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Khwai wildlife action + surviving snares + mega safari
It’s no secret that the safari industry has been hammered by the Covid-19 pandemic. Although many lodges are now full, this is partly because of Covid-delayed bookings – which will also impact the 2023 season, although to a lesser extent. This means that safari planning for next year should be done sooner rather than later if you are travelling during the high season of June to September. Start the conversation now so we can plan an expertly tailored African adventure just for you.
Speaking of heading out on that much-anticipated safari, our talented Photographer of the Year 2022 winners have just returned from their well-deserved trip to Khwai Private Reserve, Botswana. Our CEO Simon accompanied the travellers and has returned with tales of non-stop wildlife action, predator sightings and elephant antics. Read Simon’s trip report on the incredible wildlife encounters experienced by the group, complete with stunning pictures from a few of the attendees. Not to be missed in our first story below.
Our second story delves into the effects of human-wildlife conflict on lions and leopards in the Luangwa and Kafue regions in Zambia. Scientists examining the skulls of trophy-hunted lions and leopards from these areas have detected old injuries from snares and shotguns. The alarming quantity of incidents picked up by the scientists shows that the occurrence of snare entanglement for the big cats, as well as other run-ins with humans, greatly surpasses previous estimates. Read more below.
Wednesday, the 28th of September, was World Rabies Day. We (students of the Faculty of Veterinary Science) spent the day in an urban township called Soshanguve, just north of Pretoria, vaccinating community dogs and raising awareness about this fatal disease. It was an immensely enriching experience and a vital initiative conducted in conjunction with the Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development.
Did you know that infectious diseases – including rabies and canine distemper – transmitted by domestic dogs are one of the primary threats facing African wild dog (painted wolf) populations across the continent? Vaccination campaigns of rural domestic dogs may be time-consuming and expensive, but their conservation value cannot be overstated – they are the ONLY effective tool for controlling these viruses. They save animal and human lives.
There’s no better time than now to book your next adventure. October-November is a great time to embark on your safari: the rains have not yet arrived, the crowds have left, wildlife encounters are numerous and exploring all that the continent has to offer will be a delight. Whether you prefer a few days in a watery paradise, or a mega trip traversing multiple countries, we’ve got the handmade package for you:
Okavango Delta safari – 4 days: This brief safari is a great introduction to the lush wilderness of the Okavango. Glide down the complex network of waterways on a mokoro (water level dependant), spot the Big 5 while on game drives and enjoy spectacular birdwatching. Choose between a budget, mid-range or luxury option – there’s something for everyone!
Southern Africa mega safari – 19 days: This iconic southern African safari is the ultimate bucket-list adventure, covering three countries: Visit Greater Kruger, Cape Town and the winelands in South Africa, Khwai Community Concession and Chobe National Park in Botswana, and Victoria Falls in Zimbabwe – for a decadent once-in-a-lifetime trip.
WATCH: They’re small, cute and rather special – rock hyraxes, also known as dassies. This thrilling documentary about the lives of dassies on the South African coastline has it all: territorial disputes and declarations of war, romance and love songs, playful youngsters and raunchy teenagers, narrow escapes and hard lessons (51:39). Click here to watch
The action within meters of us was so intense, so absorbing, that now and then, we had to rest the eyes and recalibrate brains that had lapsed into states of catatonic bliss. But more about that later. My wife and I spent almost a week in August 2022 with our Photographer of the Year 2022 winners in Botswana’s Khwai Private Reserve. These few words do scant justice to the experience, and the images below go a bit further.
Our first game drive yielded a hunting party of seven wild dogs (African painted wolves) in the fading light and then a relaxed serval that sat within meters of us, paws neatly tucked in like a chilled house cat – great harbingers of things to come in our sojourn to paradise. The following morning found us parked off for hours under a massive camelthorn tree; a leopard seductively draped over a gnarled branch; legs and tail dangling. On the way back to the lodge for lunch, we bumped into a haggard one-eyed male lion – still recovering from a sound beating he recently took from pretenders to his throne. The three large intruders were still trawling the area, and our vanquished leader’s two coalition partners, eight lionesses and eight cubs, had fled. We also bumped into a leopardess and her two tiny cubs on a few occasions. The final sighting of her was sans cubs as she rested on a low-hanging bare branch in the dark of night before indulging us with a few yoga poses, sliding down the tree and strolling haughtily past us and into the night. Our photographers filled many an SD card and drained their batteries that night …
But enough about the game drives along the lush water channels that so define this eastern fringe of the Okavango Delta. What draws me to this place at the height of the dry season is the two underground photographic hides on the dry east side of Khwai Private Reserve – close to Chobe National Park (there are no fences). I have spent many hours in these hides armed with only a mobile phone and binoculars – absorbing every detail as wild Africa reveals her riches, exuberance and moods. At this time of year, there is a constant stream of big male elephants that arrive from near and far. These big boys move between Botswana, Zimbabwe, Namibia and Zambia in search of food, water and mating opportunities.
And so, this year, our group of photographic winners and their partners headed to Khwai to witness what is undoubtedly one of Africa’s best elephant experiences. These gentle giants slurp, jostle and rumble a few meters away – so close that sometimes all you can see are legs, bellies and that other large bit. It’s fascinating to see the various characters amongst the bulls and how some are respected more than others. Sometimes the water clears entirely of elephants on the arrival of an individual elephant with a confident swagger and gangster attitude.
Our winners often grabbed their expensive equipment as water sprayed into the hide while behemoths barged and sloshed outside. I spent a fair bit of time outside the hides, a few meters from the elephants but protected by a pile of logs, and on several occasions, observed them watching the humans through the hide slots as they sprayed the water into the hide. Make of that what you will.
And in-between the forest of grey legs, we also spotted gangs of banded mongoose, warthogs, impalas, emerald-spotted wood doves and Burchell’s sandgrouse trying their luck.
See our Botswana safari special offers below these epic images.
One of two underground photographic hides in Khwai Private Reserve
The east-facing photographic hides accommodate up to 6 photographers on comfortable padded chairs. The hides are underground and so cool inside – a pleasant difference to rising outside temperatures at this time of year. The best time to see large numbers of elephants is from August to November (before the first rains) from late morning onwards as they arrive to drink in the heat of the day. The two hides are a 10-minute game drive from Sky Beds ( a must-do experience) and 40 minutes from Hyena Pan Lodge (another immersive elephant destination). The area is dominated by mopane and Kalahari apple-leaf woodland and scrub – and supports good eland, roan and sable antelope populations.
The low-level perspective of the underground hides results in mesmerising photos
Perhaps the images below will go some way in illustrating what our exuberant group experienced during our time in Khwai Private Reserve. Though we all agreed that words and pictures did not adequately describe the mind-numbing underground hide experience.
We were fortunate to spend time with this large female leopard as she enjoyed a late morning snoozeClose-up photos captured from the underground hidesTower-top accommodation for sleeping under the stars at Sky BedsA leopard cub pauses to engage with us. Its sibling and mom were nearby but invisibleIncredible opportunities for abstract wildlife shots at Khwai’s underground hides; Our 2022 Photographer of the Year Alex Brackx and his wife Karen enjoying a mokoro outingThis vanquished pride male displays his battle scarsA Meyer’s parrot poses for its portrait
A muddy traipse through the waterhole by one of the behemoths, captured by the photographer at eye-levelA coppery-tailed coucal soaks up the first rays of the day, and an Africa barred owlet in late-afternoon sunlightThe mother leopard encountered several times during our safari resting on a low-hanging branch, without her cubsBull elephants put on a display at the waterholeA yellow-billed oxpecker enjoys a meal atop a young zebra; sundowners never tasted sweeter
Lodges we stayed at
Little Sable
This stylish camp in Khwai Private Reserve has eight canvas tents that each overlook a floodplain and beyond to the tree-lined bank of the deep Sable Alley water channel. The camp has a cosy feel, with privacy ensured by tall trees that also keep the tents in shade. Game-drive action starts the minute you leave the camp, and mokoro explorations of the waterways are just a short drive away.
Hyena Pan
Eight canvas tents in the shade of cathedral mopane trees look over a large waterhole that teems with elephants and other wildlife. This camp has a slightly eclectic feel – with a laid-back vibe. Set in the dry deciduous woodland back-country, this camp is best located to enjoy the underground photo hides and Sky Beds. Game drives will take you to the wildlife-rich water channels and floodplains of Sable Alley.
Sky Beds
This unique camp comprises three wooden ‘towers’ set far apart, with a central unit to enjoy meals and sundowners. Each tower has a middle-story rest room with shower and toilet and an upper-story bedroom open to the stars – making this a ‘million-star’ experience! The sky beds look over a waterhole popular with elephants, lions and other wildlife.
Human-wildlife conflict is an ever-growing threat to wildlife (and people) in Africa. Scientists from the Zambia Lion Project at the University of California examining the skulls of lions and leopards have found that simple forensic methods can improve the detection of previous non-lethal injuries from snares and shotguns.
Quantifying the extent of human-wildlife conflict is challenging for conservationists and policymakers, as many incidents go undetected and unreported. Mortality of animals is usually used to estimate its effects on wildlife, but this approach fails to include non-lethal injuries, which are difficult to detect. As a result, the potential for underestimation is high. Notably, this new research found definitive evidence of snare entanglement that greatly surpassed the previous estimates for the Luangwa and Kafue regions in Zambia. The researchers also discovered that nearly a third of the examined male lions had old shotgun-pellet injuries to their skulls.
These findings came from the forensic examination of the skulls and teeth of 112 trophy-hunted lions and 45 trophy-hunted leopards that lived in Zambia between 2000 and 2012. Researchers noticed unnatural wear marks on the teeth and, by comparison with evidence from pumas, foxes and coyotes, were able to conclude that these marks were made by biting and pulling on wire snares. The grooves left behind on the teeth are distinctive and distinguishable from natural tooth wear. Snares can have a devastating effect on both individual animals and the ecology of an area due to their indiscriminate nature and capacity for severe injury and suffering. For carnivores, the impact of snares is two-fold: depleting their natural supply of prey and causing potentially lethal injuries.
Using this method (along with other physical evidence such as characteristic scarring), the researchers found that 37% of the male lions and 22% of the leopards survived being snared and escaped during their lifetimes. Similarly, close examination of some of the skulls revealed evidence of shotgun injuries. In some cases, the pellets were still embedded in the skulls. In others, characteristic circular indentations, metal marks and bony inflammation associated with lead made these injuries easy to distinguish. 27% of the studied lion skulls had these injuries (none were found in the leopard skulls). While poachers do use shotguns, local community members may also fire shotguns to scare off carnivores without the intention of harming or killing them. However, the buckshot has the potential to cause serious injury and with the added concern of future lead poisoning.
16% of the lions from Kafue National Park and 7% from the Luangwa Valley had previously survived both snares and shotgun injuries. While it is conjecture, the researchers suggest several possible scenarios where one injury may have occasioned the other. For example, a snare injury could compromise a lion’s hunting ability, leading them to seek easier livestock prey and increasing their risk of encountering humans and being hazed with buckshot.
Interestingly, researchers concluded that the incidents of anthropogenic injuries to wild animals were higher in the Kafue region than in Luangwa. They had expected to find the opposite, as Luangwa has higher human population densities than Kafue, and poaching and human-wildlife conflict are generally more prevalent near human settlements. One possible reason is that anti-poaching and incentive programmes were more intensive and widespread in Luangwa, with an increased risk of detection due to anti-poaching programmes and higher tourist densities. However, it shows that human population size is not necessarily an accurate predictor of human-wildlife conflict, and there may be many more complex nuances.
Understanding and quantifying human-wildlife conflict is of vital importance to the survival and well-being of both Africa’s wildlife and people, as well as analysing the effectiveness of mitigation strategies. Through relatively simple forensic techniques, the authors of this new study were able to reveal more “cryptic” poaching and incidents of conflict between people and animals. They recommend that standardised photographs of the skulls and teeth of all live-captured or hunted carnivores be taken as a matter of course to aid scientific investigations.
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Ancient forest + nocturnal elephants
There is a plant so rare that it OCCURS ONLY on one rocky hilltop near my hometown. Nowhere else on the planet. Its human-given name is Encephalartos dyerianos – the Lillie cycad. Its numbers have been reduced to critically endangered levels by poachers – fueled by collectors and gardeners who feel that this prehistoric beauty should feature in their private collections rather than where nature intended. Go figure.
Anyway, two days ago, I hiked to the top of that hill and communed with these giants. I was accompanied by a small team of HEROES – anti-poaching folk who dedicate their lives (literally) to keeping rhinos safe. And cycads. The excellent news is that there is a plan being developed to ensure the safety in the wild of the remaining Lillie cycads. More about that later, once the ink is dry.
Elsewhere, South Africa’s Minister of the Environment et al has ordered sardine-fishing companies to CEASE FISHING in the vicinity of the last remaining African penguin colonies. The ban is temporary until all scientific input has been evaluated. Competition for food is thought to be among the pressures contributing to the decline of the African penguin population over the last century from more than a million breeding pairs to about 10,000 pairs. Hopefully, we will see more brave, far-sighted decisions like this from other people in positions of power.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor – Taryn van Jaarsveld
This week we are taking you on a journey to one of Kenya’s best-kept secrets: the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. This ancient and almost eldritch forest, just inland from the small beach town of Watamu, is filled with weird, wonderful and endangered creatures found nowhere else on earth. The forest is a must-visit for naturalist and adventurers alike. Read our first story below to find out what makes this coastal forest so special.
