will be either B (bull) or C (cow) and the following two numbers place the individual in an age bracket. Following that, the presence or absence of tusks is recorded. From there, features on the left ear have been assigned numbers depending on the position on the ear itself – with the most prominent tear listed first, followed by the most prominent hole, the second most prominent tear and the second most prominent hole (in this exact order). The right ear follows the same pattern. The coding system is completed with reference to the existence of extreme features (applied to ear tears or holes that cover more than 25% of the ear) and any other special features (a missing tail for example).
So, for example, B70T01E808_-403_X00S00 is a bull elephant, born between 1970 and 1979 (B70), with a tusk on his left side but not the right (T01). The most prominent tear and the second most prominent tear are both at the 8 position of his left ear (E808). On his right ear, the most prominent tear is on the 4 position, while the second most prominent tear sits on the 3 position (-403). Neither ear has any prominent holes. He does not have any extreme features nor any special elements (X00S00).
SEEK has been developed to follow the rules of the search function of both Microsoft Excel and Microsoft Word, allowing researchers to rapidly narrow down their search when presented with an image of an elephant they are trying to identify. If all recorded individuals are ruled out, the new elephant is added to the system. The additional Microsoft Office Wildcard function also allows for situations where not all characteristics are observable (if presented with only one side of the individual, for example).
The extensive development of SEEK is a truly extraordinary accomplishment, born of decades worth of research and practical experience. The evolution of this method has been shaped by the pragmatic realities of fieldwork while still allowing for identification accuracy, resulting in a system that can be applied by other such research programmes as well as an extensive historical database of elephant individuals in the Greater Kruger. From behavioural studies to understanding long-term population trends, individual identification is vital in the efforts to conserve one of the most iconic animals in Africa.
Botswana’s recent upsurge in rhino poaching is reaching a crisis point. More than 100 rhinos have been poached in under two years from a population of less than 400. Yet, the government remains resolute in its denial of a growing catastrophe.
Former Botswanan president Ian Khama recently announced on social media that over 120 rhinos have been poached in the past 18 months. The post said that poachers were ‘killing rhinos with or without horns,’ and that ‘after corona (virus) there will be none left for tourists to see.’
Botswana’s Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) has denied the accusation – saying Khama’s announcement is irresponsible and will negatively impact tourism. In a statement, the DWNP claims that wildlife-related crimes are down by 70 per cent since the COVID 19 period from March 2020.
But on the same day as DWNP’s statement release, Bhejane Trust, a Zimbabwean rhino conservation organisation, publicised the massacre of 12 more rhinos in the Okavango Delta in northern Botswana saying, ‘Urgent action is required by the Botswana authorities, and they should bring in expert advice and assistance immediately if any rhino(s) are to survive.’
Conservationists are concerned that Botswana’s rebuttal to its growing poaching crisis is encouraging rhino horn poachers to focus on the remaining rhino in the Okavango Delta area.
‘The current government already has a poor conservation record, and it seems to be following the same policy of denial it used with the elephant poaching over the last few years,’ says Ian Michler, conservationist and specialist wilderness guide. ‘Let’s be clear; the poaching syndicates have seen the weakness and have turned their attention on this country. Without a strong and effective response, Botswana runs the risk of seeing rhino disappear from its parks and reserves for the third time.’
After numbers crashed in the early nineties Botswana engaged in a rhino relocation project in 2001 which spanned over ten years, introducing viable populations of black and white rhinos back into the Okavango Delta.
In June last year, the Botswanan government began removing rhino horns and relocating rhinos away from the Delta in an attempt to reduce the risk of poaching. The official count for poached rhinos was 56 since 2018, marking it the worst onslaught since the country’s black rhino population was wiped out in 1992 and white rhinos dropped to below 30 individuals.
According to Dereck Joubert, who leads the Botswana non-profit Rhinos Without Borders, the relocation of rhinos away from the Delta was essential amid the coronavirus pandemic as poachers were using the absence of safari tourists during lockdown to their advantage. Asian rhino horn traders had also begun to tout rhino horn as a cure for the virus.
At that stage, nearly 50 poached rhinos had been recorded since late 2019.
In August 2020, the poaching crisis was still showing no sign of let-up and the government went back on its decision to reduce the military capability of the arms carried by its wildlife rangers. With 17 poachers shot dead in six months in gunfire exchange with the army, it was decided to re-arm anti-poaching rangers with military weapons.
Is this what it seems to be? An attempt by the government to minimise what is obviously a devastating onslaught on the last few remaining rhinos in Botswana; a repeat of their stance on elephants just two years ago?
In 2019, the newly elected President Mokgweetsi Masisi denied that elephant poaching was at a crisis point when aerial surveys revealed that almost 400 elephants had been poached between 2017 and 2018.
“The question remains: why is the Botswanan government not engaging the international community for help? Other countries are using NGOs and civil society to assist them with wildlife crime,” says Adrienne West of Political Animal Lobby. “Botswana cannot expect to tackle an issue of this magnitude alone.”
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Our safari industry is in tatters as extended travel bans and doubt about fundamental issues continue to plague our core markets. The past few months have seen businesses hit the dirt, and there will be many more casualties as this stalled industry sheds weight and reboots. But this is a passion-led space, and it will rise again, FOR THE BETTER. Of that, I have no doubt. The arrival of the ‘new normal’ will be an exciting time for those of us that are fortunate enough to remain – and for you, the passionate safari-goers. The future is being crafted right now – it will be what we make of it. You can help the safari industry by booking your next safari – even if it is in a year or two from now.
I have recently hinted about new AG plans – and we are deep under the hood with this exciting development that will somewhat shake things up and empower you to play a larger role in Africa. It’s coming …
Now here is an INSPIRING project. One of southern Africa’s most respected birding and walking guides plans to do a world-record 30,000 burpees in 10 days to raise funds for anti-poaching efforts. What an amazing initiative – PLEASE support him – see the video link below.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
Our first story below is a scientific marvel born of potential catastrophe. What a sad state of affairs that it has come to this. Thank goodness for forward-thinking philanthropists prepared to throw money and action at a problem rather than conferences and committees. Hemmersbach Rhino Force has created a cryo-lab (basically an uber fancy freezer and Tupperware combo) for the harvesting of and storage of rhino gametes (swimmers and eggs) for the eventuality that these ancient pachyderms do not survive the poaching onslaught. The Cryovault is a remarkable, commendable and inspiring commitment.
Our second story below, from a wildlife veterinarian with decades of field experience provides strong evidence that fences were highly unlikely to have contributed to the Botswana elephant die-off in 2020 (as reported here). More than this perhaps, the story and its design point out the value of ground-truthing, common-sense and experience. It cautions that not even the peer-review process is infallible.
Photos
Finally, the ninth week of African celebration through your images takes us on a journey through southern Africa, into the world’s oldest desert flying up through central Africa and, unusually, into west Africa. Our Photographer of the Year carries a prize of 10 000 USD and a six-day safari to Khwai in Botswana. Here’s how to enter. We look forward to your evocative, pictorial stories.
Story 1 https://africageographic.com/stories/rhino-cryovault/
JUST IN CASE
Just in case: The rhino Cryovault holds repositories of rhino DNA, gametes, and tissues preserved indefinitely – in case we fail to save our rhino
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
The rhino Cryovault is a biobank that holds the largest genetic repositories of rhino DNA, gametes, and tissues in the world; frozen and preserved indefinitely. What does it mean to save a species? What happens if, in the absolute worst-case scenario, we fail? While Hemmersbach Rhino Force is doing everything in their power to make sure that does not happen, they do have one last ace – the rhino Cryovault.
In every cell of every organism, from the smallest bacterium to the hugest blue whale, four unique, organic molecules (nucleic acids) are arranged in their millions to form a genetic blueprint that dictates the organism’s – shape, potential size, dietary needs, reproductive proclivities, propensity for language, eye structure – the list is nearly endless. Within the DNA double helix, this code holds most of the secrets to the diversity of life as we know it. Every time a rhino is poached, an entirely unique genetic fingerprint is lost.
Clockwise from top left: An endangered black rhino; a southern white rhino calf; a black rhino – not impressed
What is genetic diversity?
The term “biodiversity” has become very popular since first introduced in scientific publications of the 70s. By now, most people understand that the foundation of conservation rests on protecting biodiversity. Biodiversity refers to the variety of species in an ecosystem, their ecological complexes and their interactions within an ecosystem. The third level of biodiversity is a measure of the variety of genetic characteristics within a species – genetic diversity.
It should be relatively self-explanatory why genetic diversity is of fundamental importance to the survival of a species. In the long-term, genetic diversity underpins one of the cornerstones of evolutionary theory. Genetic differences translate to certain traits that allow some organisms to breed more successfully than others – survival of the fittest. Greater genetic diversity within a species enables adaptation to changing environments (think climate change) and confers greater disease resistance to the species as a whole.
Conversely, as individual numbers of a species decrease, inbreeding will result in a loss of genetic diversity, which will decrease a species’ robustness in the face of new challenges (parasites, climatic changes etc). Inbreeding can also cause ‘inbreeding depression’, which is the reduced biological fitness of a population. This can lead to severe genetic defects, reduced fertility and even infertility. In essence, when humans decimate biology (animals, plants, mushrooms etc), we are not only destroying individuals and their potential genetic legacies, but we are also reducing the species’ capacity to recover and overcome adversity.
The Rhino Force team at work
Hemmersbach Rhino Force
Enter Hemmersbach Rhino Force, a direct action conservation organisation dedicated to safeguarding Africa’s remaining rhinos. Their anti-poaching services are provided free-of-charge and utilise a combination of innovative tactics, cutting-edge technology and old-fashioned boots-on-the-ground to tackle wildlife crime in Southern Africa. Rhino Force is operational in the Greater Kruger region (where some 50% of poaching events in Africa occur). They work with local authorities, private entities and anti-poaching operations on everything from surveillance and intelligence to proactive prevention and forensic work. In addition, their Zambezi Black Rhino Project in Zimbabwe is geared towards restoring a wild haven for the reintroduction of black rhinos, once abundant before poaching devastated their numbers.
Rhino Force’s holistic approach to protecting rhinos includes extensive work with local communities, promoting education and employment and tackling anti-poaching through anti-poverty strategies. Improving living conditions, restoring and equipping schools, litter removal, and supporting community engagement are just some of the initiatives that the Rhino Force has thrown their weight behind.
However, the sheer severity of the rhino poaching crisis prompted the creation of the Hemmersbach Rhino Force Cryovault in 2018, a biobank of vital biomaterial including DNA and viable sperm. As unsettling as it is, we must face the reality that we may not be able to stem the tide of poaching. This proactive approach is intended to create a genetic backup before it is too late.
The Cryovault field laboratory
The Cryovault and Veterinary Unit
The Cryovault team consists of Dr Imke Lüders, a specialist veterinarian from Germany and Dr Janine Meuffels, a veterinarian from South Africa. The team members all have long-standing backgrounds in animal reproduction and wildlife medicine. They are, at present, the most experienced team in Africa at executing large-scale gamete conservation projects. Together, they have successfully collaborated in collecting semen from elephants, giraffes, and rhinos, from both live (intra-vitam) and deceased (post mortem) animals in wild and captive situations.
As with any other Rhino Force projects, the Cyrovault is not a commercial operation. Instead, it provides specialist veterinary wildlife reproduction and biotechnology support services to other scientists, veterinarians and their clients. The laboratories are equipped with the resources necessary to evaluate gametes’ viability and store tissues, gametes, and DNA indefinitely through cryo-preservation.
Inside the Cryovault laboratory
The ART of reproduction
Assisted reproduction technologies (ART) including artificial insemination, in-vitro fertilisation and embryo transfer are techniques that have been used successfully for years, particularly in the agricultural industry with livestock. There is a perception that because these techniques have been so effectively applied in both humans and livestock, it should be simple to transfer them to wild species. However, this is far from the case. Every species has evolved a unique anatomy and reproductive physiology. Successful ART requires extensive research and the development of species-specific protocols. Unravelling secrets of ART for the African rhino species is the calling of the Cryovault team.
Theriogenology – which concerns the study of veterinary reproductive medicine and surgery – is a field subject to continual refinement. Conservation-minded reproductive specialists are continually searching for ways in which these techniques can be used to balance the odds for threatened species. Viable semen has been collected and cryopreserved, leading to successful artificial insemination (using both fresh and frozen semen) of elephants, giraffes, and southern white and Indian rhinos. However, most advancements in wild species have been made in captive settings where scientists have unrestricted access to the animals.
The Cryovault team continues to offer tremendous contributions to this knowledge base, and in 2020, they collected, processed and cryopreserved free-ranging (wild) black rhino sperm samples – a world first. They have teamed up with Eastern Cape Parks and Tourism Agency (ECPTA) for a three year project to collect and store samples from as many black rhino individuals as possible.
Where rhinos are concerned, the Cryovault team’s approach to gamete collection is largely opportunistic currently. When a live bull rhino is anaesthetised for a routine process such as a dehorning or ear notching, the team applies a low-voltage stimulation to the prostate gland in a process known as electroejaculation. In the case of poached, hunted, or euthanised animals, the testes are harvested in their entirety. Once the samples return to the lab, the viability of the sperm is tested and, if shown to be suitable, it is transferred to sperm straws and frozen using liquid nitrogen. It is even possible to separate the sperm cells according to whether they carry an X or Y chromosome, thus controlling the sex of potential offspring.
The process of ovum (egg) collection from a live female rhino is known as an ovum pick up. This is a highly specialised technique and requires the regulation of several physiological factors. The team can also harvest oocytes from deceased animals, but with only a six-hour window in which to do so. This is logistically complicated – with a low success rate.
The Cryovault field team harvesting semen for analysis and storage
Managed wildlife breeding – a conservation tool
What does this science mean for the future of our rhinos? The reality is that there are few self-sustaining wild rhino populations left throughout the world. In South Africa, home to most of Africa’s rhino, roughly a third are privately owned. Most of these populations are already intensively managed. Suppose the captive growth rate, and the poaching rate continue along the same trajectory. This eventuality could quickly shift the proportion of privately-owned rhino to 50%. The onus will be on private owners to protect the remaining rhinos. Intensive breeding management programmes are an inevitable part of a survival plan for a species approaching the brink. Accepting that rhinos are on that list must happen sooner rather than later.
One of the primary objectives is for the Cryovault facility to be the largest of its kind for African rhino genetics. This massive archive will contribute enormously to DNA population genetics research and act as a reference database for the species. Most importantly, it can be applied to both current and future rhino breeding. Expanding our collective knowledge of rhino reproductive physiology, gametes’ parameters and developing protocols for successful, repeatable methods of assisted reproduction that can be applied to rhinos, is of paramount (and urgent) importance.
Back from the brink (again?)
In the past, the call for reproductive specialists to save a species on the brink has generally come far too late, when just a few individuals of the species remain. Developing appropriate techniques and protocols at this stage is impossible, and the rhino Cryovault team is entirely focussed on ensuring that this time, the approach is a proactive one.
While it may be impossible to freeze time, the Cryovault offers the next best thing – a way to ensure that, in the worst-case scenario, we can preserve some of the genetic legacies of our rhinos before they are lost forever.
[Hemmersbach Rhino Force is one of the two direct action projects of the social purpose IT company Hemmersbach, driven by a desire to fight injustice where authorities fail. Hemmersbach does this through Direct Action: their projects and actions are purely self-financing and reliant on the commitment of their team members, without the need for external donations. Hemmersbach is committed to using 20% of the company’s annual profits for these Direct Action projects, directed towards a good cause with the assurance that this revenue is focused where needed.]
We asked Botswana-based wildlife veterinarian Erik Verrynne to shed light on the issue of whether fences prevent elephant migrations and restrict their movements in northern Botswana. This clarification is required after this research paper ‘The 2020 elephant die-off in Botswana’ by van Aarde et al, on 11 January 2021 [1] and our summary . In it, the authors claim that fences are an underlying cause for the elephant mortalities in NG11/12 (Botswana) in 2020.
Map of the affected Seronga region (courtesy, the African Elephant Specialist Group)
Wildlife vet Erik Verrynne:
Introduction
The scientists used movement data from 13 collared elephants in the Seronga area between 2003 and 2006 to prove that the elephant population is unable to cross barriers formed by surrounding fences, deep-water channels of the Okavango River and human activity (harassment).
The study concluded that the ‘boxed-in’ effect created by the boundaries prevent elephants from migrating to other areas during times of food pressure, or from regularly reaching the fresh water of the Okavango River.
The elephants are therefore forced to drink the stagnant water of the waterholes which increases stress and the risk of drinking pathogens such as cyanobacteria toxins or infectious agents.
The underlying stress in a growing, boxed-in elephant population is a potential cause of increased disease susceptibility and contributed to the die-offs.
They postulate that the ‘boxed- in’ effect would have enhanced the fast spread of the agent within the population but prevented the spread to other populations outside the Seronga area.
The article places the die-offs and the underlying ecological drivers within the context of the resistance hypothesis and the metapopulation theory by proposing the realignment of veterinary fences to promote dispersal.
Botswana relies on the dispersal of elephants into the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA) to reduce its large elephant population. At the same time, it is trying to prevent cattle contact with potentially disease-spreading cloven-hoofed wildlife species in order to protect beef export markets. More than 20% of the elephant population in Botswana shares land with subsistence beef and crop farmers where fences are used to protect cattle against disease. The Seronga area, with 15 000 elephants, is an area where both elephant crop damage and disease restrictions have socio-economic implications for the communities.
The potential of commodity-based trade is currently being investigated in Seronga as an alternative to veterinary fencing. Additionally, the Government of Botswana (GoB) has been looking into designs of species-specific targeting fences, while NGOs are working hard on programmes such as Ecoexist to promote coexistence between communities and elephants.
Despite all efforts, the dispersal of elephants away from Botswana as a long-term solution remains a challenge. Figures released by GoB indicate that only about 20% of the large KAZA elephant population is dispersing freely between countries, mainly between Botswana and Zimbabwe. The challenges are further illustrated by dispersals deeper into Botswana during the drought of 2017/2018 rather than into neighbouring range states.
Clockwise from top left: One of the 2020 mortalities; carcass on the flood plains May 2020; remnants of the 2020 die-off
What is causing the resistance to dispersal and do fences and channels play a role?
The reasons for the low dispersal levels in many areas seem to vary. Proposed solutions follow a large-scale approach based on general assumptions, often ignoring local factors.
The article suggesting that fences facilitate elephant deaths illustrates the challenges we face. Remote sensing data is used to postulate drivers and causes, and to offer solutions, while local knowledge or fieldwork critical to verify the collected data is ignored.
The fences around the area are the double veterinary border fence between Bwabwata NP in Namibia and the Seronga area of NG11/NG13 in Botswana, and the northern buffalo fence. The latter fence was erected in 1995/96 to prevent the spread of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) that came across from Namibia. CBPP was declared under control in 1998 only after the mass slaughter of 320,000 cattle.
Albertson (1998) reported how the northern buffalo fence cut off migratory patterns of zebra and elephant, causing the death of migratory species and even an elephant cow and calf. The original fences consisted of sturdy 1,2 m – 1.4m high wooden posts and intermediate wooden droppers connected with strands of steel wire and a single strong steel cable to strengthen it against elephant damage. At the time the fences were regularly maintained to prevent the crossing of any cattle or buffalo. After CBPP containment and the subsequent removal of the Setata fence in 2003, seasonal migrations of wildlife across the removed fence resumed. Therefore, in some cases, fences can present effective barriers to elephants.
The authors of the article stated that the fences in question are still being maintained and therefore present impermeable barriers to elephants wanting to disperse. A quick visit would have immediately shown that this is not the case. Even the current condition of the international boundary fence is not capable of blocking the movement of cattle or buffalo in certain places although in general, it appears much sturdier than the northern buffalo fence.
Over the last few years, I have visited different parts of the fences in question with the exception of the western section of the international boundary near Mohembo, and the section of the northern buffalo fence from the Selinda gate to the north through NG13.
The sections of all the fences I visited had gaps where the fence was either on its side, or most steel wire strands and wooden intermediate droppers were missing. In many cases, the connecting steel cable was on the ground, covered by vegetation. Elephants and antelope were crossing the northern buffalo fence at will while I saw tracks of a few solitary elephants crossing the double vet boundary with Bwabwata NP.
The presence of active photographic tourism lodges and sporadic patrols by the Botswana Defence Force may account for the fact that there is reportedly little poaching in NG12. Neither the fences nor the small amount of human activity on the southern boundary are likely to restrict the movement of elephants out of the Seronga area.
Realignment of the current veterinary fences, even removal of the international boundary fence would not, in my opinion, have a significant impact on, or resolve future cases of disease outbreaks in elephants in the area as claimed by the authors.
Elephant reluctance to move across the deep channel at Seronga remains a mystery. Elephants along the Chobe River cross deep water at will. We regularly see bulls and family herds crossing over onto the sinuous islands, wading chest-deep across the deep channels around Kadizora and Xanaxara. The reluctance to cross water may simply be driven by individual behavioural preferences.
Clockwise from top left: A section of border fence pushed over by an elephant crossing; elephant tracks crossing the border between Botswana and Namibia; fences destroyed by water; an elephant on his way to crossing the northern buffalo fence
If it is not the fences, why are the elephants not moving?
Verifying the movement data to see if the elephants are indeed not moving out of the Seronga area should be the first reaction. Unfortunately, it is difficult to see if the presented data support the statement of a ‘boxed in’- effect.
The authors present data of only 13 elephants within the Seronga and adjacent areas between 2003 and 2010 while reference to 25 more collared elephants was not supported with data and therefore could not be considered. Therefore, the lack of access to raw and other referred movement data, and the historical nature of the data makes it difficult to place the claims in perspective.
However, other collaring data and anecdotal evidence and observations confirm the lack of mass dispersals of elephants in and out of the Seronga area. Local seasonal movements between food and water sources inside the Seronga area by a large part of the population and very localised seasonal movement of small numbers between NG12 and NG16 are regularly-reported occurrences.
Dispersal does not happen spontaneously. It must be driven by a catalyst usually generated by a change in resources, environmental conditions, or threats strong enough to elicit a group response and overcome memories of any previous hindrance. The response must have the potential to correct or improve the situation both to the individual and the population.
Thirst is a major driver for elephant migrations or dispersals. The restricted access to water is acknowledged in the article in supporting the need to disperse. However, the authors failed to consider the opposite situation where sufficient key resources and safety may nullify the sustained pressure to disperse. In short, the elephants may not want to move because the food, water and shelter is enough for most of the year, while the conflict and harassment by people is short-lived and can be mitigated without the need to migrate.