New research shows that Chobe elephants are so affected by human farming activities, that they have learnt how to change their activity patterns to reduce risk of human encounters. Scientists found that Chobe’s intuitive elephants moved through the wildlife corridors in agricultural landscapes almost exclusively at night. Read more about this fascinating study in our second story below.
I have some good news about the environment! (Yes, you read that correctly.) Did you know that the ozone layer in the atmosphere is gradually recovering and may even be fully repaired in the next 40 years?
It has been 35 years since humanity took the necessary action to phase out the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs – chemicals once used in refrigerators and aerosols). These were burning holes in our ozone – the stratosphere layer responsible for shielding our planet from much of the Sun’s UV rays. Since peak levels of the early 1990s, the quantities of CFCs and other ozone-depleting gases in the mid-latitude stratosphere have fallen over 50%.
It just goes to show what rapid action can achieve…
Artsy Safari
Travel client Christine recently visited Kambaku Safari Lodge, Timbavati Private Nature Reserve, for an AG safari with pro-artist, Alison Nicholls:
“You know a trip has been great when you are sad to see it end and are already thinking about the next one shortly after. Alison’s art safari helped me reconnect with my art in an inspiring and joyful way. With Alison’s expert advice I noticed an improvement in my sketches on day one and learnt how to better observe wildlife to translate what I was seeing onto my page. The daily drives helped hone my ability to capture what I was seeing quickly, and to feel more comfortable using watercolour to sketch.
The accommodation at Kambaku was amazing – as was the food, and hospitality of the lodge staff. The AG team were also great to work with. They were very responsive and helpful with all my questions and travel logistics to ensure a positive trip. I’m so glad I signed up for this memorable experience that I will always remember. ”
WATCH: The largest overland migration in the world has reached the Mara River and The Greatest Show on Earth – the crossing and recrossing of the river by the wildebeest herds – is in full swing at the moment. (43:13). Click here to watch
Kenya is renowned for her sweeping plains and savannas bursting to the brim with iconic animals. Yet she still has a few well-kept secrets to which only a fortunate few are privy. One such secret is the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest – an ancient and almost eldritch forest filled with weird, wonderful and endangered creatures found nowhere else on earth.
Arabuko-Sokoke Forest
The Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is the largest remaining fragment of dry coastal forests that once stretched along a significant portion of the East African coastline. Situated just inland of the small beach town of Watamu, the 416km2 (41,600 ha) forest lies 180km north of Mombasa, between Malindi and Kilifi. Within the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Reserve, a tiny percentage of the total area is gazetted as the Arabuko-Sokoke National Park in the north-western corner.
The forest is a naturalist’s dream, an ornithologist’s delight, and a lepidopterist’s playground. Once ranked by BirdLife International as the second most crucial forest for bird conservation in mainland Africa, it is home to over 230 bird species. Six are globally threatened species, some endemic to the forest and surroundings. Six groups of butterflies endemic to the East African coast bejewel the leafy pathways and seasonal pools in shades of emerald, gold and cerulean. And the undergrowth shelters two unique little mammals, along with an assortment of tiny antelope and secretive predators.
Temperatures along Kenya’s coast can be sweltering at times, but beneath the towering boughs and thick canopies of Arabuko-Sokoke, this forest of rare riches offers a cool, shaded refuge for its unusual inhabitants. Three different types of forest predominate. Mixed forest typified by diverse tree flora extends across the wetter coastal sands in the east, while the Brachystegia (miombo) forests occupy the drier white sands in the forest’s centre. Finally, dense Cynometra occupies the majority of the forest on the red sands of the western edge of the park.
Arabuko-Sokoke Forest features towering boughs and thick canopies of mixed forest type, Brachystegia forest and Cynometra forests – presenting a wonder of diverse tree flora
Elephants to elephant shrews
Arabuko-Sokoke is home to herds of buffalo and elephant, restricted to a smaller section of the park by an electric fence to reduce human-wildlife conflict along the densely populated fringes of the forest. The buffalo are shy, and encounters are rare, but elephant sightings are a more regular occurrence, particularly during the dry season when the herds gather around the remaining water points.
However, most visitors to the forest are in search of far smaller and unusual creatures. One of the forest’s flagship species is a tiny animal known as the golden-rumped sengi, or elephant shrew. These distinctive animals are the largest elephant shrew species, with long, prehensile noses and brightly-coloured rumps that are undeniably endearing. Classified as ‘Endangered’ on the IUCN Red List, 90% of their known population is found in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. The endemic Sokoke bushy-tailed mongoose is a little shier and seldom seen, as is the near-endemic Ader’s duiker (found only in Arabuko-Sokoke and Zanzibar).
Other notable mammal species include caracal, African civet, blue, red and common duiker, Garnetts and Zanzibar bushbaby, aardvark, Sykes’ monkey, yellow baboon and red-bellied and red-legged sun squirrel. Some even believe the forest is home to the elusive African golden cat, and recent camera trap projects have revealed that leopards occasionally move through the region.
A visit during the rainy seasons will reveal an array of frog species, including the Bunty’s dwarf toad, marbled shovel-snout and common squeaker, often broadcast only by their vocal contribution to the robust forest choir. Far more silent are the various reptiles such as chameleons, monitors, tropical girdled and green keel-bellied lizards, a myriad snakes and tortoises.
The golden-rumped sengi – the largest of the elephant shrews – is a flagship species in the forest; caracals also patrol the forest; elephants are present in a restricted section of the forest
Birders abound
Arabuko-Sokoke may be one of Kenya’s best-kept secrets, but it has long been a bucket-list destination for birders worldwide. The adorable Sokoke scops owl, in its many varied colour forms, is a highly localised scops owl found only here, in the Dakatcha woodlands in Kenya and the Manga and Kwamgumi forest reserves in lowland Tanzania. The endangered Clarke’s weaver is even more restricted, and this distinctive bird lives exclusively in Arabuko-Sokoke and the Dakatcha woodlands to the south. Forest birding may be challenging, but Sokoke pipits, East Coast akalats, spotted ground thrushes and Amani sunbirds make the aching neck and tired feet well worth it. These species are all also globally threatened, with limited distributions that include the forests of Arabuko-Sokoke.
The reserve also encompasses the banks and mangrove forests of tidal Mida Creek, where visitors can spend time in bird hides watching the antics of the flamingos, crab-plovers, storks, plovers, whimbrels and herons.
A pair of Sokoke scops owls; the view from Nyari View Point showing different forest types; an eastern nicator sighted in the forest; birders will delight in the diverse and unique bird species present here; a Sokoke pipit spotted in the undergrowth; an eastern green tinkerbird perches in the lower branches of the forest
The wood for the trees
Arabuko-Sokoke is all that remains of what was once a vast forested region. While it is now under the dual protective management of the Kenya Forest and Wildlife Services, the forest is still threatened. Illegal charcoal burning and harvesting continue to damage the fragile forest ecosystem significantly.
Fortunately, dedicated organisations and individuals are working hard to improve relations with neighbouring communities and ensure that benefits from increased tourism reach those living alongside the forest.
Unobtrusive roads provide access through the dense forest
Explore & Stay
Arabuko-Sokoke Forest can be explored by road and on foot, but the company of an experienced guide is essential to unpack the forest’s secrets. Not only do they know all the favoured hiding spots of the scops owls and the sengis, but the forest comes alive under their expert and intimate knowledge of the fauna and flora. For those with a yen for a longer hike, a trip to the Nyari Cliffs offers breath-taking views over the canopy, Mida Creek and the glistening Indian Ocean.
The forest is within easy reach of both the bustling beachside metropolis of Malindi and the more intimate and colourful Watamu, where guests can enjoy the best aspects of this section of East Africa’s coastline. There is an endless variety of accommodation options ranging from backpackers to high-end villas, but there are also cheap campsites inside the forest for those looking for a break from the excitement (and some shade). The historical Ruins of Gedi in the northernmost section of the forest also offer a fascinating glimpse into the history of the East African coast, one of the continent’s most decadent trade and cultural melting pots.
The historical Ruins of Gedi can be viewed in the northernmost section of the forest
The forest is accessible year-round, though storms are expected during the “long rains” of April and May, and it may be quite humid during the “short rains” of October and November.
Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is a global biodiversity hotspot, characterised by high levels of endemism and seeped in a sense of mysticism. From birds to beasties and everything in between, it is the perfect complement to a safari in the Maasai Mara or Tsavo National Park for a complete appreciation of the astonishing variety of life on display in Kenya.
Want to go on a safari to Arabuko-Sokoke Forest? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team, scroll down to after this story.
The elephants of Chobe appear to have learnt how to assess human risk and mitigate their chances of an antagonistic encounter with humans
Under cover of darkness, an elephant cow leads her herd through a wildlife corridor surrounded by crop fields… The herd of elephants moves silently through the human-dominated landscape, opting for the secrecy afforded by nocturnal passage. In fact, they are so affected by human farming activities that they will not pass this way during the daylight hours. This is according to a new study comparing elephant activity times and the use of wildlife corridors depending on the type of human development surrounding them.
The research conducted by Elephants Without Borders used data from 2012 to 2019 to investigate the impact of human pressures on elephants. The study compares six wildlife corridors in the Chobe District in northern Botswana in two vastly different human-dominated landscapes. The first was the townships of Kasane and Kazungula, while the second was the farming villages of the Chobe Enclave along the Chobe River floodplain.
Using motion-triggered cameras, scientists found that elephants moved through the wildlife corridors in agricultural landscapes almost exclusively at night, between the hours of 18:00 and 06:00. Their use periods overlapped with those of humans by just 9.1% and were not affected by crop season (suggesting that crop raiding was not the motivation). By contrast, those travelling through the urban areas were less obviously selective about their activity timings, overlapping with those of humans by 26.8%.
This research is consistent with previous research indicating that elephants change their activity patterns to reduce the risk of human encounters in a human-dominated landscape. However, the urban-activity patterns of this new research stand out. As lead author Dr Tempe Adams explains, these findings are remarkable because they show that elephants appear to distinguish different types of human developments associated with diverse risk levels and adjust their behaviours accordingly.
Research such as this becomes important as increasing human development creates more isolated islands of ever-shrinking wild habitats. Wildlife corridors connecting these remaining wilderness areas are now an essential management tool in conserving many iconic species. These corridors allow access to seasonal resources, dispersal (and associated genetic diversity) and increased resilience to changing environmental conditions. However, planning future corridors and ensuring their maintenance cannot take place without a comprehensive understanding of how different land uses and human pressures (and seasonal variations) impact how and when wild animals use these corridors.
As this research shows, the elephants of Chobe appear to have learnt how to assess human risk and mitigate their chances of an antagonistic encounter with humans. Their activity patterns differ based on surrounding human land-use on an hourly and daily basis.
Things that go bump in the night. So Lizz and I were lying awake in bed, listening to what sounded like a football game in the ceiling. Then, at first light, we spied a tree squirrel exiting the roof carrying a tiny baby bundle to safety. The genets are back, or perhaps it’s a rock monitor – both regularly raid our ceiling area for squirrel snacks. Whenever the genets are in residence our two Jack Russells are on high nocturnal alert as the genets comb the verandah for frogs and insects amongst the cushions. We call it ‘genet TV’ – the dogs watch spellbound as these beautiful lithe predators work the area on the other side of glass sliding doors – barely a meter away. On one occasion, a small-spotted genet touched noses through the glass with our entranced dogs – a surreal moment.
Two days ago, the foam nest frogs in the garden were croaking at each other – usually a sign of incoming rain. At the height of our dry season – surely not? Yesterday it rained, albeit briefly.
Life is good. Love it.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
TRAVEL DESK UPDATES:
Keen to end your year on a high? We’re here to help, soemail us your wishesand let’s craft your dream summer safari!
Or, look at the two options below and tell us how to adapt them to suit you. Your wish is our command 😉
BEACH BLISS It’s time to SPOIL YOURSELF and recharge those batteries.
There is no better destination than Mozambique’s pristine beaches and warm ocean. This 8-day SPECIAL OFFER is the ultimate in exclusive barefoot luxury. Bliss!
MARA, WITHOUT THE CROWDS The migrating herds have left, and so have the high-season crowds. What remains are the big cats, hyenas, elephants and other resident species. Expect Maasai Mara magic and relatively few other tourists also in on this secret. This 6-day package is well-priced and popular with regular Mara visitors.
From our Editor – Taryn van Jaarsveld
Spring has well and truly sprung and the chill has finally dissolved from the Johannesburg air. And the energy in the AG office is electric, with our travel team vigorously sending adventurers off to their long-awaited journeys across the continent.