Clockwise from top left: elephants entering the Terminalia woodlands in the dry season; elephant highways fanning out across the impact zone in the dry season; eating mopane in the dry season; crossing the impact zone during the drought
How sustainable are the key resources?
Key resources in the Seronga area are provided by both the seasonal floodplains, long sinuous islands, and the woodlands.
NG12 is the area to the south of the line of fields and villages and is covered by the seasonal floodplains which vary in width from 3 to 10 km. Across the floodplains NG 12 transitions into a series of long sinuous islands. It ends in the sandy Kalahari apple leaf islands and shrub mopanes towards Vumbra Plains (NG22) in the south, the reedbeds of the deeper channels of NG23 to the southwest and mopane belts to the east into NG16. Many circular islands on the seasonal floodplains accommodate a variety of large riverine forest trees, with jackal berries (Diospyros mespiliformis) and water berries (Syzygium cordatum) providing much sought-after fruit in late winter and early spring. The browse potential for elephants on the circular islands is relatively low and during the dry season, some herds cross over the seasonal floodplains onto the long sinuous islands in search of food.
The most important resource on the seasonal floodplains is therefore fresh water during the dry season of May to October, and during droughts. Water in the woodlands is only available at the latest up to July. The river starts flooding the floodplains at Gunistoga in late March or early April, retracting in June but water in large pans and deep channels remains, sustaining the elephants, wildlife, and cattle until thunderstorms provide water in the north again. While the Okavango River is flowing, the channels provide water, and the floodplains remain the most important sustainability factor during drought. The woodlands to the north in NG11/ NG13 and long sinuous islands to the south provide the other key resources.
The major impact zone is the line of fields and villages along the road and banks of the floodplains where 16 000 people live in 13 villages and numerous settlements. Fields for subsistence crop farming stretch up to 15km, but on average about 6km from the villages towards the woodlands in the north.
Once past the 10 to 15km impact zone, the woodland vegetation transitions into a mosaic of deciduous broad-leaved trees in the deep Kalahari sands, alternating with more claylike soils, where a combination of shrub and cathedral mopane dominates. The woodland vegetation is lush and dense during the wet season but most of the trees lose their leaves at the height of the dry season (July, August and September). As result, a part of the elephant population crosses the floodplains to the sinuous islands where they feed on a variety of trees and mopane shrubs.
The largest part of the elephant population switches back to remain in the woodlands almost immediately when the first thunderstorms fill the pans. Only a small part of the population remains close to the impact zone, drinking from the water on the floodplains. They remain invisible most of the time, their tracks crossing the main road at night as they move between the nearby browse and the waterholes on the floodplains past the fields and villages.
Numerous waterholes or pans formed in the clay soils of the mopane woodland fill during the rainy season between November and April and provide water to the wildlife and livestock that move north into the woodlands for the wet season.
It is some of these waterholes that were implicated as sources of the cyanobacteria toxicity in the mortalities amidst much speculation. However, indications are that mortalities had already started in March when it was still raining, while some carcasses were found in flowing water on the floodplains. Both conditions are less favourable for algal blooms. In my opinion, the true cause of mortalities remains unknown and open to speculation.
Overlapping and sustained utilisation by elephants, other wildlife, people, and livestock, have created the high-impact utilisation zone with many trees destroyed and mopane reduced to shrubs. This zone represents high risk and low resource use to the elephants in the dry season because they are forced to cross the zone daily between available resources. Risk is avoided by moving mainly at night and at speed, using elephant highways and the 13 corridors demarcated by Ecoexist as known routes past the field and village lines. By this time, crop harvesting has fortunately finished. By mid-May, most fields are empty. (Crop raiding happens from January to mainly April and seems to involve a small part of the population that remains close to the impact zone.)
Clockwise from top left: enjoying the waterholes during the rainy season; lush woodlands in the north during the wet season; a herd on a ‘long sinuous island’; typical circular islands on the floodplains near Eretsha
Why are they not dispersing during the drought and will elephants eventually move?
Elephants are hindgut fermenters that digest cellulose in their massive colons. This evolutionary adaptation does not need quality feed, but quantity – something the high-biomass mopane and apple leaf areas can provide in abundance. The adaptation also allows them to utilise twigs, branches, and bark in the absence of leaves during the dry season or drought. They can push tree resources beyond normal resilience thresholds to levels of advanced deterioration before it negatively affects the nutritional intake values, provided the elephants have access to enough water. The thermoregulatory needs of such large animals when ambient temperatures are high, also necessitate water. Elephants are able to travel more than 20 km a day between food and water, an ability that mitigates their water dependency during droughts.
Drought, impact from an increasing elephant population, and an increase in human utilisation of resources around village lines in the impact zone, are causing deterioration which is gradually widening the impact zone into the woodlands, onto the floodplains and even onto the fertile long sinuous islands. Eventually, it may reach a threshold where the abilities of the elephants to negotiate the distances to water, and the increased conflict-related harassment will be sufficient to drive dispersal or migration. Only then is it likely that they will consider moving closer to the water resources of the Linyanti, Kwando or Zambezi Rivers.
The dispersal thresholds are unknown, as the resources appear to be more resilient than the tolerance of the villagers. The ensuing conflict may burst the dam wall long before the resources give in. Managing co-existence is a challenge for Botswana
For now, the elephants seem to be staying. Not because of fences or deep-water channels, but simply because the available resources suit them. Alternative key resources may not be close enough, and they may have adapted local strategies to mitigate droughts and human conflict risks. Drivers or memories of good places far away may not be strong enough to justify dispersal despite disease or harassment. Memories of some of the old barriers is still strong enough to remove the immediate need to move to other unknown areas.
The behaviour of the Seronga area elephants raises some questions about our theories on the metapopulations and dispersal within KAZA. Maybe it is time to acknowledge that elephants exert a choice based on the available resources or even memories of what appear to be boundaries. Our expected thresholds on resource utilisation may be wrong and elephant migration preferences may be more localised. Promoting dispersal across KAZA may require stronger drivers than simply removing fences. Elephants may consider our proverbial grass as not always greener on the other side of our fences.
top: crossing the floodplains to the water October 2019; bottom: enjoying the relief of water after a long walk
About the author
Erik Verrynne is a veterinarian and agricultural consultant who been working in Botswana since 2003. He is a wildlife and livestock vet with an MPhil in wildlife management.
[1]van Aarde RJ, Pimm SL, Guldemond R, Huang R, Maré C. 2021. The 2020 elephant die-off in Botswana. PeerJ 9:e10686 https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.10686
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Here’s something for us all to think about: One is made of compressed carbon and the other of compressed keratin. And yet, both are highly valued as status symbols because manipulative marketing campaigns have duped humans into believing the fairytale. Both are extracted at massive ecological cost amidst a plague of bloodshed and criminal activity where a few individuals scoop the financial windfall, and others pay the price. Think about that next time you check out that diamond or criticise someone who does the same with rhino horn—mea culpa.
The on-off journey continues! Distressing news is that the green light has now been given for large-scale open-pit mining in Zambia’s Lower Zambezi National Park. This saga has so many twists and turns it’s tough to keep up! Don’t get me started.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
The saga of the Namibian elephant auction continues. The auction is complete but it is unclear who has bought the elephants, how many were sold or where they will go. There has been widespread anger and criticism from various armchairs, keyboards, conservation NGOs and journalists. The Namibian Ministry of Environment Foresty and Tourism, meanwhile, has taken exception to the auction being portrayed as a corruption-driven scam and painted many objections as the hysterical rantings of people utterly bereft of on-the-ground realities. In our first story below, Gail Thomson, an independent Namibian environmentalist, reviews the reasons for the sale.
After that rather heavy yet necessary read, our second story below will have you daydreaming of being suspended in the verdant forest canopy of the Albertine Rift; the ancient cacophony of screeching primates and avian choirs lulling you to peace. Nyungwe National Park in Rwanda is home to bird megaticks, breathtaking vistas, waterfalls, trails and rare primates. There are options for all budgets so sit back and immerse yourself in the mystical magic of the forest.
Finally, the eighth week of celebrating the beauty of Africa through our Photographer of the Year, which carries a prize of 10 000 USD and a six-day safari to Khwai in Botswana. Enter here. Remember you don’t need a boat-load of obscenely expensive kit to take a good pic. You might even be lucky with your phone! Your image needs to tell a story and evoke an emotion.
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
Aptly referred to as the land of a thousand hills, Rwanda is a country that embodies the genuinely remarkable spirit of Africa. Once torn apart by genocide and bloodshed, the Rwandan people have demonstrated a steely determination in both acknowledging their history and refusing to be defined by it. Some call it the Rwandan miracle: the country’s economy has grown by an average of more than 7% per year since 2000, and the poverty rate has fallen by 57% percent. Its people have turned hate and fear into the warmth and generosity of spirit that today epitomises Rwanda.
This forward-thinking, disciplined reconciliatory approach has also bolstered the country’s conservation reputation, supported by a robust tourism industry that continues to go from strength to strength. While gorilla trekking in Volcanoes National Park or a safari-going in Akagera National Park are both extraordinary experiences in their own right, Rwanda is also home to the most extensive protected tracts of montane forest in Africa – Nyungwe National Park.
The Park
Nyungwe National Park covers 1,019km2 (over 100,000 hectares) of forested mountains, burbling streams, sun-starved valleys, and extensive swamps seemingly hiding a myriad of new species waiting to be discovered (or rediscovered). Though historically established as a reserve in 1933, Nyungwe National Park was only designated as a national park in 2004. It is tucked in the south-west corner of the country, towering above Lake Kivu and contiguous with Kibira National Park in Burundi to the south. Nyungwe is a biodiversity hotspot bursting with life. As part of the Albertine Rift and ranging in altitude from 1,600-3,000m, it is home to the largest high-altitude montane forest in East and Central Africa – a vitally important habitat in its own right. The land comprises the watershed between the Congo and Nile Rivers and some believe it is home to the most remote source of the Nile River, a stream that originates on Mount Bigugu.
Nyungwe is a primate paradise and home to the largest megatroop of Rwenzori pied colobus monkeys (Colobus angolensis ruwenzori) in Africa
Walking in the canopy
The vast majority of Nyungwe is covered by ancient forests that engender a truly mystical atmosphere and teem with life of every size and shape. In mature tropical forests like those in Nyungwe, the canopy forms a complex aspect of life in the forest. With limited exceptions, human tourists tend not to display the arboreal skills of the primates that they seek and, as a result, were once restricted to exploring the forest floor. However, in 2010, the Rwanda Development Board found a way to lift the tourist experience to new heights by installing a canopy walkway of nearly 160m long which rises over 75m above the ferns below.
For those unaffected by a fear of heights (and even, perhaps, for those searching for a new and innovative way to overcome them), the three separate bridges offer unparalleled views of one of the most scenic national parks in Africa. This extraordinary vantage point forms part of the Igishigishigi Trail (a word that refers to the tree-ferns below but doubles as a tongue-twister), and the forest below is resplendent, often draped in a blanket of cloud that only adds to a sense of the surreal.
The canopy walk offers breathtaking views of Nyungwe’s spectacular scenery
Swinging through the canopy
As a mostly forest-dominated park, it is only natural that one of Nyungwe’s significant drawcards is its extensive primate populations and its treetops are dominated by several species of monkey and troops of chimpanzees. There are two habituated troops of chimpanzees within Nyungwe and chimpanzee trekking is popular with visitors. Given the distances chimps can cover at any one point in time, visitors should prepare for an early morning and a long day spent walking through the forest. However, this will be rewarded by an hour spent in close proximity to our closest relatives.
Chimpanzees aside, the other charismatic primates can be equally beguiling and entertaining. The owl-faced monkey was only recently confirmed to occur in Nyungwe, and this is the only population of this rare monkey species to occur outside of the Democratic Republic of Congo. The forest is also home to the largest mega-troop of Rwenzori pied colobus monkeys in Africa, numbering over 400 of these striking black and white monkeys. This well-habituated mega-troop also attracts the company of a myriad of additional primate species such as the grey-cheeked mangabey, L’Hoest’s, Grivet’s, Syke’s, silver, blue, red-tailed monkeys, and the olive baboon. Chimpanzees are also drawn to the colobus monkeys, though for entirely different reasons: food. They hunt the smaller monkey species and an opportunity to witness a chimpanzee raid is a once-in-a-lifetime experience, as the forest explodes into shrieks of terror and the excited howls of the hunting chimps.
The abundant primate species of Nyungwe, clockwise from the left: a rare L’Hoest’s monkey (Allochrocebus lhoesti); an endangered golden monkey (Cercopithecus kandti); and one of the forest’s chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
Singing in the canopy
For avid birders, Nyungwe offers the best forest in East Africa for Afro-montane birding. Forest birding is notoriously difficult, which in many ways makes the glimpses of the Albertine Rift endemics even more rewarding (and well worth a slight crick in the neck). As a recognised Important Bird Area, there are over 330 bird species recorded in Nyungwe, including the Albertine owlet, red-collared mountain babbler, and Rockefeller’s sunbird, none of which have been recorded anywhere else on the eastern side of the Albertine Rift. Every year, keen twitchers laden with binoculars, dog-eared bird books and large lenses flock to the park to boost their birding life-lists.
The birding opportunities are spectacular throughout the park. Still, experienced birders confirm that the park’s western section, with higher rainfall levels and richer soils, offers the best of them. While the search for the red-collared mountain babbler may prove challenging and require a degree of patience, visitors can tick off the mountain masked apalis, Ruwenzori turaco, dwarf honeyguide, handsome francolin, and Neumann’s short-tailed warbler along the way. Nowhere else in the Albertine Rift offers such high densities of relaxed birds on the undisturbed trails. For the truly dedicated, there is always the remote chance of joining the ranks of those fortunate enough to have seen a Shelley’s crimsonwing or the Albertine owlet in the wild.
Forest birding is very much dependent on the vocalisations of the various species, which in turn means that a visit to Nyungwe with the intention of bird watching is best timed for when the birds are at their most vocal. This is usually between January and June, with the caveat that certain migratory species will depart around April, which also tends to be the wettest month of the year. Excellent bird guides trained by the Rwandan authorities are at your disposal, including Claver Ntokinyima (author of Wild Rwanda) who resides in, and works for, the park.
Africa Geographic director, and one of Africa’s top birding guides, Christian Boix, returned from Nyungwe with an urge to write Wild Rwanda, the region’s most authoritative “where to find” birds and mammals guide. Its Nyungwe section will be an invaluable tool to set you on the right track to target your most coveted Albertine Rift Endemics and learn as much about this forest gem as possible.
Clockwise from the top left: a red-throated alethe (Chamaetylas poliophrys) poses in front of birders; a handsome francolin (Pternistis nobilis); expert guide Claver Ntokinyima in action; a striking variable sunbird (Cinnyris venustus) in flight
Hidden by the canopy
While the primates and birds tend to take centre stage in Nyungwe, there are in fact over 75 species of mammals wandering the forest paths, climbing the ancient trees, or slinking through the undergrowth. Camera trap studies have revealed that the park is home to an assortment of creatures, from Congo clawless otters to lithe servals and golden cats. Here, even the rodents are fully adapted to arboreal life, and the Lord Derby’s scaly-tailed squirrels glide between trees by extending a membrane between their front and back limbs like true flying squirrels. Recent camera trap studies have also revealed that the rare Central African oyan (related to genets) can be found lurking in the canopy.
The park’s exceptional biodiversity also extends to the oft-overlooked plant life, and there are over 1,000 different recorded plants, of which 250 are endemic to the Albertine Rift. 140 of these plant species are orchids, which add their splashes of colour to the blanket of green and brown around them.
Just a few years ago, Christian was on safari in Nyungwe with AG clients when he noticed an attractive frog hidden in the undergrowth. This particular frog turned out to be the Bururi long-fingered frog (Cardioglossa cyaneospila), a species once thought extinct and only recently rediscovered in Burundi in 2011. It had never before been recorded in NyungweNational Park. (You can read more about Christian’s frog discovery here.) With its dense forests and impenetrable swamps, there is no telling just how many species are still waiting to be discovered in Nyungwe.
Clockwise from the top left: a Johnston’s or Rwenzori three-horned chameleon (Trioceros johnstoni); a collection of Nyungwe’s biodiverse treasures; a shy bushbuck caught on camera; and the bright-coloured Bururi long-fingered frog (Cardioglossa cyaneospila)
Everyone’s cup of tea
Tea is one of Rwanda’s largest exports and several major tea plantations – including Kitabi, Gisoyu and Gisakura – are found along the fringes of Nyungwe National Park. Not only do these plantations provide vital employment for local communities and educational experiences for tourists, but they also serve as buffer zones around the park.
Buffer zones are just one part of the Rwanda Development Board’s extensive efforts to protect areas such a Nyungwe from illegal logging, poaching, and the collection of herbal plants for use in traditional medicine. A set percentage of annual park revenue from Nyungwe, Akagera and Volcanoes national parks is allocated to communities surrounding these protected areas, and a variety of upliftment and educational programmes have been implemented to safeguard their futures.
There are also several beekeeping cooperatives active near the park headquarters. While beekeeping is a traditional practice in the area, the members of the cooperatives are now producing additional products such as candles, as well as honey, which are sold to visiting tourists. Those interested in learning more about the surrounding communities’ traditions can also visit the cultural centres and villages, some of which also offer campsites and other facilities.
Exploring the dense forest via a footbridge
The experience
The dense forests and rugged landscapes of Nyungwe necessitate exploration on foot. An extensive network of immaculately maintained trails offers varying physical difficulty levels, each with its unique attractions, including waterfalls, hidden pools, and breathtaking views. For now, any guest wishing to explore one of these trails will need to book ahead and must be accompanied by one of the professional guides.
Find out about Nyungwe for your next African safari. We have ready-made safaris to choose from, or ask us to build one just for you.
The twists and turns of Nyungwe’s impeccable trails reveal fairytale-like secrets
As might be expected for an experience that involves hiking in a rainforest, appropriate footwear is an absolute must – preferably waterproof but, most importantly, worn-in and sturdy. The climate in Nyungwe is relatively mild, with temperatures seldom reaching over 30˚C. Still, it receives high rainfall levels (up to 2,000mm annually), so waterproof gear for valuables is essential. Long trousers and sleeves will protect against the forest’s more intrusive insects, and it is worth keeping in mind that the weather can be capricious and high altitudes mean cold temperatures at times.
Accommodation options around the park are varied, and a trip can be tailored to meet every traveller’s requirement, from luxurious lodges boasting spectacular views and outstanding hospitality to budget campsites, and everything in between. Intrepid travellers with their own transport could also choose to stay on the banks of Lake Kivu and travel to and from the park on relatively good roads.
Munazi Eco Lodge (currently under construction and due to open in early 2024) will be a fully-catered camp featuring 10 (ten) ensuite chalets set deep within the forests of Nyungwe National Park – the perfect option for immersing yourself in the forest experience.
DID YOU KNOW that African Parks offers safari camps (lodges and campsites) where 100% of tourism revenue goes to conservation and local communities? Find out more and book your African Parks safari.
Nyungwe is home to the largest protected tract of montane forest in Africa
Watch this informative video on Nyungwe:
The future of the canopy
The announcement that African Parks has partnered with the Government of Rwanda to manage Nyungwe National Park should see the same success as the partnership in Akagera that has seen tourism flourish over recent years.
The world-famous zoologist and author, Jonathan Kingdon, wrote in his book Island Africa that the mountains of Nyungwe are “Africa’s Galapagos Islands – islands encircled by golden monkeys, gorillas and iridescent sunbirds, by giant Lobelias, everlasting flowers, Ruwenzori turacos and all the questions they raise. They deserve greater recognition, protection and study than they have received so far.”
Some 30 years after these words were written, that is precisely how the Rwandan people have chosen to protect their precious remaining wild spaces and, as a result, the future of one of Africa’s most precious ecosystems – it’s irreplaceable canopies, mysterious valleys and colourful creatures – has been secured.
Research tip:Wild Rwanda by Africa Geographic director and safari guru Christian Boix is essential reading for your next Rwanda safari
The recent decision by the Namibian government to sell 170 elephants has been met with public outcries, media articles full of unsubstantiated accusations and considerable confusion. In order to judge why this decision was taken and what other options could be available for these elephants, we need to consider the historical and current context, rather than simply assume the worst of the accusations to be true.
Towards the end of 2020, the Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism (MEFT) announced their intention to sell a total of 170 elephants[1] from four different locations in Namibia (see map below). The stated reasons for the sale were increased human-elephant conflict[2] in the four areas, which has been exacerbated by the recent drought. In each area, the elephants to be taken were entire family groups (i.e. females and young) plus a few bulls. Those wanting to buy these elephants had to employ qualified Namibian game capture teams and move them to a suitably fenced private reserve in Namibia, or if they wanted to export them to another country, adhere to all CITES export and import requirements.
The four human-elephant conflict hotspots falling on freehold farmlands from which the 170 elephants would be taken, shown on inset map of elephant distribution across northern Namibia (darker green = higher densities). The south-eastern conflict hotspot is caused mainly by bull elephants moving from the far eastern population primarily during the wet season (the elephant counts are done during the dry season). Note that 31% of the elephant population in Namibia occurs outside National Parks, and all of target populations for removal are far from the international boundaries and are not part of the transboundary elephant population in the Zambezi Region. (Source: MEFT 2020)
The important points to note from the tender advert are MEFT’s insistence on taking whole family groups (rather than individuals) and their concern that the buyer and destination abide by national and international law. The requirements set forth here would weed out the unscrupulous buyers who would prefer to take young individual elephants that can be tamed (or broken) for the purposes of human entertainment. The requirements for proper fencing in Namibia are likely to ensure that the elephants do not simply start causing conflict in other areas of the country, or return to the capture location.
There are some details left out of the tender advert that are nonetheless crucial to understanding the thinking behind the decision. I have obtained a draft copy of a document called “An Overview of Elephant Conservation and Management in Namibia” that accompanies the Draft National Elephant Management Plan. This document details all of MEFT’s recent public consultations, past and present elephant research and monitoring, and approaches to reducing human-elephant conflict by MEFT and non-governmental organisations. The information contained in this extensive document (commissioned by MEFT, but prepared by an independent consultant) provides valuable insight into the reasoning behind MEFT’s intention to sell 170 elephants.
Understanding the historical context
The history of elephants in Namibia, as with most things in Africa, is tied up with the history of colonialism, war and land development. Rock art engravings reveal that elephants occurred throughout the country before waves of colonisers eradicated almost all of them in the southern half of the country during the 1800’s. The remaining elephants in the more remote northern regions were killed in high numbers by the South African military, colonisers, and local people in the mid- to late-1900’s. Severe drought in the north-west during the 70’s and 80’s added to the elephants’ woes in this region. Even elephants in Etosha National Park were not safe, and this population was eradicated in 1881, only to return 70 years later.