In celebration of epic African journeys, this week we’ve published a first-hand account of a once-in-a-lifetime trek through Bwindi Impentetrable Forest. Ryan Biller recently visited Uganda for a long-awaited chance to come face-to-face with mountain gorillas. His experience did not disappoint. Ryan also spent time with the people of Buhoma Village, who play an integral part in the conservation of the forest and its inhabitants – and captured some striking portraits. Check out our first story below.
In our second story, Jamie has penned a tribute to the littlest of enigmatic creatures – the miniature owls of Africa. From the scops-owl to white-faced owls and owlets, these tiny birds of prey are some of the most charisimatic avian residents of the continent. Click through below for all there is to know about these small endearing owl species.
It is almost unanimously agreed that otters are one of the cutest animals. Perhaps the only dissenters are those that have found themselves on the wrong end of their sharp teeth and powerful bites (though attacks on humans are unusual).
But did you know that giant otters the size of lions once roamed Ethiopia? Before you gloss over that fact, just stop for a minute and imagine an otter, with all its sinuous agility, that stands roughly as high as your waist and weighs 200kg. All predator, all teeth.
The fossils of Enhydriodon omoensis date back to between 3.5 and 2.5 million years ago – around the time our close relatives, the australopithecines, would have been wandering around. And isotype analysis of the otter’s teeth suggests they were land-based hunters. So what did they eat? I’ll leave that to your imagination.
WATCH: Witness cheetah mom Sita hunting a Thomson’s gazelle on the vast plains of the Maasai Mara, in this snippet from Disney’s African Cats. Just a taste of what you can expect on a Maasai Mara Secret Season adventure (see the travel desk above to book your own trip to experience the magic of Mara) (02:24). Click here to watch
Owls are innately compelling animals. They haunt the world’s nights on silent wings, adorned in soft, subtle colours and filling the evenings with soft hoots or piercing whistles (or, in the case of the barn owl, heart-stopping screams). Yet while the larger owl species are somewhat awe-inspiring and majestic, the miniature owls of Africa are perhaps best set to capture the imagination. Of all of the continent’s charismatic avian residents, these minute little predators have the most astonishing array of anthropomorphic facial expressions. From wide-eyed curiosity or imperious judgement to surly irritation or steely fury, the smaller owl species are both endearing and oddly relatable.
What is small?
In fairness, this is a somewhat subjective judgement call for the Strigiformes species (owls), which range in size from the sparrow-sized elf owl (occuring in the southwestern United States and central Mexico) to the enormous Blakiston’s fish owl (native to China, Japan, and Russia) with a two-metre wingspan. However, for the purposes of this article, miniature/small owls are considered to be those under around 30cm (roughly 12 inches) in height. In Africa, that includes four different genera of owl: the scops-owls (Otus spp.), the owlets (Glaucidium spp.), the white-faced owls (Ptilopsis spp.) and the little owl (Athene noctua).
The small owls occupy a wide variety of habitats and very similar ecological niches, with a predominantly arthropod-based diet that may also extend to small mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians.
African scops-owl; Sokoke scops-owl; southern white-faced owl; and pearl-spotted owlet
Scops-owls – the subtle and secretive
The Otus genus is the largest genus of owls, incorporating at least 58 species and thus comprising roughly 20% of the world’s 220-plus owl species. The scops-owls were once grouped together with the New World screech-owls (now reclassified as Megascops). While the evolutionary relationship has yet to be fully elucidated, the scops and screech-owls are believed to be closely related.
The scops-owls are entirely nocturnal, spending their days hidden in the trees and relying on the extraordinary camouflage afforded by their mottled grey or brown plumage. As a result, they are highly cryptic species and usually only revealed by their gentle “prrrp” call, a characteristic sound that epitomises the African night. Only those with exceptionally sharp eyes (or intimate knowledge of their favourite roosting sites) can spot scops-owls roosting during the day. And those that do succeed will probably find themselves subjected to a rather haughty glare.
African scops-owl is probably the best known and most widely distributed of the African scops species. As the smallest owl in southern Africa, they stand just 15–17cm tall (to put that into perspective, these little birds could fit into an average coffee mug). However, one of the most remarkable aspects of the Otus genus is their extraordinary diversity in various fragmented habitats. This applies in particular to the endemic species of the Indian Ocean archipelagos and islands but also isolated patches of forest in West, Central and East Africa.
There are endemic scops-owls in Madagascar, Seychelles, Pemba Island off East Africa, and Karthala, Mohéli and Anjouan Comoran islands (each considered a separate species named for their respective islands). São Tomé has a scops-owl, and a new species was discovered on the neighbouring island of Príncipe in 2016. On the mainland, the cinnamon-coloured sandy scops-owl is found throughout the tropical rainforests of Central and West Africa. The endangered Sokoke scops-owl occurs only in the scattered forests of coastal Kenya and lowland Tanzania. These fascinating birds were first identified in the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Reserve near Watamu, Kenya, and are highly polymorphic, ranging in colour from a drab grey to rufous.
The Mascarene owls of Mauritius, Réunion and Rodrigues, now known to have been scops-owls, are all extinct.
Clockwise from top: A group of Sokoke scops-owls; Sokoke scops-owls showing colour variances; African scops-owl; Madagascar scops-owl; African scops-owl
The owlets – noisy and conspicuous
In North and South America, owls from the genus Glaucidium are known as pygmy owls, but in Africa and Asia, they are referred to as owlets. They are characterised by round heads, prominent brows, a conspicuous lack of ear tufts and bright yellow eyes. Many of the owlet species are active at dawn and dusk (and even throughout the day in winter), and their piercing call-and-response whistles are unmistakable. While still small, they are far more conspicuous than their scops-owl cousins and almost invariably attract the ire of other bird species that descend en masse to mob them.
The two most well-known and widely distributed species are the pearl-spotted owlet and the African barred owlet. The two are sympatric across most of their respective ranges and can be easily confused. The pearl-spotted owlet is slightly smaller, with distinct dark false eyespots on the back of its head, while the barring on the chest of the barred owlet is more well-defined than the soft and indistinct streaks of the pearl-spotted owlet. Other species include the Sjöstedt’s barred owlet of west-central Africa, the Albertine owlet endemic to the Albertine Rift and the pretty little red-chested owlet of West and Central Africa.
The white-faced owls – the shapeshifters
There are two members of the Ptilopsis genus, found only in Africa: the northern and southern white-faced owls. They are often incorrectly termed white-faced scops-owls, and, while there is a degree of similarity (ear tufts and mottled grey colouration), the scops-owls and white-faced owls belong to separate genera.
White-faced owls have interesting strategies when confronted with a potential threat. One approach is to spread their wings, puff out their plumage and hunch over in an intimidation display. Alternatively, they may adopt what is known as “concealment posture”. The owls draw themselves up tall, pull their feathers tight against their bodies, narrow their eyes and stretch up their ear tufts. The transformation is utterly remarkable and almost a little uncanny. Many owls, including scops-owls and screech-owls, have this ability, but the change in white-faced owls is theatrical. As the name “concealment posture” suggests, it is believed to help the owl look like a tree branch. It is especially disconcerting when a roosting pair is encountered, one completely normal and the other looking like what can only be described as an evil sorcerer in a children’s film.
Clockwise from top: A northern pygmy owl in Arizona, USA; southern white-faced owl; northern white-faced owl; African barred owlet; and pearl spotted owlet
The little owl – the mythologically wise
Finally, the little owl may be well-known in Europe and Asia, but few realise that its range extends to the northern fringes of the African continent. They are similar in appearance to the owlets and roughly the same size, but their ranges do not generally overlap.
The little owl is also sometimes called the owl of Minerva and was closely associated with goddesses Athena and Minerva in ancient Greek and Roman mythology. This link with the goddesses of wisdom may explain why the owl is often a symbol of wisdom and intelligence in Western cultures.
The little owl, also known as the owl of Minerva, has a range that expands to North Africa, Asia and Europe
Would you like to do your bit for owl conservation in Africa?
In Bwindi Impenetrable Forest, I find the jungle of my childhood imagination. This forest is so thick and tangled with vines that a T-rex could emerge from this expansive sea of green and I wouldn’t be surprised. The air hangs heavy with humidity, and pearls of dew glisten on the leaves against the early morning light, barely slipping through the canopy overhead. My heart is hammering the walls of my chest as our small team of Ugandan rangers, dressed in camouflage uniforms, leads us into the fable-like Bwindi Impenetrable Forest on a trekking expedition, in search of mountain gorillas.
Silent searching
The prospect of seeing mountain gorillas with my own eyes is what brings me to Uganda. To finally trek into the heart of this 25,000-year-old rainforest is enchanting in its own way, even before catching a mere whiff of the black-haired great apes that we are hoping to encounter. The forest itself is a living manifestation of the illustrated pages of dinosaur books I read as a kid. This primaeval forest is so dense and expansive that it appears prehistoric. It is no surprise that mountain gorillas have a preference for this tropical haven.
Bwindi Impenetrable National Park is known for its dense, ancient rainforest thickets, and thick clouds of mist. With altitudes ranging from 1,160 to 2,607 meters, the forest has some of the highest levels of biodiversity in Uganda
Tufts of rain clouds hang over the forest like ghosts, lending an eerie beauty. We trek onward, with our guide, Goreth Niyibizi, leading the way. As a sheen of sweat envelopes my face and I wave bugs from my forehead, Goreth and the other three rangers come to an abrupt stop. We obediently follow suit, anxiously peering over their shoulders and into the sea of green hoping that our sought-after primates are nearby. “Gorillas?” I whisper into Goreth’s ear, between panting and trying to catch my breath. She holds up an index finger and wags it at me. “No,” she breathes softly, her voice a notch above a whisper. “Not yet.”
Trekking deeper into the forest in silence, led by knowledgeable guides, brings electric anticipation that heightens the senses
We continue onward, our group numbering a mere nine people: Goreth, two other Ugandan trackers, a local porter, an armed escort, myself, my brother, my mother, and a traveller from Czechoslovakia – perfect for a family safari.
After walking for some time, the woman from Czechoslovakia quietly slips behind us and into the bushes, using it as a makeshift bathroom to relieve herself. She is quickly swallowed up into the undergrowth; she likely has more privacy in the forest than she has in many public restrooms back home. Moments later, a yelp emits from the swirl of vegetation. She staggers out of the bush, dishevelled with pants barely pulled up, a look of adrenaline-infused excitement on her face. A mother gorilla and her infant baby had sauntered past our Czech friend mid-stream. We’ve found the mountain gorillas. Or they’ve found us.
Face to face with the great apes
The ensuing moments are surreal, and will forever be etched into my memory. Up ahead of us, our trackers peer through the trees at a silverback, and behind us, the mother gorilla and her baby are now sitting three meters from us.
We all ogle the mother gorilla, who so gingerly, and with such care, cradles her baby – her maternal mannerisms human-like. We are, after all, 98% identical on a genetic level.
Any photographer knows that taking a photo is reflexive, as it usually is for me. But in this moment, I don’t want to experience these beings through the viewfinder and lens of my camera. It is a scene to be documented with the naked eye. I snap a few photos, careful not to detract from the encounter itself.
After snapping a few images of the gorillas, videographer Ryan Biller put away the camera to immerse himself in the once-in-a-lifetime experience
We spend an hour with a group of the great apes, crouched silently in the bushes, mouths gaping in awe, as we observe the silverback – a hulk of vegetarian muscle. His demeanour is protective, as with any good father, yet so incredibly gentle. We learn that this is the Mukiza gorilla family. Like a few gorilla families in Rwanda and Uganda, the Mukiza gorilla family has been habituated, meaning that they’re somewhat used to and familiar with the presence of people.
We watch as young gorillas – little bundles of thick fur – somersault through the undergrowth as they playfully wrestle each other. Mothers groom themselves and their tiny offspring as members of the group gnaw on the leafy greens all around them.
Though completely wild, the mountain gorillas seem unperturbed – even bored – by our presence. We keep a respectful distance, but the gorillas don’t mind us. We garner a vague interest from some of the young ones, but they are more infatuated with the challenge of climbing trees and tumbling around the forest floor. We occasionally receive a stare from the mighty silverback, likely gauging whether these strange, less hairy primates are any kind of threat. We earn his trust, and he graciously allows us to stay.
Conservation through collaboration
Many projected that mountain gorillas would be extinct by now – even the great Dian Fossey did. But thanks to intensive conservation efforts, the world’s mountain gorilla population is on the rise. We can thank rangers such as Goreth for being on the frontlines of defending these magnificent creatures and their remarkable homes. Another contributor to this is the collaborations formed linking tourism revenue, research, and communities. With all working together in conservation efforts, there is an incentive for those involved to protect the gorillas. Thanks to these collaborations, the IUCN conservation status of the species has been reduced from critically endangered to endangered.
A young girl, Ruth, peeks over a fence in Buhoma Village, just outside Bwindi; a young Batwa man, Idi, who lives just outside the forest, holds his little brother close; Sari, a village elder and member of the Batwa people, poses for a photo
Community members from Buhoma, a small village nestled against the very edge of the forest, play an integral role in conservation efforts. In turn, the community is dependent on revenue from tourism for income. Many of the park’s rangers and guides live in Buhoma Village. Their children go to school here, and a small health clinic nearby is funded by income generated by eco-tourism.
School children pose outside their school in Buhoma, situated on the edge of the gorilla-inhabited rainforest; Ryan Biller poses with Ugandan driver Martin, Ryan’s brother Pete, his mother Teresa and Martin’s wife after a celebratory lunch following their gorilla experience; Students from Buhoma walk home after school along the outskirts of the forest
Another group of people who have settled within the vicinity of Buhoma are from the Batwa tribe – a tribe indigenous to the region, whose people once lived and sustained themselves entirely within the Bwindi Impenetrable Forest. When conservation efforts to protect the dwindling mountain gorilla population picked up steam, the Batwa people were evicted from the forest by authorities. Their removal was done on the grounds that resources in the forest are limited, and that infection and disease can be transferred between humans and the gorillas. Given that their survival previously depended on hunting and gathering in the forest, the Batwa have sacrificed much for the sake of the conservation of the great apes. The Batwa became conservation refugees and now live on a small parcel of land just outside Buhoma. Some can bring in an income through cultural tourism – by sharing their traditional rites and rituals with visitors through a ‘Batwa Experience’. Tourists can hear the music of the tribe, learn about their religion, skills in food gathering and hunting techniques, and interact with the tribe. But the move to evict the Batwa was a controversial one. Critics say authorities did not allocate enough space for resettlement or assist with employment and other basic needs.
Traditional healer Amat poses in his home. Amat uses medicinal plants from the forest to remedy villagers’ ailments
While tourism brings invaluable income to the Buhoma and Batwa communities, there is still much work to develop these collaborations to benefit all parties. What is sure, though, is that the conservation of these gorillas would not have been possible without community involvement and collaboration.
It is a great privilege for tourists such as myself to be able to experience these amazing creatures in person. More work remains for the conservation of the gorillas and to build and sustain neighbouring communities, but there is no doubt hope for the future of these animals. Our planet is far better off with mountain gorillas and their rainforest homes like Bwindi than without.
Bwindi is the fairy-tale forest we dreamed about as children; it is also where you can meet and spend time with gentle mountain gorillas. Read more here.
The mountain gorilla is the only great ape with an increasing population despite continuous pressure on its habitat. Check out the population stats here.
Our 2022 Photographer of the Year Alex Brackx and his wife Karen enjoying a mokoro outing in Khwai Private Reserve, Botswana
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Where to safari now + understanding snakes + Pongola’s elephant crisis
Just back from hosting our 2022 Photographer of the Year winners in Khwai Private Reserve, Botswana. We relished epic wildlife encounters, enjoyed superb hospitality from our hosts, and forged life-long friendships. I have never laughed so much while on safari as I did with this crew. Thanks to you all. Expect my report back in the coming months. But there is also a contemplative side to this note.
After 6 action-packed days with the winners, Lizz and I headed off for 4 days of bliss in Selinda Reserve and were again blown away by the experience. This got me thinking …
About the role that brave safari lodge pioneers like Colin Bell of Natural Selection (our hosts in Khwai) and Dereck & Beverly Joubert of Great Plains (our hosts in Selinda) play when they invest patient, long-term capital into these wilderness areas to generate sustainable, responsible revenue streams for local communities and stable ecosystems for wildlife. Often these landscapes have been abused by former occupants, and it takes years for the wildlife to recover and gain confidence in a human presence. The costs are significant and, let’s face it, tourism does not generate the steady cash flow that investors in mines, banks and technology companies enjoy. They are, of course, supported by a host of people – including their families, colleagues and investors – but what makes these eco-warriors so special is their grit and determination to make a difference. These businesses survive pandemics, presidents and the trials and tribulations of operating in remote, wild areas. There are others, like Beks Ndlovu of African Bush Camps, all of whom play this essential trail-blazing role. Many lodge owners survive the storms without access to large pools of capital – I bow my head to you all.
This week we’re celebrating the most remarkable of creatures: snakes. Whether you squirm at the thought of encountering snakes or harbour a deep respect for these marvels of natural engineering, you’ll find an appreciation for serpents when delving into our exploration of these complex predators in our first story.
When is the best safari season in Africa? The vast African continent straddles the equator and six time zones – meaning profoundly differing vegetation, climates and topography. This also means that there is always a good safari season in Africa. We’ve put together a go-to guide for your safari in September, October and November. Check it out in our third story below.
Some time ago, we published an op-ed by Malcolm Thomson on Pongola Game Reserve’s elephant management crisis. Conservationists Pete Ruinard and Paul Cryer have penned a thought-provoking response to this op-ed, unpacking some of the issues at play. Our second story is well worth the read for those seeking to understand the complexities of elephant-population management.
Happy celebrating Africa!
From our Scientific Editor – Jamie Paterson
Fads are a human thing, right? We’ve seen ineffective diets, horrendous fashions, and stupid social media challenges all come and go.
But did you know that orcas seem to follow fads? Recently, pods of orcas have taken to breaking the rudders off boats around the European coast, and no one is quite sure why. They aren’t hurting anyone, just engaging in some minor property damage.
Is that a fad? Well, maybe, maybe not, but it’s not the first time orcas have been observed copying each other. In the summer of 1987, one female took to wearing a dead salmon as a hat. In the blink of an eye, the rest of her pod followed, and soon, several other pods did as well. Then salmon went out of fashion, and they all stopped…The orca equivalent of the tide-pod challenge?
OK, so the prime safari season is in full swing. You may have missed out this year but still long for a little bush time during the coming festive season. We’re here to help!
Planning a festive season safari takes more experience and precision than the sure-thing prime safari season of June to August – because of the arrival of summer rains and what this means for wildlife movement. So what to do, where to go?
We recommend the following:
Take advantage of lower ‘green / secret’ season rates that some lodges offer ⛺
Focus on seasonal natural events at this time of year – like the migration of bats in Kasanka (Zambia), zebras in the salt pans of Botswana and wildebeest in Serengeti (Tanzania)
Bulk up on your bird list by ticking off the numerous avian summer migrants
End your bushveld safari with a spot of beach time. Did someone say strawberry daiquiris?
teamAG is on standbyfor your questions and to bring your festive season wishlist to life 🙂
Snapping away in Botswana
The winners of Photographer of the Year 2022 have just returned from their safari in Khwai Private Reserve, Botswana, where they stayed at Natural Selection’s Little Sable and Hyena Pan camps, and Skybeds. Runner Up Geo Cloete joined the trip, and writes:
“A HUGE thank you to the sponsors! It sure was a trip that dreams are made of. With so many new lifetime memories created, it will take a good amount of time to process them all and file them in the ‘it really happened’ folder.
An equally big thank you to Africa Geographic! The professionalism and passion with which Simon and his team ensure their clients enjoy the best of the best is truly admirable!
I celebrate all the beauty of the last seven days and will treasure it for the rest of my life. The gourmet meals, the beautiful people who became friends and undoubtedly the stars of the trip, and the African wildlife. May we continue to strive to secure a bright future for them all for generations to come.”
WATCH: Watch a rare and tense encounter between an elusive brown hyena and two spotted hyenas at a waterhole in Madikwe Game Reserve, captured by Jamala Madikwe (02:02). Click here to watch
Elephant gathering at the water’s edge in Pongola Game Reserve
Update 20 January 2023: There has been an increase in the number of human-wildlife conflict incidents on the eastern shores of Jozini Dam in recent months, with a reported 69 elephants roaming the dam’s shores after escaping Pongola Game Reserve East into Phongola Nature Reserve. According to the reports, at least 25 elephants have been killed in poaching incidents related to this conflict. In an incident on January 11th, tourists on a cruise boat on Jozini Dam were forced to take cover as poachers were firing shots nearby. Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife announced it will be engaging with the PGRE to translocate the elephants back onto the PGRE property or into a suitable protected area as early as March//April 2023. Ezemvelo said it had also engaged with the local community to discuss the recent incidents of human-wildlife conflict.
The recent article by Malcolm Thomson on Pongola’s elephant management crisis included vital perspectives on elephant management strategies within Pongola Game Reserve (PGR) in KwaZulu-Natal. We hope to set some facts straight in response to Thomson’s sentiments.
Thomson’s assertions were filled with inaccuracies, not only about general elephant management and its applicable laws, but also regarding the long process of building scientific and managerial knowledge about elephants living in relatively small and contained reserves. Worse still, there are glaring inaccuracies in these assertions that apply to the elephant population that Malcolm Thomson is referring to in his piece.
Elephant management must be viewed from several geographical and temporal scales simultaneously, from continental and national perspectives to small fenced reserves. Even the roughest estimates of elephant numbers show a dramatic decline in Africa over the last hundred years, so it is misleading to argue that Africa has too many elephants, and their endangered status confirms this. When viewing the broader situation, the issue of localised areas with too many elephants is a problem of distribution rather than over-population. This is especially so considering that 76% of Africa’s elephants are transboundary.
The intricacies of elephant management
In instituting the National Norms and Standards for the Management of Elephants, the South African government has taken a bold and progressive step towards managing elephants in terms of broad and local objectives while doing its best to include updated knowledge on elephant biology. The comments in Thomson’s article from Minister of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment, Barbara Creecy, confirm a government commitment to integrated problem solving and public/private partnerships. The Minister comments that there is a “need for innovative and balanced partnership arrangements between state protected areas and adjacent private wildlife areas” to develop “win-win sustainable arrangements, with strong conservation outcomes”.
Malcolm Thomson asserts that the wishes of private landowners and the well-being of small, contained elephant populations have been ignored by the broader elephant management strategies and the Norms and Standards in particular. While the Norms and Standards are far from perfect, requiring periodic updating and revision, they make provision for private landowners with elephants to participate in a more inclusive and holistic elephant strategy. The amended Norms and Standards will likely be gazetted for implementation during 2022. By timeously submitting their elephant management plans to their provincial conservation authorities, reserve owners can benefit from a wealth of information, knowledge and funding. If, however, a landowner submits plans late or if those plans reveal a strategy aimed at personal wealth acquisition to the detriment of biodiversity conservation, then the system will expose those deficiencies. The PGR elephant management plan was submitted to the provincial authority on 8 September 2021 without sufficient time for review or to obtain the necessary provincial signatories before their existing plan expired on 16 November 2021. There is added significance with the late PGR application in that the reserve’s draft plan involved cooperation with neighbouring landowners, such that the elephants could move between multiple areas. This would make more elephant habitat available and relieve pressure on PGR. This central strategy of elephant range expansion within the draft revision of the PGR elephant management plan was omitted from Malcolm Thomson’s writing, leaving an impression that the elephant population pressure on PGR is more severe than it is in reality and that there is no alternative other than lethal control. The complexity of having elephants on small reserves is not unique to PGR, and there has been a large volume of peer-reviewed studies on these exact situations, with much of this research being utilised in the compilation and review of the Norms and Standards. Small private reserves have access to this work and can contribute meaningfully to advancements in this field.
Contemplating immunocontraception
Within the Norms and Standards, there is a hierarchy of actions about limiting elephant population numbers. One of these is immunocontraception, which Thomson dismisses as impractical, unethical and costly. Peer-reviewed scientific data collected and published over nearly 30 years would suggest otherwise. Further work on immunocontraception methods and long-term effects on population dynamics are ongoing. Immunocontraception is reversible, delivered quickly and remotely, with only short-term herd interference, and there are no hormonally induced behavioural effects. Immunocontraception is recommended in the Norms and Standards as one of the first go-to methods. It is used by 42 national, provincial, private and community reserves in South Africa (excluding the Kruger National Park), with over 1,200 cows currently under treatment. Thomson’s claims that immunocontraception is unethical are unfounded.
As for it being costly, the expenses of elephant immunocontraception are comparable with management interventions for other species, such as lion contraception, disease-free buffalo testing and even game census – all of which are part and parcel of reserve management. In the case of immunocontraception, the literature has shown that the cost benefits of limiting elephant population growth outweigh the expenditure. Of additional relevance here is that Humane Society International – Africa offered PGR immunocontraception for three years such that the costs would not fall on PGR. While there may have been certain conditions associated with this process, free immunocontraception was made available to PGR and was not accepted. What is clear is that Thomson’s dismissal of immunocontraception is unwarranted.
Thomson also comments on the difficulties that arise in trying to expand the land available to the elephants. But the elephants in the PGR case have achieved habitat expansion on their own, having shifted to the neighbouring Pongola Nature Reserve managed by Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife (Ezemvelo). The movement of these elephants to adjacent land relieves the pressure that Thomson was bemoaning (at the time of writing, there were no elephant herds in PGR “destroying habitat”). The managers and ecologists of Ezemvelo are working on the details of this impromptu elephant distribution to determine whether it can be maintained to the benefit of elephants, ecosystems and stakeholders. It should be added that, despite many logistical and financial constraints, Ezemvelo is doing excellent and progressive work, including holding meetings with local landowners and communities. (It is also worth noting that PGR management attended these meetings without expressing the views in Thomson’s article. Minutes of those meetings are public documents).