Around the same time that elephants were pushed out of the central parts of Namibia that are most suitable for agriculture, the land was settled and fenced. Today, these farms are still privately owned (known as freehold land), and the people living on these lands usually farm for commercial purposes with livestock or wildlife. The infrastructure on the livestock farms includes windmills and diesel pumps to provide water for cattle troughs and fences within livestock farms have been erected to manage livestock grazing. The farms that have converted to wildlife are fenced with high game fences to keep valuable wildlife in, and while internal fences have been dropped, water is still pumped for game species to drink (some of these species are particularly expensive, such as sable and roan antelope).
In the communal “homelands” established during apartheid, rural Namibians were dispossessed of their traditional rights to hunt and were branded as “poachers[3]” when they hunted to survive the severe drought of the 70’s and 80’s. Today, nearly 60% of these communal lands have been gazetted as communal conservancies[4], as a means for the people living there to regain their historical rights to using wildlife on their land. This programme has reduced elephant poaching tremendously, particularly by allowing people to benefit from photographic and hunting tourism.
The current situation
A dam and gate destroyed by elephants trying to access water on the Kavango Cattle Ranch.
All of these historical details are necessary to understand the situation with Namibian elephants today. Elephants have not only recolonised Etosha, but have recovered in the communal conservancies in the north-western and north-eastern parts of Namibia. Until recently (1990’s and 2000’s), however, the freehold farmlands have remained free of elephants. The infrastructure mentioned above has thus been developed without the need to protect it from thirsty and often destructive pachyderms.
Human-elephant conflict is continuously managed in the communal conservancies by their game guards[5] and Event Book[6] monitoring system, and the Human-Wildlife Conflict Self-Reliance Scheme has been set up to assist farmers in communal areas that lose crops to elephants (note that water infrastructure is not covered). Further, the wildlife-based industries in conservancies create a direct link between elephant presence and benefits in the form of conservancy income, tourism jobs and elephant meat. While mitigating conflict will always be part and parcel of the communal conservancy programme, these efforts have generated a fairly high level of tolerance for elephants among conservancy members.
The human-elephant conflict that is addressed in MEFT’s tender for selling 170 elephants is targeted at elephant populations that have moved onto freehold farmlands from neighbouring communal lands and National Parks. Farmers that operate commercially are generally wealthier than their communal counterparts and elephants have been absent for many years on freehold lands. The government’s focus has therefore been to help poor communal farmers living with elephants in conservancies, but the recent drought has brought elephants back to the freehold lands they lived on 50-100 years ago. The elephants that arrived recently have found a land of plenty – water all year round (albeit pumped for livestock) and many large trees that have grown in their absence. More and more elephants have found their way onto these farms in the last few years as the drought has pushed them to search for greener pastures.
The damage to infrastructure by elephants dwarfs the crop damages reported in communal conservancies. During the consultations held for input into the Elephant Management Plan, several freehold farmers calculated losses amounting to N$ 100,000-200,000 (US$ 6,800-13,600) per year. Fixing a single windmill damaged by elephants costs N$ 30,000-50,000 (US$ 2,000-3,400). With an estimated 180 freehold farms affected by elephants, infrastructure damages could come to N$ 9 million (US$ 600,000) using a conservative estimate of N$ 50,000 per farmer per year. By contrast, the payments to offset the cost of crop losses throughout communal conservancies amounts to about N$ 2 million (US$ 140,000) per year.
This windmill that was broken by elephants will cost N$ 30,000-50,000 to repair.
Given the costs of living with elephants, it is unsurprising that the farmers MEFT consulted were requesting a solution. Urgently. Farmers suggested that MEFT reduce elephant numbers, allow elephant hunting to cover costs incurred, and assist with the costs of infrastructure repair and protection. The resounding cry from the consultations was: HELP!
Short-term options for helping farmers
The situation as it stands is untenable; doing nothing is not an option. Long-term mitigation plans (discussed in the next section) are necessary, but farmers cannot keep haemorrhaging money until these plans come to fruition. Since MEFT does not have the resources to compensate farmers whilst awaiting a more permanent solution, something else must be done in the short-term to help these farmers.
The advert to sell the elephants and translocate them elsewhere reveals MEFT’s first choice of action. Elephants have been sold and successfully moved to private reserves in Namibia in the past (for example, some of the elephants on Erindi Game Reserve[7] are privately owned and others are leased from the government), so this sale seems to be an effort to replicate past success. If elephants can be moved from where they are not wanted to where they can live in peace and generate tourism revenue, we have a win-win situation.
The recent drought and damage to the tourism industry due to the COVID-19 pandemic may, however, undermine this plan. If no Namibian buyers could be found, then perhaps reserves in other countries that have experienced elephant declines would be interested. Angola and Zambia come to mind, as they have habitats similar to parts of Namibia and could be interested in restocking some of their protected areas. The costs involved in moving entire family groups over large distances may prove prohibitive, however.
The simplest and cheapest option would be to cull the elephants currently occurring on freehold farms and sell the meat to recoup the costs. Several farmers suggested this course of action during the public consultations. This is clearly not MEFT’s preferred option (as they would have done it already), but it might become necessary if there are no willing takers for the elephants in the conflict hotspots.
Others have suggested chasing the elephants out of the farmlands, but this is impractical and inhumane. The distances one would have to chase these family herds to get to the nearest protected areas from the conflict farms would cause much more severe stress than culling. There is also no guarantee that the elephants would stay in the protected area – the same drivers that are causing elephants to leave these areas (too many other elephants, need for food and water) would still be present and some parks do not have sufficient fencing to prevent future breakouts.
Long-term options for conflict mitigation
Water points can be protected from elephants by building walls around them, but it will take time and money to protect the large number of vulnerable water points in northern Namibia.
The proposed sale of 170 elephants is meant to take about half of the elephants in each of the populations that are being targeted. So it is clearly a measure to try and limit damages in the short-term whilst searching for longer-term solutions. Building walls around water points[8] have proven to be successful in conservancies, particularly if a solar pump is installed (diesel pumps get expensive when elephants are drinking the water). Adding a strand of live electrical wire around the perimeters of farms where elephants are not wanted may also be feasible in certain areas.
A few of the farms in the Kamanjab area south of Etosha have turned to tourism for their income, but these elephant-tolerant farm owners are surrounded by others that are still farming livestock. Transforming the Kavango Cattle Ranch in the north-eastern conflict hotspot into a game reserve might also work if sufficient funding is available to make the transformation (this Ranch is managed by the Namibia Industrial Development Agency on behalf of the Ministry of Trade and Industry). An elephant-proof fence would then need to be erected around the Ranch to prevent elephant movement onto neighbouring freehold farms. In all four conflict hotspots, however, there are farmers who are not interested in developing their farms for tourism, especially in the wake of COVID-19 that has devastated the tourism industry.
Farms that are part of the Kavango Cattle Ranch are highlighted. Collared elephants (coloured dots) spent most of their time on the Ranch and did not enter the Mangetti National Park to the east (Source: MEFT 2020, data supplied by N/a’an ku sê).
Several farmers suggested that the government supports private elephant ownership, which at the moment is limited to only a handful of farms. This would give farmers greater freedom in terms of managing their elephant populations through hunting, culling, or live sales to other farmers (these actions would all still require permits, as elephants are specially protected in Namibia). Freehold farmers could then access similar elephant-related benefits to communal conservancies, which would help to offset the costs incurred from living with them.
Support rather than criticism
Considering the substantial recovery of elephants since Namibia’s independence, the nature of the current conflict, and MEFT’s efforts to resolve it without culling elephants, one would think that the elephant sale would be met with international interest and support. While previous elephant translocation efforts[9] in other African countries have been heralded as wonderful conservation initiatives, this offer to translocate elephant herds to suitable locations has been met with harsh criticism.
One of the key sore points is the conflict hotspot near the village of Omatjete, as concerned parties assume that the elephants targeted by this action are those roaming west of Omatjete in the Ugab River. These desert-adapted elephants have a high tourism value; the communal conservancies in this area benefit from their presence and therefore tolerate them. Elephant Human Relations Aid[10] (EHRA) has invested heavily in protecting the water points in this area and monitoring these elephant herds.
This particular criticism would thus be well-founded if it were not based on a misunderstanding of which elephants are being targeted. The elephants in the lower reaches of the Ugab (west of Omatjete) are not the same ones that are causing havoc on the freehold farms east of Omatjete, which are the ones that MEFT is targeting (see map below). If the elephants that are currently on the freehold farms are sold, as per the tender advert, one could use that money to electrify the fence line between the communal conservancies and the freehold farms and thus establish a longer-term solution.
The purple areas are communal conservancies; the polygons with grey outlines are freehold farms; blank white space is communal land that is not in a conservancy. Elephant monitoring data from EHRA sightings (triangles) and collared elephants (dots) shows their focus on communal lands in the west. The highlighted farms have all reported problems with elephants that are from a different population to the desert-adapted elephants in the west. (Source: EHRA)
With some context and a better understanding of the situation, my hope is that those reading this article would consider ways to support MEFT and the farmers. Long-term investment into conflict mitigation and tourism is required in all four of the conflict hotspots. Near Omatjete, some of the communal conservancies need joint-venture tourism partners to realise the same benefits as those located further west. There are also many communal farmers here that have not established conservancies, and they require assistance as much as the nearby freehold farms. All of the hotspots on freehold land require protection for their water points, while strategically placed electrified fencing would ensure that the elephants stay where they are welcomed (or at least tolerated).
In the wake of a devastating multi-year drought and the COVID-19 pandemic that has crippled tourism, Namibian farmers on both freehold and communal lands stand in dire need of support. MEFT and its partners have stepped in to help the communal conservancies with the COVID resilience fund[11], and the tender advert is intended to provide much-needed relief also to freehold farmers suffering from elephant damage. At this moment in time, Namibian conservation efforts could do with fewer critics and more genuine supporters.
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I have a brief story to tell, and it goes some way to explaining why conservation is in such a mess these days.
Two talented, passionate people have taken up the cause of lion conservation and made a career of it. Neither lives in Africa. Both have recently featured regularly on international television and news media. BUT they occupy opposite ends of the acrimonious debates about the role of trophy hunting in wild lion conservation. And they regularly slag each other off on social media – often flinging out reams of information at their adoring followers.
We approached each to write a story for us, including providing FACTUAL evidence backing up their oft-repeated claims about the evils/benefits of trophy hunting of wild lions. Neither knew that we had approached the other. Both submitted their stories to us, but neither has responded to our fact-check questions, despite repeated requests going back many months.
And there you have it. While INFLUENCERS slug it out for dopamine-infused social media fame, Rome burns. It is what it is.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
In the wake of Hukumuri’s death, lots of people are now interested in human-wildlife conflict (HWC). Many wanted to replace Romina Mathonsi’s livestock. The issue of compensation for livestock killed by wild predators is complicated. Some research shows it exacerbates HWC. Other research indicates precisely the opposite. I went to find out how or if compensation is given on the Greater Kruger National Park’s western borders by the national park, the private reserves, and the provincial governments. I also spoke to NGOs working in the HWC space. I doubt Romina Mathonsi (or anyone who has lost livestock) gives a flying hoot about the reams of research, conferences and committees deciding whether or not compensation is a good idea. She needs goats. Thornybush River Lodge, didn’t muck about. They bought two goats and delivered them quietly to her. So as the debate rages, at least Ms Mathonsi has some comfort. Find out more in our first story below.