Elephant translocation and habitat expansion
Thomson’s criticism of translocation is similarly misleading. Knowledge of elephant translocation has increased enormously over the past two decades, with routine operations conducted today that were unheard of 25 years ago. Progress regarding the logistics of moving elephants and the technical means of capturing them, combined with veterinary advancements, is resulting in ongoing improvements that secure the greater well-being of individual elephants and family/group structure. This facilitates a far greater success rate with translocations. It also increases the distances that elephant groups can be moved. This, in turn, means that the possible sites for translocations are growing in number and distance from the source population: elephant translocation can now be viewed from a continental perspective. The value of this knowledge as an emerging management tool is increasingly realised and will significantly affect what is possible in African elephant conservation.
Within the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (of which South Africa is a signatory), large interconnected protected areas are identified as one of the solutions to the impending biodiversity crisis (the effects of which would overshadow the economic impact of Covid-19). The presence of megaherbivores within an interconnected protected area network is one of the indicators of success. But it should be stressed that a critical component of expanding areas for biodiversity protection is to avoid the errors of the past, where environmental protection was used as a thinly veiled ploy for the wealth-capture of elites. In this country (and others), this involved legalising a process that commodified and exploited the environment and all those South African people outside of the defined elites. Historical examples of this across the colonised world included promulgating legislation that denied people access to land they considered sacred and had utilised for centuries to sustain their livelihoods. In more recent (and current) renditions of the same principle, environments of critical ecological importance, both locally and globally, are being compromised and traded for political gain and monetary extraction.
While work is being done on identifying and protecting critical biodiversity areas, existing gene pools of species need to be protected. In the case of elephants, this includes limiting population growth (the root of the problem) in contained areas until bolder plans for elephant introductions in Africa are realised and feasible. In anticipation of an expanded purpose, immunocontraception research is dealing with long-term population dynamics and advanced delivery methods. Current methods do not hold all the answers, but these fields are advancing fast.
Elephant management is changing
Thomson’s summation of elephant management is simplistic, exploitative, elitist and cherry-picks scientific evidence to arrive at outdated and erroneous conclusions. For example, claiming that “all species should be managed under similar principles” glosses over the fact that elephants have advanced levels of intelligence and self-awareness, with complex communication illustrating focused sentience, emotional attachment and empathy. The Norms and Standards recognise this, and recognition of this fact is a guiding principle within elephant management strategies. As our awareness of elephants’ advanced intellectual, emotional and social capacities increases and becomes widely recognised, public perception of appropriate elephant treatment shifts. Management strategies that were acceptable three decades ago are unlikely to endure. Owners and managers of elephant reserves who do not take cognisance of this will likely suffer the consequences of the public’s disfavour and consequent economic censure.
The Norms and Standards recognise that elephants are indeed “special”, but it should be made clear that the regulation of hunting and culling are included within the document. They are, however, recognised as very different activities, not to be conflated. Within the Norms and Standards, culling is the last resort on a hierarchy of potential management actions, some of which are mentioned (and dismissed) in Thomson’s article: habitat manipulation, contraception, and translocation. For culling to be considered, all of those alternatives must have been proven to be justifiably impractical or unfeasible.
The hunting of elephants is legal in South Africa; some people want to hunt elephants, and parties have built businesses out of this demand. The Norms and Standards recognise and accommodate this. Had PGR adhered to the regulations, they could legally hunt elephants. Reserve managers should understand that culling and hunting are regulated differently for good reasons. Blame cannot be laid on the Norms and Standards due to poor action on a reserve’s part. Advocating for managing elephants without considering the bigger picture and the logic behind certain restrictions is unreasonable. Lack of engagement with neighbours, inaction to explore options for sponsored immunocontraception through available structures, and being slow on the draw when revising elephant management plans are symptoms of poor forward planning.
Final thoughts
There was a good reason why the Norms and Standards were created, with specific guidelines for Elephant Management Plans. This was partly to overcome irresponsible and unethical elephant management approaches and actions, which in turn reflected negatively on the entire country’s elephant management ethic. Malcolm Thomson’s view of elephant management could take us back there, which, far from the Norms and Standards’ progressive purpose, is entirely regressive.
Thomson’s perceptions do not necessarily reflect the views of all stakeholders involved in PGR. His statements belie current scientific knowledge and are contrary to global and local strategies to address the impending planetary crisis of biodiversity loss. The laws, regulations, and Norms and Standards around elephant management apply to everyone, including the South African government and its departments and land management agencies. The court application Thomson misquotes in his article, in which HSI-Africa is questioning the legality of the 2022 hunting quotas, is an example of an animal protection and conservation NGO holding the government accountable to its laws and regulations. That is a foundational aspect of a healthy democracy and civic activism that ensures good governance and accountability for the good of all people and the environment on which we are all entirely dependent. Thomson’s re-quote, “if it pays, it stays”, is as outdated as it is dangerous; the understanding of planetary boundaries has coined a far more sobering alternative phrase that incorporates the value and economic positioning of the earth’s oceans, atmosphere and biodiversity to humans: “if it doesn’t stay, humanity will pay”.
Snakes are not an animal group typically celebrated. Far too few people appreciate snakes as the marvels of natural engineering they are. Many are wary of them, while some are paralytically terrified at the thought. There is a rational aspect to this fear – certain snakes are dangerous, and a select few are potentially deadly. But like all fears directed at wildlife, it is only exacerbated by an unfortunate assembly of superstitions, misconceptions, and a fair amount of downright inaccurate information. What follows is a summary of some of the fascinating characteristics of these remarkable reptiles – to balance the scales, so to speak.
Ancient origins
Snakes are found on every continent on the globe apart from Antarctica, as well as many of the smaller islands. There are close to 4,000 recorded snake species in the world. From the worm-like threadsnakes to enormous pythons, they display an exceptional variety of colours, designs, and behaviours. Like almost all reptiles, they are ectothermic, meaning that they rely on external heat sources rather than metabolic heat to stay warm. They are also poikilotherms, so their internal body temperature (and, subsequently, activity levels) varies depending on the current ambient temperature.
The various orders of Reptilia, including crocodilians, testudines (tortoises, turtles, and terrapins), and the squamates (lizards and snakes), all have truly ancient origins. The earliest known fossils of snakes date back to the Middle Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous, roughly 170 million years ago and share many characteristics in common with their modern relatives. The consensus is that these early serpents evolved from lizards, and evidence of a once quadruped existence can be seen today in snakes such as pythons or boa constrictors, which often have vestigial rear limbs. It is, however, important not to equate primitive to crude or unsophisticated. With highly specialised fangs, complex venom proteins and a variety of other adaptions for each habitat and hunting style, snakes are highly specialised and efficient predators.
A green mamba; yellow Cape cobra; large Southern African rock python; and a spotted bush snake – all displaying a variety of snake colours and designs
The mind of a serpent
A corollary of the belief that snakes are primitive is the impression that they are mindless biting/killing machines without much cognitive function. The idea of a “reptilian complex” or “lizard brain” arose in scientific literature in the 1950s, when Paul MacLean proposed the concept of the triune brain. In essence, his theory runs that the brains of modern mammals consist of three distinct regions, with the reptilian brain at the centre and the more highly evolved neocortex on the outside. The reptilian brain is associated with the four basic functions of life (the 4 Fs): fight, flee, feed, and fornicate. The neocortex, not present in reptile brains, is associated with higher thought, language, abstraction and perception.
However, behavioural, physiological and histological evidence is mounting that this theory is a massive oversimplification of a structure as complex as the brain. Reptiles, including snakes, likely have a far greater cognitive ability, particularly learning, than once believed.
Why is this important? Because it goes a long way to controlling the fear response to snakes. When faced with a snake, it is essential to remember that you are not interacting with some brainless, pre-programmed envenomation machine. They bite to defend themselves, and humans can communicate that attack is not eminent through body language and avoiding sudden, threatening movements. The vast majority of snakebites are handling related, so when in doubt, leave the snake alone and leave the catching to the experts.
The world through their nose
Snakes are chemosensory maestros. In other words, their sense of smell is king. This is facilitated by the nose and tongue, with chemicals processed by the olfactory epithelium and the vomeronasal organ. Their famous forked tongues are highly specialised with papillae or pits, which catch and retain chemical particles and transport them to the vomeronasal organ (the Organ of Jacobson) close to the palate. This organ makes the process of smell rather than taste, as snakes do not have tastebuds. The flicking tongue collects the chemicals, and the bifid tip is believed to play a role in helping them determine the direction of the smell.
In contrast, the eyesight of many snakes is relatively poor, though naturally, this is generalisation and species-specific. The colour and detail vision of an arboreal, diurnal species like a vine snake is far more refined than that of a burrowing species. Spitting cobras also rely on good eyesight when projecting their venom with an accuracy of over 90%. Again, understanding how a snake sees the world has implications for avoiding a dangerous encounter – by avoiding sudden jerky movements when confronted by a snake you are less likely to draw their attention (or ire).
Many snakes are sensitive to UV light, while diurnal species that hunt during the day have lenses that filter UV to improve contrast. Vipers, pythons and boas can use infrared “vision” to locate prey. Pit organs around their nostrils detect heat given off by other animals and transmit these signals to the brain to create an image of the creature in front of them.
Snakes do not have any outer or middle ear apparatuses, but, contrary to popular belief, this does not mean that they cannot hear. They do have inner ear structures capable of picking up vibrations in the ground and air, as well as some sound waves in the lower frequency ranges.
While the eyesight of many snakes is poor, reliance on eyesight varies between snake species. Vipers such as this saw-scaled viper use infrared to locate prey; snakes such as this horned adder have relatively good eyesight; the boomslang has excellent eyesight; snakes use the flicking tongue and bifid tip to collect chemicals to interpret smell
The long muscular tube
Anyone who has ever watched a snake move, climb or coil will be able to attest to their tremendous flexibility, which in turn is made possible by numerous sets of ribs that extend almost the entire length of the body. They can have anywhere between 200–400 vertebrae. Pair organs like kidneys are arranged longitudinally, and snakes have an elongated right lung that is responsible for most, if not all, ventilation. Furthermore, they are astonishingly strong.
Without limbs, their locomotion patterns can be primarily divided into four different types of movements (not counting arboreal motions, which can be a mix of all four). Though the type of habitat and hunting habits of specific snakes will determine which mode they use, most snakes use all four types of movement depending on the circumstances. Lateral undulation, or serpentine motion, is the most common and familiar mode of locomotion – creating the characteristic S-shaped curves and pushing off each side in a typical slithering manoeuvre. Other types of movement include sidewinding, concertina and rectilinear motion. Traction is aided by long rectangular ventral (belly) scales.
Numerous sets of ribs allow snakes immense flexibility, demonstrated here by this sidewinder; stretching out leaves snakes vulnerable to predators, and assuming a coiled position like this puffadder offers more protection; strength, flexibility, traction and long rectangular ventral scales allow snakes to climb – offering this boomslang easy access to a weaver’s nest
Keeping a thick skin
The skin of a snake is perhaps one of its most infamous (and possibly reviled) characteristics. Despite common misconception, their skin is not slimy but is covered in a dry layer of overlapping keratin scales. Depending on the species, they may be smooth, granular, or keeled and come in various shapes. The scales are transparent (think of a shedded snakeskin), and the pigments are found in the underlying skin. Their colours range from beautiful bright colours to the subtle but equally attractive camouflage of the ground ambush predators. Colour aside, the arrangement or pattern of scales, particularly around the face, can be used to identify specific species.
Snakes are born with a set number of scales that does not increase over their lifetime, but the scales themselves will grow over time and may even change shape. The scales are shed multiple times throughout a snake’s lifetime in a process known as ecdysis. This allows the snake to replace old and damaged skin and remove parasites. Interestingly, experts dispute that moulting or shedding in snakes is part of their growth process.
A snake shedding its skin feels particularly vulnerable, especially in the early stages when the specially designed scale over the eye (known as the eye cap) turns milky and compromises its vision. This increased fear may make a shedding snake more likely to lash out if disturbed.
Heavily keeled scales are visible on a rough-scaled bush viper; horned adders also have keeled scales; a rock python’s scales are smooth; a snake sheds its scales multiple times throughout its lifetime
Pointed fangs and potent venom
Lashing out is carried out by the business end of the snake – the part that terrifies people. The teeth of snakes differ depending on their hunting styles and venom types. The venom is produced by the modified parotid gland (a salivary gland found at the back of the jaw) and, as a general rule, can be matched to the type of fangs the snake has. Though technically modified saliva, venom contains a complex mixture of proteins with toxic and potentially lethal properties, which then immobilise and begin digesting prey. In essence, neurotoxic venom attacks the nervous system to cause pain, paralysis and respiratory distress. Cytotoxic venom works on the molecular components of cells, destroying tissues and causing intense, instant pain and often resulting in necrosis and the potential loss of body parts. Haemotoxic venom destroys red blood cells and disrupts clotting mechanisms. It may be slower acting than the other types of venom but can result in massive damage to internal organs and seldom has an effective antivenom.