Our second story below tackles the conservation effect of farming wild species and legalising trade in their parts for human consumption. Interestingly for me, apparently stigmatising wildlife consumption helps reduce demand.
The subject of our third story below, looks at the slightly taller, red-eared version of the domestic moggy, but, to paraphrase Basil Fawlty…cuddle that, and you’ll never play the guitar again.
Finally, the seventh week of glorious African celebration through your images in our Photographer of the Year, which carries a prize of 10 000 USD and a six-day safari to Khwai in Botswana. Here’s all you need to know about entering. We are looking for pictures that evoke emotion and tell an African story.
Story 2 https://africageographic.com/stories/african-wildcat/
TOUGH MOGGIES
The African wildcat is one of Africa’s “Secret 7” – tough little cats are just as untamed and fierce as their iconic big cat cousins. Read more here
Clockwise from top left: A domestic bull watches a buffalo calf through the reserve fence; a fence broken by an elephant bull; tracks of an elephant herd in communal grazing lands; an elephant bull making himself at home in communal grazing land – the remnants of the fence he broke are bottom left; a domestic calf killed by lions.
A cure while searching for prevention
On the 12th of February 2021, we posted a story on the circumstances surrounding the death of a famous leopard Hukumuri. Many people asked what they might do to help all concerned (animal and human). This article attempts to explain the complex issues around compensation for damage caused by wild animals.
An outpouring of emotion
The death of Hukumuri unleashed a wave of emotion: outrage, sadness, helplessness, fear.
There was also an outpouring of reasoned compassion. Sympathy extended to Hukumuri, to African people living in close proximity to potentially dangerous animals and to Ms Mathonsi who, to remind you, has seven children and lost two pigs, two goats and a dog to Hukumuri. Some wanted to know how they might help to stop this sort of thing from happening again. Many expressed an earnest desire to give money to Ms Mathonsi in order that she might replace her herd.
I wish we could simply have posted her PayPal account on social media, and told those generous souls to have at it. Ms Mathonsi would no-doubt have replaced her herd many, many times over. Unfortunately, it simply ain’t that simple – in 2021 it should be, but it ain’t.
Firstly, Mrs Mathonsi has never heard of PayPal. She might have a bank account but will have no digital access to her bank because of a combination of ridiculous data costs, poor education, and physical separation from an actual bank. Secondly, Ms Mathonsi is not the only one who lost livestock to leopards in the recent past – perhaps to Hukumuri, perhaps to others, no-one really knows. Thirdly, Ms Mathonsi lives in a village awash with cultural complexities that I’m not going to vaguely attempt to delve into save to say that were she suddenly to receive a windfall, she’d immediately become a target.
So what can those kind souls who want to help do?
Well, I think the best thing we can do is explain how compensation for wild animals is effected on the western borders of the greater Kruger National Park, and then provide a few guidelines.
Compensation pros and cons
In this case, compensation means a cash (or kind) payment for a loss incurred to a Damage-Causing Animal (DCA) that has escaped from a reserve. It must be remembered that compensation is just one part of a very complex set of interventions used to mitigate human-wildlife conflict (HWC). It is a deeply emotive and powerful intervention however.
A look at the literature around financial compensation for incidents involving wild animals indicates mixed effectiveness in Africa and beyond. In summary, if managed correctly with effective reporting, adequate resources, a proper legal framework and long-term commitment, compensation has a positive impact on conservation. That said, if reporting is open to abuse and there is no legal framework then compensation can result in people encouraging DCA incidents or inventing them – nothing earth-shattering there [1][2][3]. A little more earth-shattering are reports of incidents where people will specifically cut fences and chase elephants out, claiming that they are DCAs so that the animals will be shot and the meat can be consumed.
The greater Kruger boundary
The border of the greater Kruger National Park in South Africa is more than 700 kms long. There are in excess of two million people living in rural villages living along the borders. There are many more in the region but not all live close enough to the park for DCAs to be an issue. It is important to understand that the KNP in South Africa is fenced along the entire border – this is unusual in Africa. The fence provides a hard boundary and often there is no buffer zone separating people from the fence.
The people living in these villages are poor. Villagers survive on a combination of government grants (for the elderly, unemployed mothers, the indigent and the disabled), livestock, gardening or small-scale farming. Unemployment is above 70% in many areas.
Most villages have electricity but few residents can afford it. Potable water is normally collected from communal taps which frequently run dry. Medical care is appalling and often far away. Schooling, provided by the government, ranks somewhere near the bottom of the world in various measures[4].
The purpose of this rather detailed socio-economic description is to illustrate how utterly devastating it can be when a wild animal comes out of the park and kills livestock or destroys crops – when your livelihood and those of your children is tied up with your little maize crop, your herd of goats or your cattle.
Who gives what to whom?
Although a number of reserves and lodges do not offer direct compensation for incidents involving DCAs, they do provide support for a number of community projects (water provision, education bursaries, game drives for local children, farming, medical etc.). The effectiveness and proportional generosity of these interventions form the basis for countless PhDs, endless conferences and reams of politically-charged commentary. Support of this nature comes from the lodges themselves and not the reserves they are on.
With all this in mind, we wanted to find out about the compensation policies of SANParks (operators and custodians of the Kruger National Park), the private reserves on the western boundary, and the state-operated Manyeleti Game Reserve.
By law, when an animal escapes from the greater Kruger, it becomes a problem for the province in question. In the Kruger that is either the MTPA (Mpumalanga Tourism and Parks Authority) or LEDET (Limpopo Economic Development Environment and Tourism). One of these authorities has to decide what to do with escaped animals and whether or not they are declared DCAs. So when an elephant, for example, breaks out of the Kruger, it becomes the responsibility of the province – not SANParks – although often SANParks will be brought in to help with the situation because the provincial authorities cannot deal with the situation for financial or logistical reasons.
Community members of Phalaubeni Village discuss damage-causing animal incidents
South African National Parks (SANParks)
SANParks – Kruger National Park is responsible for the longest length of boundary bordered by rural villages. They have a compensation plan that, in broad strokes, does the following:
When claims can be verified compensation is given for livestock killed by escaped lions, spotted hyenas, cheetah and wild dog.
Livestock killed by leopards is generally not compensated for, as these cats are free-ranging and found outside of reserves.
No compensation is given for crop destruction due to the difficulty in verifying such incidents.
Each incident and request for compensation must be investigated by the relevant conservation agency official (provincial or SANParks). Photographic evidence and other forms of information must form part of the submitted claims.
Compensation can be difficult to do effectively. It is complicated and requires on-going discussion and engagement both inside and outside of the organisation. However, livestock compensation next to Kruger is necessary, has born positive results and will continue to do so as it adapts through the various lessons learnt.
To summarise what a highly experienced conservationist once said to me: if you are going to treat animals as assets, then the custodians or owners of those assets must take responsibility for them. If your asset causes damage, then you have a moral duty to try to reduce the impact felt by the person in whatever way you can. This creates goodwill. Without goodwill, your asset simply becomes a hindrance to the person’s livelihood and when that happens, people may take matters into their own hands.
The financial cost of the compensation is most likely relatively low compared to the benefits. Especially when considering that only a relatively small fraction of people actually own cattle, and have likely been affected by predators directly and would need compensation. In contrast, many more people express a perceived fear of stock loss or danger from wild animals. So addressing the impact through actions such as compensation can go a long way in influencing perceptions at a broader scale.
Sabi Sands Game Reserve
There is no compensation given for human-wildlife conflict. The Sabi Sands defers to the MTPA for all incidents involving DCAs. That said, the Sabi Sands will fund helicopter and capture operations if their fence is breached provided such operations are deemed viable and appropriate.
Timbavati Private Nature Reserve
No compensation plan – deferral to the MTPA or LEDET depending on where a DCA animal escapes.
Balule Game Reserve
There are no rural communities that live near the Balule fence. The reserve does not have any specific compensation policies in place for DCA incidents. Since the surge in rhino poaching, the boundaries are monitored constantly – at least twice a day on foot, continually with digital alarm and camera systems. Any breach of the fence by human or animal is immediately acted upon which lessens the chance of predators escaping. This is more or less the case for the Sabi Sands, Timbavati and Klaserie.
Manyeleti Game Reserve
The Manyeleti defers to their land custodians, the MTPA. They do not pay compensation or make any decisions on DCA incidents.
Thornybush Private Game Reserve
Thornybush has no specific compensation plan for DCAs. That said, ad hoc compensation claims are assessed on an incident by incident basis.
Klaserie Private Nature Reserve
The Klaserie does not have a compensation plan because, as an official told me, they do not have villages directly on their borders.
Abelana Game Reserve
Abelana (the business) does not have a specific compensation policy. That said, the landowner is the community on the eastern border of the reserve. Relations with the community are of the utmost importance to the well-being of the business. Because of this priority, the eastern fence line is patrolled almost permanently and repaired continuously. To date, Abelana has not had any DCA incidents. They will, however, treat any DCA claims on an ad hoc basis and consider compensation.
Makalali Game Reserve
Makalali, does not have any villages on the borders and therefore does not have a compensation scheme. There is a big buffer zone between Makalali and the nearest village. They do however have insurance that should cover them in the event of an animal causing damage in a village or on the main road. In instances where elephants have broken out and caused damage to the fences of neighbouring properties, the reserve has reimbursed the owners and reclaimed this from their insurance.
They do have breakouts of animals from time to time because, as the warden admitted, it is very difficult to maintain 90kms of fence in permanent, perfect condition. None of these breaches of the fence has resulted in a DCA incident.
The provincial authorities
The MTPA, through their spokesman, told me emphatically that ‘…the MTPA doesn’t pay community members who lost livestock due to wildlife.’ That said, there is anecdotal evidence that ad hoc compensation has been paid from time to time. It is possible that the MTPA does not want a flood of compensation claims and therefore does not have an official policy for compensation but this is a guess.
I made multiple attempts to contact LEDET and was promised some information but none was forthcoming. Going on hearsay from people intimately involved with HWC issues, it would seem that LEDET does not pay compensation.
Clockwise from the top left: K2C environmental monitors (EMs) learning about conservation; EMs patrolling the fence; EMs investigating a broken piece of the boundary fence for incursions; a long piece of fence pushed over by elephants.
Ye olde adage – prevention is better than cure.
It would seem that compensation is a cure or medicine required for as long as the ‘sickness’ that are DCA incidents occur. The better we become at preventing DCA incidents, the less this cure will be required. Until then, compensation – well managed, funded and equitable – has shown some positive results, not only in improving relations between people and parks but also helping reserve authorities to identify hotspots where fences are regularly breached. These areas are monitored and this has reduced DCA incidents in hotspots on the western boundary of the greater Kruger.
I spoke with Mike Grover of Conservation South Africa and Vusi Tshabalala of Kruger to Canyons Biosphere (K2C), both of whom are dedicated to making the confluence of people and parks amicable, equitable and mutually beneficial.
One of the programmes that K2C facilitates, involves employing a number of environmental monitors from 74 communities on the western boundary. A pilot project in five villages, sees the environmental monitors deployed specifically to assist with human-wildlife conflict. Their role is to educate community members, identify problems through patrols and tracking, and then facilitate communication with the right authorities when an issue is identified.