Members of the Viperidae (puff adders, Gaboon vipers) and Atractaspididae (stiletto snakes) families have massive, tubular, hinged fangs that swing forwards when the snake strikes to inject (usually) cytotoxic venom. Elapids, such as cobras and mambas, have much smaller fangs and inject mostly neurotoxic venom. The orifices in the fangs of spitting cobras are precisely positioned to allow them to project their venom forward and upwards. Finally, the Colubridae (boomslangs) and Homalopsidae (a group of Indo-Australian water snakes) have grooved, backwards oriented fangs set more towards the back part of the jaw. They typically (but not always) inject hemotoxic venom, but their fangs require that the prey be shifted towards the back of the mouth.
Several snakes do not have fangs at all. Constrictors such as pythons do not rely on venom to kill their prey. Instead, they strike and rapidly envelop potential prey in their coils. The powerful snake then generates a massive pressure that essentially cuts off the blood supply to the vital organs and causes death by cardiac arrest (rather than by asphyxiation) within minutes, if not seconds. Constrictors have a full set of teeth to grab and secure their victims and can still deliver an excruciating (and septic) bite. Still, they do not envenomate, and the teeth are therefore not technically classified as fangs.
Whatever the dental set-up, snakes cannot take bites out of or chew their food, meaning that anything caught has to be swallowed whole. This is accomplished by a loose articulation (joint) between the lower mandible and the skull. They can also move their upper maxilla courtesy of a quadrate bone, a characteristic shared with other reptiles, birds, and amphibians. The two halves of each jaw bone are also only loosely held together by a flexible ligament, allowing for a much greater degree of movement.
Black mambas have small fangs that inject neurotoxic venom; a Bibron’s stiletto snake has large, tubular, hinged fangs that swing forwards independently when the snake strikes; the orifices in a spitting cobra’s fangs are positioned to allow forward and upward projection of venom; rufous-beaked snakes often constrict their prey, even though they produce a neurotoxic venom
A pit of snakes
Like other members of the reptile class, most snakes lay eggs (oviparous) and are generally not thought of as contenders for Mother of the Year awards. The eggs are deposited in a suitable location, and the young inside are left to their own devices, emerging fully developed between one and two months later. However, some snake species take their maternal responsibilities more seriously and invest more energy in incubating and protecting their clutches. Python mothers will bask in the sun to warm themselves before returning to coil around the eggs to transfer heat to the eggs. She may even “shiver” to help keep the eggs warm – an extremely costly exercise that can result in the loss of over half her body weight and a two- to three-year delay between clutches.
A small number of snakes are either ovoviviparous (retaining their eggs internally until just before hatching) or even fully viviparous (giving birth to live young) with a functioning placenta. Rhinkals, certain sea snakes, most vipers and garter snakes are all examples of ovoviviparous snakes, while boa constrictors and anacondas are fully viviparous.
The young snakes use a small, sharp egg tooth on their snouts to cut their way out of the egg to emerge like perfect miniatures of the adults. In venomous species, this also means that they hatch with fully developed venom glands. As a result, a baby snake is still a potentially deadly one.
Anacondas are viviparous – they give birth to live young; the rinkhals is ovoviviparous (retaining eggs internally until just before hatching); boa constrictors are also viviparous; a corn snake hatches from its egg
Remarkable Reptiles
While every bit deserving of respect and the same degree of caution that should be afforded to any potentially dangerous wild animal, snakes are indeed marvels of nature and should be appreciated as such. Far from the aggressive creatures they have been made out to be, they are simply complex predators adapted to survive in the form that millions of years of evolution have created for them. Note that snakes are seldom encountered on African safaris.
To lend your support to an organisation prioritising snake conservation, read more about Save the snakes on our app. (Get the app to view – instructions below)
A red-billed firefinch hot on the tail of a flying ant. Harare, Zimbabwe. Photographer of the Year 2022 Finalist
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Primate quest + Sabi safari with Jamie + sneaky hyenas
One of the most fulfilling aspects of being part of teamAG is witnessing the joy and thrill radiating from our travellers when they return from one of our safaris. The Weiss family recently travelled with us to Lake Kivu and Nyungwe Forest in Rwanda, Kahuzi-Biega National Park in DRC and Mafia Island off the coast of Tanzania, in search of weird and wonderful creatures, with a focus on primates. On their return, the family’s tally for the trip included ten primate species (including mountain and eastern lowland gorillas), Seychelles flying fox, Zanzibar galago, straw-coloured fruit bats and 150 bird species. You can read their account about their time in Central Africa, complete with mesmerising adventures, in our first story below.
Human-wildlife conflict is a major threat facing wildlife conservation and local communities across the continent. The loss of livestock, such as cattle, to wild predators is a primary source of conflict. Understanding how lions select cattle for prey could help in protecting livestock, mitigating human-wildlife conflict. Read about how researchers are doing just that in our second story below.
Happy celebrating Africa!
Taryn van Jaarsveld — Editor
From our Scientific Editor – Jamie Paterson
Did you know that when feeding around a large meal, low-ranking hyenas occasionally utter a low vibrating call? It’s the spotted hyena version of an alarm call and usually means danger. As the higher-ranked hyenas stop eating to look for the approaching lion, the sneaky fibbers snatch a few of the tastiest morsels for themselves.
I first witnessed this while guiding in the Sabi Sands and was hugely amused to watch as the high-ranked hyenas caught on but still couldn’t bring themselves to risk ignoring it.
Sightings like these are just one of the reasons I am so excited to be back in the Sands guiding a safari in a few months – and I would love to take you with me! Our travel team has been hard at work putting together what promises to be a thrilling adventure from the delicious comfort of Jaci’s Sabi House. Spaces are limited, and it is time-sensitive, so contact our travel team ASAP to book your spot!
Marina Leuzinger and family travelled with AG to Namibia, and visited Sossusvlei, Pelican Point in Walvis Bay, Twyfelfontein, Etosha National Park and Waterberg Plateau Park. Writing from Namibia, Marina wrote:
“Today as we left Windhoek I was really hoping for our plane to be delayed and our flight to be cancelled… I haven’t had this feeling of not wanting to leave a country after a holiday for ages! So to keep it short: our trip was absolutely magical and there is still much more to be discovered in Namibia.
Thank you very much for all arrangements and bookings, for organising the car, our camps, hotels and tours. It was really TOP.”
Pic: The Leuzinger family soaking up a last sunset from Waterberg Plateau Park, Namibia
WATCH: The Ethiopian wolf is the most endangered carnivore in Africa and the rarest canid species in the world. As avid hunters of African mole-rats, they have developed various techniques to catch their prey. In this clip from David Attenborough’s Life series, watch as an Ethiopian wolf stalks its prey (01:32). Click here to watch
Rwanda is known as the Land of a Thousand Hills — accurately describing the mountainous verdant vistas of this tiny country in Central Africa. My husband Chanan Weiss and I were last in Rwanda a few weeks before the genocide broke out in 1994, oblivious to the political turmoil bubbling under the surface and the devastation soon to come. Amid the presence of UN vehicles, we set out on our jungle trek, searching for the mountain gorillas. Stumbling on these majestic creatures is one of life’s memories that remains poignant despite the passing of time.
Still spellbound, almost three decades later, we were finally in the position to set out to Central Africa again. This time, we aimed to expand our journey across countries, and to share the experience with our daughters, Laina and Abby. We provided our wishlist to the Africa Geographic team, who put together a plan for us. We hoped to seek out a variety of wildlife – with a particular focus on primates. Our resulting itinerary included Nyungwe National Park, Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Lake Kivu, Volcanoes National Park and Mafia Island.
Trekking through Kamiranzovu swamp in Nyungwe National Park, Rwanda
The primates of Rwanda’s Nyungwe Forest
Travelling to Nyungwe National Park, it felt so good to be on the road to experience the smells, sounds and unique feeling of being in Africa again! As we approached our destination, we watched the transition from the lush fields of tea plantations to the dense canopies of indigenous forest and were greeted by olive baboons and L’Hoest’s monkeys.
Nyungwe National Park is a young national park, only proclaimed in 2004. With over 100,000 hectares of protected mountain rainforest, it is considered one of Africa’s biodiversity hotspots. It is known for its diversity of birds, primates and plant species, and we knew this would be a memorable few days of exploring.
Our days were spent trekking on forest pathways, negotiating thick forest vegetation, learning about the history and conservation efforts of the park and being introduced to the birds and primates of the area. There was even a waterfall thrown in for our daughter Abby, who couldn’t resist the forest pool and its frigid waters.
We were privileged to have Claver Ntoyinkima, one of Rwanda’s foremost birding experts, for our three days in the area. Claver grew up on the outskirts of the forest, and his expertise and passion are a reminder of the human input intrinsic to conservation success. He taught us so much, from birds to beetles, politics to primates, and the scientific names of trees! Often, the people you meet in these natural spaces bring such richness to the experience.
Chanan was dizzy with excitement, armed with a massive lens, eager to capture the diverse and unique birds of the region. Of course, fleeting glimpses do not always lend themselves to perfect photos, but somehow his spirits are never dampened, and a rewarding moment makes all the other hours worthwhile.
Nyungwe National Park is surrounded by tea plantations; a white-tailed blue flycatcher in Nyungwe Forest; the Weiss family enjoying the canopy walkway above Nyungwe Forest; Laina and Abby enjoying the view in between treks; a black-crowned waxbill in the forest; a black-and-white-casqued hornbill; trekking through the forest
A five-kilometre trek can easily take four hours with our crew, as we tend to stop for every moving creature. Between Chanan’s birds and the girls’ fascination with creepy-crawlies, butterflies, and even fungi – let’s say no one was in a hurry!
Then there were the primates! We managed to observe seven different primate species over our time in the area, relying mainly on the expertise of trackers. A guide, machete in hand to clear the path, weaved us through the thick vegetation until the shaking of trees and the calls of the troops alerted us to their presence. We heard the chimpanzees before we saw them, perched atop the trees, stretching their limber bodies and fully engrossed in grooming. Quietly taking in the presence of this endangered animal – which shares almost 99% of our DNA – was thrilling. One needs a moment to take it in before quickly becoming engrossed in the detail of their fingers or the curious faces of the youngsters.
We also saw vervet monkeys on the main road while driving through Nyungwe Forest, and, thanks to Claver’s spotting abilities, a silver monkey deeper in the forest. Claver also helped us find grey-cheeked mangabeys – we hiked a few hundred metres through the thick forest after he heard them not too far off, and thankfully found them. To our surprise, we were not only rewarded with the mangabeys, but also a single Dent’s mona monkey.
While trampling noisily through the forest we almost walked into an African broadbill which was also quite exciting. We were also fortunate to see nine of the famous 41 Albertine Rift endemic bird species, including Rwenzori turaco, mountain masked apalis, Grauer’s swamp warbler, yellow-eyed black flycatcher, strange weaver and blue-headed, regal, Rwenzori double-collared and purple-breasted sunbirds.
They were, unfortunately, very hard to photograph in the limited time we had there!
A family of Ruwenzori colobus spotted in Nyungwe Forest; the Weiss family witness a Ruwenzori colobus in action; chimpanzees in the forest canopy; the family were greeted by olive baboons on the outskirts of the forest; L’Houests monkeys were also seen on arrival in the forest
An eastern lowland silverback in DRC
With some trepidation, we decided, a week before our trip, to brave the journey to Kahuzi-Biega National Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). With news of Congolese militia in conflict with Rwanda, there was some concern about the risk of us getting stuck or caught up in the conflict. Thankfully this was not the case, and our 24 hours in the DRC went by without a hitch. Contrary to expectation, we had a memorable wildlife experience and fantastic hospitality.
Kahuzi-Biega National Park is one of the DRC’s largest national parks and one of the last refuges for the critically endangered eastern lowland gorilla – also known as Grauer’s gorilla. Extending over 600,000 hectares, the park is a UNESCO world heritage site. It is considered a critical habitat for the protection of afro-montane forests and the wildlife that lives there.
The eastern lowland gorilla is the largest of the gorilla subspecies and is distinguished by its stocky body, massive head, and short muzzle. We were excited for this detour to see what was a new subspecies for Chanan and me.
We set out on a long and arduous trek through the thick forest, with trackers and guides taking us up steep, slippery mountainsides and through dense vegetation. Finally, we heard the characteristic sound of fists on chest. They had heard us before we heard them. We spent the next 30 minutes following a troop on the move – with glimpses of twin babies on a mother’s back and a mock charge by a female that briefly terrified Abby!
Then, amidst a cracking of branches and loud guttural grunts, we spotted a massive silverback up a tree. How that tree held him is still our guess – as he stretched out his huge legs and reached for leaves. After some time, the silverback trundled down the tree and plopped right in front of us to finish his meal. Experiencing this massive creature, unperturbed by our presence and allowing us to absorb this surreal moment, was exhilarating.
The photographers clicked away in delight until the star attraction decided it was enough, and he stood up and disappeared into the jungle.
In Kahuzi-Biega National Park, the Weiss family witnessed an eastern lowland silverback and spent time with the gorillas after being led through the forest thicket by guides and trackers.
Bats of Lake Kivu and gorillas of Volcanoes
Returning to Rwanda after our time in DRC, we headed to the shores of Lake Kivu to spend a relaxing few days soaking up uninterrupted views of vegetated islands. A freshwater lake nestled within Africa’s Great Rift Valley, Lake Kivu provided an opportunity to swim, kayak and explore the nearby islands.