Further afield, in the Mozambican part of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park, a specialised herding scheme allows for community members to graze their cattle in the reserve. The scheme, using specialised bomas and highly-trained herdsmen has reduced cattle losses to predators from 22 animals a month to zero – and this is INSIDE the Transfrontier Conservation Area!
It is initiatives like this that will ultimately provide the prevention and negate the need for the difficult-to-administer cure that is compensation.
So how can you help?
Your best bet is find an NGO (not for profit), research what they do, and contribute to their work trying to mitigate human wildlife conflict – arguably Africa’s greatest conservation challenge. There are some highly experienced, specialised and knowledgeable people with decades of experience in this space and they need support. In many cases they are having measurable success in making sure that tragedies like the death of Hukumuri, become less and less frequent.
Also, of course, you can travel responsibly. Research the lodges and reserves you visit. Make sure that their initiatives align with efforts to reduce human-wildlife conflict.
[1] Maclennan, S. D. et al. 2009. Evaluation of a compensation scheme to bring about pastoralist tolerance of lions. Biological Conservation.
[2] fao.org/3/ap537e/ap537e.pdf
[3] Bauer, H. et al. 2015. Financial compensation for damage to livestock by lions Panthera leo on community rangelands in Kenya. Oryx, volume 51, issue 1.
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
“In ancient times, cats were worshipped as gods. They have not forgotten this…” ~ Terry Pratchett
A cat stretched out on the best seat in the house, lazing in the sun, is the very picture of domestication. They purr contentedly and rub up against their human servants’ ankles, demanding to be timeously fed, or regard the excitable family dogs with a kind of contemptuous smugness from a place of safety. Yet as every cat owner knows, there are times when these cats stalk their surrounds, pupils wide and teeth and claws at the ready, embroiled in their own hunts, scuffles, and romances. In these moments, domestic cats don’t appear particularly domestic.
Their instincts are a throwback to a time when their ancestors stalked Africa and Asia, surviving by their wits and reflexes, and preying on any number of small mammals, birds, amphibians, and arthropods. Some of these cat ancestors were drawn to human settlements and abandoned their wild existence to enslave their human owners. Yet others remained wild and, to this day, African wildcats continue to live as they have for thousands of years. Rangy and hard-bitten, they slink through the continent’s savannas, forests, and wetlands – seldom seen and often overlooked but every bit as wild as the other members of the feline family.
Stealth, speed and strength – hallmarks of all members of the cat family, no matter how small they may be. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa
The true ancestors of domestic cats
In many ways, African wildcats are to cats what wolves are to dogs, with some important differences. While a history of domestic cats may seem out of place in an article on a wild creature, it goes to the heart of understanding the challenges faced by conservationists in classifying and protecting African wildcats.
The process of cat domestication was a complex one, and fossil evidence is in short supply, making piecing the events together somewhat tricky. Historians and scientists now believe that domestic cats went through two different periods of domestication – first in south-west Asia around 10,000 years ago and then, once again, in Egypt about 3500 years ago. Genetic analysis indicates that domestic cats may have two different source populations that can be traced to different periods but confirms African wildcats are the true ancestors of domestic cats.
As with dogs, scientists believe that cats were domesticated along a commensal pathway. Essentially, the wildcats (initially in Egypt and the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East) would have been attracted to human settlements for a variety of reasons, including warmth and increased food availability. Over time, people realized the benefits of keeping cats for pest control and gradually a shift took place from a purely pragmatic mutualistic relationship to one that extended to companionship (and selective breeding). A skeleton of one wildcat uncovered in Egypt and dated to somewhere between 3,600 and 3,800 years ago shows evidence of healed fractures that suggest the injured cat was cared for by a human.
Unlike dogs, modern cats have retained more genetic and behavioural similarities with their wild relatives, most likely because, while domestic dogs have been largely isolated from their ancestral wolf populations for thousands of years, domestic cats have continued to breed with their wild cousins. This, in turn, has ultimately led to one of the greatest threats facing wildcat populations not only in Africa but across the globe.
Close similarities between African wildcats and their domestic cousins speaks to an interwoven evolutionary history. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa
What’s in a name? Everything.
Given that domestic cats have only been “domesticated” for around 4,000 or so years and have continued to breed with their immediate wild neighbours, they are almost indistinguishable genetically from wildcat populations. These genetic and morphological similarities have made the classification of several smaller cat species extremely complicated and often contested. So much so that even the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature only confirmed the domestic cat as a separate species in 2003.
The Felidae family or cat family evolved around 10 million years ago, and the Felis genus diverged some 7 million years later. This genus of small and medium-sized cats encompasses several different species and subspecies including domestic cats (F. catus), the jungle cat (F. chaus), the black-footed cat (F. nigripes), the sand cat (F. margarita) and the African wildcat (F. lybica).
The IUCN Red List still lists the African wildcat as a subspecies of the European wildcat (F. silvestris), which in turn has been allocated a conservation status of “Least Concern”. However, this is likely to change after a 2017 report by the IUCN’s own Cat Specialist Group recognized the African wildcat as a separate species – Felis lybica. The report also tentatively proposed three different subspecies distinguished primarily on distribution: F. l. lybica (found in North Africa), F. l. cafra (the Southern African wildcat) and F. l. ornate (found in Asia).
Species and subspecies distinctions may seem pedantic in animals that are almost identical on so many levels, but these distinctions are fundamental to conservation efforts. Classification as a separate species allows zoologists to draw substantive conclusions as to the animal’s conservation status. It also makes the process of identifying specific threats more selective. In the case of the African wildcat, it is the threat to its genetic integrity that menaces the population.
The conservation (cat)astrophe?
In a 2010 study by the Ecology Global Network, scientists estimated that there were some 600 million domestic cats in the world. By contrast, while there are no estimates of African wildcat populations (the logistics and their widespread distribution make counting them an almost impossible task), there is no doubt that they are massively outnumbered.
As available wild spaces have vanished one by one, human populations have expanded, bringing domestic and feral cats with them. Given their genetic similarities, sexual encounters between domestic cats and wildcats are inevitable, and hybridization is common on the fringes of wildcat distribution ranges.
In a 2014 study, researchers concluded that in South Africa at least, levels of hybridization are still relatively low, especially in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier National Park which is a population stronghold for the African wildcat. The DNA samples collected from wildcats that indicated the highest levels of interbreeding came from individuals in the Kruger National Park. Given the high human population density on the Park’s border, this is hardly surprising.
A project such as Alley Cat Rescue aims to mitigate this impact through domestic and feral cat sterilization programmes, focussing their attentions on specific border areas. These programmes also implement vaccination schemes to reduce the risk of disease transmission between domestic and wildcats.
African wildcats can be identified by reddish shading on the back of their ears. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa
Is it a wildcat or an escaped moggie?
To the uninitiated, an African wildcat could look for all the world like a slim domestic cat. There are, however, subtle differences between the two. African wildcats are slightly taller than the average domestic cat, and their legs are proportionately longer, which gives them a more upright posture, particularly when sitting. Their walking gait is more like that of a serval or cheetah than the average domestic cat.
The variety seen in domestic cat coat colours is a product of selective breeding, and this variety is not reflected in the coat colours of the African wildcat. Instead, their almost uniform colour ranges from red to sandy and brown to grey, with very faint stripes known as the mackerel-tabby pattern. The end of their tails is ringed with black, the backs of their ears are characteristically russet, and the underside of their paws are pitch-black.
African wildcats are highly efficient little hunters in their own right. Chobe National Park, Botswana
Behaviour
Like their domestic congeners, African wildcats have proved to be extremely adaptable and, as a result, occupy a wide number of different habitats from deserts and grasslands to savannas (though their range does not extend to rainforests). Their diets are varied and unselective – anything, including small mammals, birds, reptiles, and arthropods are all targeted. Some individuals have even been known to prey on young livestock animals such as lambs or kids, putting them at risk of conflict with farmers. African wildcats are reliant on keen senses, particularly their hearing, to identify prey. Their ambush approach is well-honed, and they demonstrate extraordinary patience in stalking – often biding their time for hours at a time.
Unusual circumstances for an opportunistic jackal. Erindi Private Game Reserve, Namibia
One of the common effects of domestication (seen in domestic dogs, cats and other animals) is an increased breeding frequency. Female domestic cats reach sexual maturity as early as four months old and are capable of producing three litters of kittens every year. In contrast, the African wildcat generally only produces one litter during the wet season.
Being one of the smallest members of the cat family, their natural predators are numerous and include the larger cat species and birds of prey.
Conclusion
For the most part, African wildcats are somewhat underappreciated – they look so similar to feral cats that they are often dismissed as such, despite their status as one of the “Secret 7” (serval, wildcat, large-spotted genet, civet, porcupine, aardvark and pangolin). Yet these gangly, tough little cats are just as interesting, untamed, and fierce as their iconic big cat cousins.
The debate surrounding the farming and regulated, legal trade of wildlife is one of the most polarizing discussions in conservation. Supporters of both sides have reached an effective deadlock over the historical and perceived advantages and disadvantages of each approach. A new study by the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife in the USA investigates the effects of bans/legalisation on the Chinese consumption of animal parts. The results caution against legalising trade.
In summary, the findings show that:
The legalisation of trade impacts personal and social perceptions of the use of wildlife parts;
The legal trade of wildlife reduces the stigma and increases the personal acceptability and social approval of animal parts’ consumption for both medicinal and non-medicinal purposes;
The effects of wildlife farming are more pronounced on the perceptions surrounding the use of mammals: farming mammals reduces the stigma attached to using mammal parts;
Reducing the stigma attached to the use of animal parts could see a massive increase in demand;
Trade and farming of one species has knock-on effects on the stigma attached to other, non-target species; and
For bans to be effective, they need to be purpose-specific – directed at both medicinal and non-medicinal use.
The background
One of the primary questions at the heart of the wildlife trade debate is the effect that legalisation has on demand for the animal part concerned – does a legal wildlife trade saturate the market or increase it? Following on from this question is whether or not farming wildlife can meet this demand and reduce poaching of wild populations. Yet even though these conversations dominate conservation circles, little empirical evidence exists to answer these complex questions. The study by Dr Rizzolo, an expert in conservation criminology, is based on an experimental vignette survey conducted in Mainland China to address some of these unknowns in a more quantifiable manner.
The survey
When used for research purposes, vignettes are essentially short stories about a hypothetical person or situation presented to the participants of the survey. The participants are then asked a series of questions based on the context of their specific vignette. In this case, the various scenarios presented in the vignettes focussed on four species (bears, tigers, snakes, and turtles) and two different uses of the animal product (medicinal or non-medicinal). It also dealt with three legal situations: the product is illegal; the product is legal and from a farmed animal; or the product is legal and from a wild animal.
Once the respondents had read the vignette, they were presented with a series of questions around the acceptability of wildlife consumption, the social approval of wildlife consumption and the legal repercussions for the various wildlife species. The survey was conducted online with a sample of 1002 adult respondents, and the demographic variables (age, gender, and income) were approximately representative of China’s population as a whole. The sample did include more highly educated respondents than is representative of China as a whole. However, given the link between social status and wildlife consumption, the researchers were comfortable that the survey captured the demographic relevant to the questions at hand.