Straw-coloured fruit bats fly over Lake Kivu
Napoleon Island, in particular, is known for its biodiversity — and is home to over 40,000 straw-coloured fruit bats. The eerie screeches of the bats were at first disconcerting, but their sweet little faces won us over, and the minutes turned into hours as we became enthralled with the spectacle.
From Lake Kivu, we set out on our journey to Volcanoes National Park. Rwanda’s roads are slow. Not because they are pot-holed, but because they are windy and steep. Vehicles share single lanes with cyclists – on bicycles laden with bags of potatoes and cabbage bound for trade with neighbouring villages – racing down mountain slopes.
Canoeing on Lake Kivu; spotting a white-eyed slaty flycatcher; the endearing sight of a double-toothed barbet; Napoleon Island is home to over 40,000 straw-coloured fruit bats; Chanan and Maria enjoying views of Lake Kivu; spotting an immature palm-nut vulture
We would soon see Volcanoes National Park approaching, the thick indigenous vegetation contrasting the heavily farmed hillsides. A vital conservation area, it protects critical habitat for the endangered mountain gorilla.
Our long-awaited trek into the forests of Volcanoes National Park began under an eerie fog hanging over the forest canopy. We trudged our way up Mount Karisimbi, following the trackers and guide to locate the family of Pablo the gorilla. There are 12 habituated gorilla families in Volcanoes National Park, some of which are habituated solely for research purposes. Here, tourism and science work hand-in-hand to benefit both people and conservation.
As we turned a corner, there amongst the jungle backdrop was a family of mountain gorillas, their black fur striking against the curtain of green. The giant silverback was splayed out in a sleepy stupor while others ate leaves, tore apart bamboo shoots and nestled with their babies. A 3-year-old baby gorilla, who was particularly curious, was so close to Abby she could have stroked him! We kept backing up and tripping over each other as he came closer to us to investigate.
The Weiss family experienced a family of mountain gorillas in misty Volcanoes National Park, including a silverback and inquisitive youngster
Despite their intimidating size and appearance, the gentle nature of the gorillas was palpable. A core focus of Dian Fossey’s early work was transforming the public perception of gorillas as aggressive beasts into that of a creature of great compassion and social intelligence.
We stayed in the town of Ruhengeri, situated at the foot of the Virunga Mountains. We loved staying here for its friendly people, safe streets, delicious food and top-notch coffee. Chanan and I were last here 28 years ago. So different to what we remember, it felt surreal to walk the same streets with our daughters. In addition to our gorilla trek, we visited the newly opened Karisoke Research Centre, canoeing the Mukungwa River and trekking the park’s golden monkeys.
Canoeing Mukungwa River; a red-billed firefinch; cyclists laden with bags of potatoes and cabbage travel between neighbouring villages to trade; a golden monkey in Volcanoes National Park; spotting an African dusky flycatcher
Deflating on Mafia Island
Our adventure’s finale took us to Tanzania’s Mafia Island – a small tropical paradise off the coast. We spent the last six days of our trip indulging in all things coastal: swimming in the warm sea, walking out to sandbanks, reading, kayaking on the calm water, snorkelling, strolling on the fine sandy beaches, playing cards, drinking from coconuts and eating fantastic food. We even had the opportunity to watch turtle hatchlings scuttle into the sea!
The azure waters of Mafia Island; a red-bellied bush squirrel; a Seychelles flying fox on Mafia Island; heading out to snorkel the calm waters; the Weiss family witnessed turtle hatchlings scuttle into the sea
Despite our seaside stupor, we added a few new mammals to our life list: Seychelles flying fox, Zanzibar galago and Zanj sun squirrel.
Our total tally for our trip included ten primates, seven additional mammals and 150 birds, thanks to Chanan’s birding skills.
Despite Rwanda’s turbulent past, the country’s approach to tourism is refreshing. We felt very safe and welcome wherever we went and thoroughly enjoyed the tourism infrastructure and efforts that have been made to protect the country’s important plant and animal biodiversity. Clean, efficient and friendly, one can understand why this is a top tourist destination in Africa. A long-anticipated adventure in Rwanda, DRC and Mafia Island was better than we could have imagined and an absolute privilege to experience.
Not sure how to distinguish between the different species and subspecies of gorilla? We’ll show you how.
For those wanting to learn more about the bird and mammal offerings in Rwanda, Christian Boix’s (Africa Geographic travel director and one of Africa’s top birding guides) book Wild Rwanda is the region’s most authoritative “where to find” birds and mammals guide.
Human-wildlife conflict is one of the gravest threats facing wildlife conservation and local communities in Africa. One primary source of this conflict is the loss of livestock , such as cattle, to wild predators. Understanding when and how these predators, such as lions, select their prey is vital in generating mitigation strategies.
Research from the University of Pretoria unravels some characteristics that make cattle more vulnerable to hunting lions. The scientists found that specific situations and cattle attributes such as mottled coat colours, small horns, youth, and social behaviour placed certain herd members at greater risk.
The study was conducted in Botswana’s eastern Panhandle region of the Okavango Delta. The fringe of the Delta is a known conflict hotspot where free-ranging livestock and wildlife coexist, and livestock losses are common. During the two-year study period, 197 cattle were killed in 143 different incidents. The vast majority (82.7%) were killed by lions, while African painted wolves (wild dogs), spotted hyenas, and leopards accounted for the remainder.
As might be expected, the scientists found that 87.1% of the incidents occurred between dusk and dawn, and all attacks on cattle in an enclosure took place exclusively at night. Though the lions killed only one cow on average, there were ten incidents where more than two cows were killed in one incident. These occurred in non-predator-proof enclosures, indicating that inadequate cattle pens may exacerbate livestock losses during single incidents. However, free-ranging cattle still accounted for the most losses during the study.
During the incidents involving enclosed cattle, the lions targeted young and inexperienced calves, prone to panic and stampeding when attacked without an escape route. Conversely, calves were avoided in incidents involving free-ranging cattle. Interestingly, lions seem to avoid heifers and adult cows in both contexts (enclosed and free-ranging), suggesting that the inherent sociality of the females reduced their risk. Instead, free-ranging bulls and oxen – more likely to be solitary than the cows – were the preferred prey.
Livestock losses are common along the Delta fringe, where free-ranging livestock and wildlife coexist
Given their size and morphological similarity to buffalo, lion predation on cattle is inevitable. However, the authors point out that the process of domestication has removed many of the wild attributes – size, horns, aggression – that would have helped cattle discourage predation attempts. Thus, it was easy to understand why more polled (hornless) or small-horned cattle were killed while long-horned cattle were avoided. However, the discovery that lions preferred mottled cows over those with a solid colour coat was somewhat harder to explain. Lions have better night vision than humans, but this has come at a cost in terms of colour and detail vision, so they tend to respond more readily to movement. The scientists theorise that “the mixed pelage pattern helps identify movement” and draw the lions’ attention more frequently than solid-coloured cows.
Though it is an entirely understandable response, the research also suggests that chasing the lions off a cattle carcass may increase attacks. The data shows that early disturbance at a kill reduced carcass consumption by 40%, the equivalent of 30kg per carcass per lion. As lions need at least an average of 6kg of food per day to maintain condition (though they do not need to feed every day and usually consume more than this in one sitting), disrupting their feeding could force them to kill more frequently in “hit and run” attacks.
So, what are the implications of this research? The authors acknowledge that selective breeding for more “wild” characteristics like longer horns and aggression is an unlikely solution, as this would only make the cattle more challenging and even dangerous to handle. Regardless, the preferences displayed by the lions were subtle. The obvious upshot is that the antipredator activities fall to the humans that care for the cattle. The most productive action would be to confine the cattle at night, but this needs to be done in suitable, predator-proof enclosures to avoid the possibility of lions developing a preference for “easy, confined prey”. This is particularly necessary during the dry season when the cattle are more likely to travel greater distances for food and water.
SO my editorial of last weekstirred a few pots and affirmed what the experienced travellers amongst you were thinking. Thanks to all who emailed me or reached out via social media. I received some encouraging nods from safari industry dagga boys – much appreciated.
AT LAST, my beloved South Africa is phasing out the abusive captive lion breeding industry. There is currently a gazetted draft White Paper on the conservation and sustainable use of South Africa’s biodiversity in play, which will provide the overarching policy context to rid us of this evil industry. This process is being driven by the Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment – and our Minister Barbara Creecy is a critical roleplayer in that regard. I can only imagine the pressure she is under from those who believe that any practice is ok if it produces money. Strength to you, Madam Minister!
I am currently on safari in Botswana – my beloved Khwai, to be precise – with our 2022 Photographer of the Year winners. Expect a celebratory gallery from us in a few weeks!
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor – Taryn van Jaarsveld
Is there anything more magical than spending an evening dining under the stars in the African wilderness while being serenaded by the sounds of nocturnal creatures? Or taking a breather from an adventurous morning of Big 5 spotting to indulge in a scrumptious brunch under a giant baobab? This week we’re celebrating the wonders of dining out on safari with 15 of our favourite gastronomic bushveld experiences – check out our first story.
We’re also examining a distressing forecast for the yellow-billed hornbills of the Kalahari. Scientists have predicted that, due to rising temperatures, these hornbills will vanish from the area within the next five years. Read more on the impact climate change is having on this population of birds in our second story below.
Did you know that there have been 13 fatal bear attacks in North America in the last two years? In all instances where the bear responsible could be identified (and occasionally even when it couldn’t), it was euthanised.
There has been another leopard incident in the Kruger region in South Africa. Sabi Sand Nature Reserve confirmed that a male leopard in “poor condition” seriously injured an employee. She was on the veranda of her residence at the time and had to be airlifted to the hospital. The leopard in question (believed to be the Nyeleti male) was put down. Given how unusual such attacks are (in southern Africa at least), it is pretty uncanny that this latest incident came on the heels of our article on leopard habituation in the Sabi Sands.
I raised the bear fact because I’ve been trying to put what seems like a spate of leopard-human conflicts into perspective for myself. It also shows that no matter where in the world it happens, when a predator behaves like a predator, it has tragic consequences for both people and the animal.
We all send our best wishes to the employee and hope for a full recovery.
Best time to see wildlife in southern Africa? INSIDER TIP from our CEO: The later in the dry season you come on safari, the better the wildlife experience. No rain for many months means predictable watering points for thirsty animals and thin vegetation – both good for wildlife sightings. If you can stomach higher temperatures and you are after pure wildlife celebration, push it as late in the dry season as you can. September to November (before the rains arrive) is usually spectacular for wildlife encounters. This is when most safari-goers have gone home and when serious photographers are out there scoring those epic images we all love to see.
With that in mind, here are a few excellent hand-made packages for the coming months:
Affordable safari in South Luangwa – 5 days. This fantastic combo of walking and driving will appeal to experienced safari-goers and first-timers alike. Expect exceptional game viewing and tracking on foot, scrumptious bush breakfasts and unforgettable sundowners. Did we mention leopards?
Three rivers safari – 7 days. This classic safari takes you to three iconic African riverine settings and two countries: Victoria Falls on the mighty Zambezi River in Zimbabwe plus Botswana’s Chobe National Park on the shores of the broad, sluggish Chobe River, and Khwai on the eastern fringes of the Okavango Delta
WATCH: Take a breather with BBC Earth and spend time unwinding at a waterhole in Mwiba Wildlife Reserve, Tanzania, as wildlife gathers to drink (27:40). Click here to watch
Delicious meals do not a holiday make, but they are certainly a vital component of the overall experience. In Africa, the safari bushveld dining experience has evolved from basic fare to competitive haute cuisine. There’s only one problem: when your days on safari are limited, do you really want to head back to camp for a meal? Fortunately, the solution is simple, and many lodges offer their guests the opportunity to dine out against the backdrop of some of the most spectacular landscapes in Africa. Serenaded by the sounds of the wild (with the occasional surprise visit from one of the performers) and with every whim taken care of, nothing could be more immersive than indulging one’s epicureanism in this setting.
A day on safari is one of the exceptions to the old maxim about breakfast being the most important part of the day. In the bushveld, breakfast is a quick snack to be bolted down with a few gulps of coffee before rushing out to enjoy the best part of the day. A few hours later, after an early start and a couple of thrilling sightings on a game drive, everyone has worked up quite the appetite. Nothing tastes quite as good as brunch in the wild.
Perched on the top of the Oloololo Escarpment and looking down over the Mara River, Angama Mara’s vantage point emphasises just how vast this critical East African ecosystem truly is. For safari-goers, that means long full days exploring the plains, and no one wants to interrupt that to race back to the lodge for food. Fortunately, the lodge’s culinary artists will have been hard at work preparing the perfect Mara picnic so that their guests do not have to miss a moment of the Great Migration action (and can watch it with a full belly)!
Pizza for breakfast? Maybe this sounds more like a student’s lazy provisions than a gourmet meal for a safari guest, but it is well worth trusting the ingenious gourmands at Morukuru in Madikwe. After a morning of frenetic sightings (Madikwe is, of course, known for its wild dogs!), Morukuru’s mobile pizza oven arrives on the scene, making fresh woodfired breakfast pizza for the windswept, elated and ravenous guests.