Legal trade of wildlife = increased acceptability and social approval
The results of these surveys provide empirical evidence for the stigma effect on wildlife consumption. There is strong evidence that the legal context of a particular animal part affects not only influences perceptions of legal punishment, but also the level of acceptability and social approval for wildlife consumption. Naturally, while this acceptability does not automatically alter behaviour (purchasing and using animal parts), it does act as a decisive motivating factor. The fact that illegality decreases both acceptability and social approval challenges the idea that demand can be saturated through legal products – because demand will invariably increase with legalisation.
Interestingly, the study also indicates that legalisation and wildlife farming are related but distinct policy contexts. Hypothetical bans had a uniform effect on the survey responses for all species concerned, but the impact of legal wildlife farming was more nuanced. Where parts from mammals (in this case, bears and tigers) were concerned, wildlife farming increased the acceptability of their consumption and reduced the stigma surrounding their use.
Furthermore, wildlife farming and wildlife trade bans can also impact the consumption of non-target species. For example, in a hypothetical scenario where snake consumption was banned, this correlated with increased acceptability of the consumption of bear products and social approval of the use of tiger bones. On the other side of this spectrum, legal bear farming was associated with the increased acceptability of tiger bone and skin. The reason for use (medicinal or non-medicinal/consumptive) also affected perceptions of the use of non-target species. This demonstrates just how complex the effects of wildlife farming and trade bans can be for all wildlife, even those species not directly under discussion.
The conclusion
The author acknowledges that there are limitations to this research, including the lack of qualitative data that could have provided some insight into the respondents’ motivations. In addition, the stigma attached to the use of wildlife products is only one of several factors that influence the acceptability of consumption.
However, the study offers important insights into how the legalisation of wildlife trade and wildlife farms affects consumers and, ultimately, the demand for wildlife products. The data indicate that for bans to be effective, they need to be tailored to the species, the product, and the type of use. Where mammal-based medicinal products are concerned, a ban that explicitly targets medicinal use is needed to reduce demand, rather than just a species-level consumption ban. Notably, the study concludes by suggesting that “bans on wildlife consumption and decreased wildlife farming of mammals can have conservation benefits”.
Studies such as this are of profound importance in the realm of African wildlife conservation, as conservationists and policymakers debate the legal trade in rhino horn (both from wild and farmed animals) and the farming of lions for their bones. Understanding the real demand for animal parts once the illegal stigma is removed is vital to determining whether there is any truth to the popular theory that farmed wildlife will keep wild populations safe.
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Turn up the mic; I’ve got something to say.
It’s no secret that Covid-19 and other viruses originated in the wildlife markets of China. Of course, this needs to be officially confirmed so that society can find a way to avoid further illness, death and economic misery – as we are currently experiencing. But here’s the thing: this pandemic was forecast by health experts and China was warned about the ‘wet’ markets. Despite that, what are the chances that the government of China will be held ACCOUNTABLE for the tidal wave of death and economic misery that has swamped us all? The world surely needs to keep the government of China in a good mood if our stuttering economies are to recover, and we will all certainly continue to buy mobile phones, computers, clothes and other goods made in that country. Expect a light slap on the wrist for the government of China, for the evil wildlife trade to continue unabated (it has already recommenced, after a brief hiatus) and for the next wave of viruses to come rolling off the factory floor.
On a lighter note, check out the NEW FEATURE on our website where you can easily find our best stories – based on species, places, safari tips and safari report-backs. From our home page, go to ‘Our stories’ on the menu and see the drop-down menu of delicious content offerings. Off you go!
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
Our two stories below will invoke entirely disparate emotions.
The first will leave you frantically making excuses to your employer for why you need a few weeks off. My wife and I honeymooned in the Kgalagadi last year (note: camping in the desert is an excellent test of whether newlyweds have made a great choice or a catastrophic mistake). It is a mystical desert of astonishing life. Whether you camp or choose more salubrious accommodations, the Kgalagadi will plug you right back into wilderness.
The second story is a tragedy on multiple fronts. A tale that has created heated debate, anger, sadness, compassion, learning and, lamentably, vitriolic attacks. Most people reacted with compassion, expressing a desire to help. Hukumuri was a magnificent leopard. He died too soon. If there is an atom of positivity to be taken from Hukumuri’s tragic demise, it is that his fame has created an awareness of human-wildlife conflict challenges; a greater appreciation of the fact that there are people, straining well below the breadline, who must live with beautiful, threatened but potentially dangerous African wildlife.
Lastly, another stupendous collection of images in our Photographer of the Year, which carries a prize of 10 000 USD and a six-day safari to Khwai in Botswana. Send in your images. Here’s all you need to know about entering. The only criterion is that the pictures must be a celebration of Africa. (They should not include, as one hopeful submitted, a selfie using nothing but a coat hanger to cover the bits no-one wants to see. That’s just odd).
Story 1 https://africageographic.com/stories/kgalagadi/
PREDATOR HEAVEN
Safari on your mind? The Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park offers one of the most spectacular and intimate immersions in nature imaginable
Our Photographer of the Year 2021 is open for submissions, with cash prizes of US$10,000 for the overall winner and the two runners-up. They and their partners will also join our CEO Simon Espley and his wife Lizz on the ultimate private safari in Botswana.
DID YOU KNOW: Just 7% of our DNA is unique to modern humans
WATCH: Wild dogs from the Tuli Block (Botswana) turn up in the Waterberg (South Africa) (4:15)
Hannes Lochner is a renowned, award-winning wildlife photographer and has been taking pictures professionally since 2007. He has long been fascinated by the arid zones of Southern Africa, which of course, include the Kalahari. His name is now synonymous with the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park and the park’s leopards in particular.
Bob Chiu was born in Hong Kong and lives in Los Angeles, USA. He is a visual storyteller whose images from travel to street photography convey the beauty of various human cultures, emphasising human interactions. He aims to capture precious moments of unique human interaction in a rapidly changing world. He hopes his work can help make the world a smaller place by allowing people from different parts of the globe to know each other better.
Based in Botswana for the last 15 years, James Gifford is a multi-award-winning photographer, writer and videographer, with two published books and numerous magazine credits to his name. In between guiding specialist photographic safaris and creating marketing content for safari companies, he takes every opportunity to get into the bush to create images that can influence how we think about the world and conserve the bounty of wildlife that is still left on our planet.
My name is Aditya Nair, and I specialise in wildlife photography with an added touch of surrealism. I grew up in Kenya snd couldn’t help but feel connected to the wildlife around me. Every time I saw a different species for the first time, I felt responsible for telling stories about us and them.
From Brazilian jazz clubs to Africa’s national parks, Ana Zinger sings and photographs. Born in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, she majored in music and vocal performance in 2003. She developed an interest in photography at an early age, only to find her inspiration reached a peak when she visited Africa for the first time in 2000. Mesmerised by the beauty of the African wilderness, she started travelling back to Africa to photograph its wildlife. It has been 20 years now… Her work has featured in several expositions, magazines, Brazilian newspapers and Africa Geographic. Ana’s mission has been to connect people to Earth’s wild inhabitants through her lenses, throwing light on the importance of a respectful human-wildlife coexistence in a changing world.
I am an amateur hobby photographer raised in South Africa. I have a deep-seated love for wildlife, photography and the African bush.
Geo Cloete is a multi-talented artist with an architectural degree from Nelson Mandela Bay University (South Africa) in 1999. The fruits of his labour have seen him complete award-winning works in architecture, jewellery, sculpture and photography. Sharing the beauty and splendour of the natural world, especially the underwater world, is a primary focus of his photographic projects. In recognition of his contribution to spreading awareness of ocean conservation, Geo was invited to become a Mission Blue partner in 2015.
I grew up in a small nomadic Maasai community in the southern part of Kenya. I now work as a professional safari guide showing international guests the beauty of nature in Olare Motorogi Conservancy.
Kirkamon Alarin Cabello was born in the Philippines. Nature hikes led him to a love for photography at an early age. He worked as a signage layout artist in a mining company based in the Democratic Republic of Congo. During this time, he became even more enamoured with nature photography and birding. Through this art, Kirkamon eased his loneliness away from family and loved ones. It was therapy to keep him sane and happy. He has successfully entered several local competitions in the Philippines for birding photography.
Marcello Galleano, an entrepreneur in the field of nutraceuticals and herbal medicine, has always been a lover of nature and adventure trips. He has visited more than 86 countries worldwide and collaborates with non-profit associations in Africa and South America. Passionate about wildlife photography, he loves to capture the most incredible moments that the various environments offer and share the world’s beauty.
I am a conservation scientist, drone pilot and an avid wildlife photographer based in Gauteng, South Africa. I completed my formal training in 2007 as a nature conservation student in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, whereafter I conducted a postgraduate study on the vulnerable African Grass Owl on the Highveld of South Africa. I am currently employed by a non-profit conservation organisation. My primary role is to study novel ways to protect wildlife from power line electrocutions and collisions. I also pilot unmanned aerial vehicles for various conservation missions. My love for wildlife photography blossomed in the Kgalagadi and has since been nurtured by a passion for birding, scuba diving and various other outdoor hobbies I share with my wife.
Philip Jackson was born in the United Kingdom. In 1992, at the age of 28, in need of adventure and tired of grey skies, he embarked on a bicycle ride to South Africa to start a new life. He fell in love with the country and has lived there ever since.
Piotr Naskrecki is an entomologist, conservation biologist, and photographer with over 20 years of experience in biodiversity research in academic environments and non-profit conservation organisations. He received his PhD in entomology from the University of Connecticut, USA. His interests concentrate on sound communication in insects and other animals, new species discovery, biodiversity conservation, and popularisation of scientific knowledge.
Sam Turley was born in Staffordshire, England, in 1992. Growing up in the countryside, Sam’s fascination with the natural world started at a very young age and has never left him. He has since dedicated his life to wildlife conservation, and after studying zoology in the UK, he went on to qualify as a field guide in South Africa, where he worked for three years. During a trip to Namibia in 2016, Sam’s passion for wildlife photography ignited, and he has been obsessed ever since. He was the overall winner of the 2020 Wilderness Safaris People’s Choice Award and was a three-time finalist in the highly prestigious 2020 Natural History Museum’s Photographer of the Year competition. His work has also been featured in many magazines, including The Telegraph, Getaway and Travel Africa. He now lives and works in Zimbabwe on a rhino conservancy where he plans to run photographic workshops and tours.
I was born and educated in Zimbabwe, moved to KwaZulu Natal, South Africa to complete a midwifery diploma as a young woman and married a South African farmer who is passionate about wildlife. So it was that my interest in wildlife and photography slowly began.
From Italian origins, Valentino Morgante was born in Malawi, in the heart of Africa, where he spent his first 18 years living in close contact with African nature and culture. He completed his last years of study in Johannesburg and then moved to Italy. There, he began his working life, where he developed, among other things, a passion for nature and sports photography.
Ying Shi is a Chinese photographer who has lived in Canada for nearly 20 years. He is a member of the Canadian Association For Photographic Art, a council member of the Jiahua Elite Photography Association, and a member of the Photographic Society of America. He was awarded The Distinguished Canadian Photographer by the 126th Toronto International Salon of Photography in 2019. His photographs in Kenya have won many awards in international photography competitions.
WATCH: 
Travel writer, mountain guide and mother, Sarah Kingdom was born and brought up in Sydney, Australia. Coming to Africa at 21, she fell in love with the continent and stayed. Sarah guides on Kilimanjaro several times a year, and has lost count of how many times she has stood on the roof of Africa. She has climbed and guided throughout the Himalayas and now spends most of her time visiting remote places in Africa. When she is not travelling, she runs a cattle ranch in Zambia with her husband.