Zambia is the “home of the walking safari”, and the thrill of marching through through this wilderness all morning is guaranteed to ensure that the simple, wholesome brunch spread set out by the team at Track & Trail River Camp is devoured with alacrity. A quick stop to recharge the batteries in the heart of the South Luangwa wilderness before it’s time to set off again is just the ticket!
End a morning of wandering the golden green savannah with a cooked brunch, to be enjoyed while soaking up views of the surrounding wildlife moving off to the foothills of Mount Kilimanjaro. Guests of Lion’s Bluff Lodge can experience a wholesome meal with delectable fresh produce and rich coffee prepped under the shade of trees, after spending hours exploring the Lumo Community Wildlife Sanctuary. There can be no better setting than this unique ecosystem which encompasses one of Africa’s most ancient elephant migratory corridors.
Brunch – complete with pizza – is the perfect respite after a morning of sightings in Madikwe; overlook rolling savannahs during the morning meal in Tsavo West for the ultimate in bushveld dining; enjoy an epic picnic with a magnificent view over the Maasai Mara at Angama Mara; recharge your batteries in a wild setting in between walks at Track & Trail River Camp
Kwessi Dunes, NamibRand Nature Reserve, Namibia
This is an exception to the brunch over breakfast approach because temperatures in the desert will have skyrocketed by midday, and the lodge pool will be calling. Instead, the Kwessi Dunes team sets out a sunrise breakfast, so guests can ogle the colour-changing dunes as the sun crests the horizon and light slowly pours over the desert sands.
Elsa’s Kopje, Meru National Park, Kenya
Considered one of the most spectacular locations in Africa, Meru National Park is a true wilderness. And Elsa’s Kopje is one of the park’s most iconic destinations. Bush brunches at Elsa’s Kopje are a chance to enjoy a full and satisfying meal, al fresco, in the middle of the plains, surrounded by wildlife. From the vantage point of one of the many rocky outcrops, travellers can look out across the diverse scenery without another person in sight. Take a moment to sit back, enjoy the spectacular views, the smells, the colours, and the gentle breeze.
Have brunch on the plains courtesy of Elsa’s Kopje for the best options in bushveld dining; enjoy an early breakfast in the dunes of NamibRand Nature Reserve
Machaba Camp is a luxurious destination on the banks of the Khwai River, built in the classic 1950’s style. Guests can intimately experience the wildness of Khwai by enjoying a luxurious picnic laid out under the trees, with wildlife not too far off. Nourishing, delicious ingredients are the order of the day, and it will be hard to not fall into a satisfying nap after enjoying the excitement of the morning game drives and indulging in a delicious brunch.
Samara Karoo Reserve, Great Karoo, Eastern Cape, South Africa
The incredible geological transformations of Samara’s semi-desert landscape beg to be the setting for a delicious meal. The team at Samara offers some amazing dining experiences, from a picnic lunch in a riverbed with cool water flowing past your toes, to mountain-top brunches and lunches overlooking the wide expanse of the Great Karoo below. Samara’s gourmet picnic food has a certain je-ne-sais-quoi that just epitomises holiday mode.
Take in epic mealtime views at Samara – a must-visit for bushveld dining; enjoy comfortable shady brunches at Machaba Camp
Starlit suppers
If brunch in the wilderness is a chance to catch one’s breath in the middle of the day, dining under the African stars is a more breath-taking experience. Especially when the lions start to roar…
Aided by the golden glow of paraffin lamps in the middle of a vast dry riverbed, the Tanda Tula staff are well versed in setting up an elegant bush dinner experience. Guests are treated to delicious food and fine wine in the heart of the Big 5 paradise that is the Timbavati Private Nature Reserve.
There is something utterly primitive about Samburu – a feeling only emphasised by an al fresco dining experience. The flames of blazing torches chase away the darkness, their flickering light harking to a time long before electricity tamed the nights of Africa, as you dine out in one of Africa’s wildest places. The area around Saruni Samburu is teeming with wildlife – so be sure to take time to listen for the nocturnal sounds as you dine.
Lekkerwater Beach Lodge, De Hoop Nature Reserve, Overberg, South Africa
If you enjoy your open-air dining with a side of whale watching, Lekkerwater Beach Lodge is just the spot. The lodge is perched between land and sea atop the ancient dunes of De Hoop Nature Reserve in South Africa’s Western Cape. The reserve is known for offering some of the world’s best land-based whale watching. Due to its location near the beach, Lekkerwater is able to offer guests al-fresco dinners on the beach, for an immersive seaside experience.
Take your bushveld dining with a side of whale watching at Lekkerwater Beach Lodge; Experience an evening supper by lamplight in a riverbed with Tanda Tula; as well as the best in bushveld dining at Saruni Samburu
Africa on Foot Wilderness Trails has made our list because of the uniqueness of the walking safari experience. Experiencing the truly wild side of the African bushveld does not mean compromising on quality – or good food. After hanging up your boots for the day, you’ll have the opportunity to dine fireside at a different location every night. So despite roughing it on the trail, nights are made very comfortable by the mobile-camp team, who prep scrumptious meals under the stars.
Kichaka Frontier Camp, Ruaha National Park, Tanzania
Visitors to this remote camp in Ruaha National Park can be forgiven for losing themselves in the intimacy of this authentic safari destination. The small camp only takes six guests at a time, who are incredibly well looked after throughout their stays in one of the most isolated areas on the continent. And with such crystal-clear nights over Ruaha, hosts maximise the potential of the night skies by hosting dinners under the breathtaking vistas of the heavens. The Kichaka team uses only the freshest local produce, and pay special attention to the tastes and preferences of guests, ensuring a fulfilling and satisfying al-fresco dining experience.
Life in wild and untamed Mana Pools revolves around the mighty Zambezi River, the region’s lifeblood during the dry season. So where better to sate one’s appetite with the Vundu Camp team than on its banks, accompanied by the gentle song of resident hippos as the blanket of the African night falls?
Tswalu Kalahari Reserve, South Africa
Tswalu’s food is among some of the best on the safari scene, which applies equally to meals outside the lodge. As the sun burnishes the red Kalahari sands, a dune picnic is a perfect place to indulge your inner gastronome.
Kichaka Frontier Camp dinners offer crystal-clear views of the Ruaha night sky; take a comforting meal after a day of walking with Africa on Foot; enjoy the finest cuisine – renowned for its bushveld dining options – at Tswalu Kalahari Reserve; dine out on the banks of the Zambezi at Vundu Camp
With their small body sizes, high metabolisms, and primarily diurnal activities, birds are vulnerable to changes in temperature and water availability. Hornbills in the Kalahari are at risk of local extinction
Scientists have predicted that the Kalahari’s hornbills will start to vanish in five years – and climate change is to blame. It is a frightening thought that an animal as seemingly ubiquitous as the yellow-billed hornbill could be threatened with local extinction. Yet the authors of a new study published in Frontiers warn that if temperatures continue on the same trajectory, yellow-billed hornbills at their study site in the Kalahari Desert will no longer be able to breed successfully by 2027 – resulting in local extinction.
Researchers in the Kuruman River Reserve in the Northern Cape of South Africa released their alarming results after a decade-long monitoring period, from 2008 to 2019. This included the drought during the 2015/2016 breeding season. The scientists compared the first three years of breeding data to the final three years of the study period. They found that nest success (defined by the successful fledging of at least one chick) declined from 58% to 17%, occupied artificial nest boxes declined from 52% to 12%, and the average number of chicks for each breeding attempt plummeted from 1.1 to 0.4. Most concerningly, of the 118 observed breeding attempts, not a single attempt was successful when the average air temperature was equal to or over 35.7˚C. According to current predictions, this average temperature will be exceeded for the entire duration of the yellow-billed hornbills’ breeding season by 2027, resulting in a predicted 0% breeding success rate.
Mass die-off events affecting bird species due to short periods of extreme temperatures are becoming increasingly common. However, this research shows that even sub-lethal increases in temperatures have a significant impact on the ecology of a region. Furthermore, hornbills would be expected to struggle during periods of drought due to a shortage of their insect and reptile prey. During the breeding season, the female yellow-billed hornbill seals herself off in a cavity of a tree or earth bank (or in artificial nest boxes) and is entirely reliant upon the male to feed her as she incubates the eggs and cares for the chicks. Thus, a shortage of resources caused by drought would hamper this process. Yet even in years of good rain, high temperatures still had deleterious effects on hornbill breeding habits.
High temperatures have detrimental effects on hornbill breeding habits. For more pics from Danielle Carstens, check out@dcwildlifephotography
The authors acknowledge that the higher temperatures inside artificial nest boxes compared to those of natural nest cavities may have impacted the results. However, the temperatures at the study site are, on average, lower than those experienced by yellow-billed hornbills at the hottest margins of their range. In addition, the effects of the higher temperatures are felt not just by the nesting female and chicks but by the males foraging for food during the day. Hornbills cannot shift their breeding season in the desert because it has to correspond with the arrival of the rains (and an abundance of prey) at the hottest time of the year. Climate change is changing temperatures (and other parameters) too quickly for birds to be able to adapt.
This research adds to a growing body of evidence of the effects global heating will have on Africa’s fauna and flora. With their relatively small body sizes, high metabolisms, and primarily diurnal activities, birds are especially vulnerable to changes in temperature and water availability. Those that survive in arid habitats like the Kalahari more so, as the window for successful breeding is limited to the duration of a short rainy season during the hottest months. According to the 2022 update to the State of the World’s Birds report, climate change now ranks as the second-greatest threat to birds across the globe after habitat destruction. Ornithologists are constantly finding new changes in bird behaviours and habits: climate change is affecting migratory patterns, seasonal rhythms, habitat and breeding ground use and even body size. The yellow-billed hornbills of this particular study represent challenges being faced by birds around the world.
And the threats posed are looming sooner than most people realise. As lead author Nicholas Pattinson explains in a press release from the University of Cape Town, “[m]uch of the public perception of the effects of climate change is related to scenarios calculated for 2050 and beyond. This renders the concept of the effects of climate change abstract to much of the general public not directly affected by extreme weather events, given that the effects are considered to concern future generations.”
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Hwange healing + kaleidoscopic chameleons + Mara madness
Listen up; I have something to say. My recent visit to the magnificent Maasai Mara was both epic and distressing.
Observing hordes of wildebeest and zebras crossing the Mara River again and again during the Great Wildebeest Migration, as the herds criss-cross the northern Serengeti and southern Maasai Mara, is one of Africa’s best safari experiences. It really is. One gets caught up in the drama of the moment, the chaos, the celebration of life. And death, as massive crocs and tactical lions gorge on the reckless and the unlucky.
BUT. How to manage that other great migration – that of large numbers of Homo sapiens converging on this tiny piece of Africa to witness this natural phenomenon?
At one of the crossings I witnessed last week, about 60 vehicles waited patiently for hours on both sides of the river – about 100m away – while the gnus and zebras slowly converged on their chosen crossing point. Then, when the first hooves hit the water, it was a crazy, chaotic rush as hundreds of tons of steel gunned with screaming engines to get to the best observation points. It was surreal, exhilarating and sickening as we all converged on what is only a few hundred meters of riverbank, jostled for position and somehow avoided collisions. The temptation to judge others was real. Did the fact that our guide behaved better make me less part of the problem? Did the fact that we left the grid-locked traffic jam to find calmer experiences give me the moral high ground? No, I was and am part of the problem.
Some things have changed from the old days. Now, guides have to allow the herds to commence the crossing before they approach the river bank – and officials in tiny green Jimny’s enforce slightly better behaviour. But it’s still chaotic and very stressful for the herds. It’s still not sustainable.
We, the travel industry, need to embrace this problem and find a more responsible way of showcasing this extraordinary spectacle before pressure groups and officious government agencies shut the door on the Greatest Show on Earth. Drops the mic
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor – Taryn van Jaarsveld
Can nature nurture? Nature – or surrounding environment – can change a person’s outlook, or even ignite evolutionary processes.
In our first story this week, we feature a superb account by Aaron Gekoski (former Photographer of the Year winner) which attests to the healing power of nature. Exploring Hwange and Matobo National Parks in Zim, Aaron found catharsis through safari.
Scientists exploring how chameleons evolve their kaleidoscopic capacity have made a fascinating observation. By studying how a group of invasive African chameleons in Hawaii adapt to local environmental factors, the scientists have captured a snapshot of the evolutionary process in action. Read more in our second story below.
Happy celebrating Africa to you all!
From our Scientific Editor – Jamie Paterson
Did you know that hooved animals are born with a deciduous hoof capsule? The soft coating avoids damage to the mother’s uterus or birth canal and is called eponychium (or “foal slippers” in horses).
I ask because Care for Wild Rhino Sanctuary has released an awesome video of the birth of a rhino calf (see below). It is especially magical because the mother – Olive – was orphaned by poachers in 2013 and raised by Care for Wild Rhino Sanctuary. Every rhino calf counts, and I challenge you to watch the little creature take his first steps without your throat closing up. And if you look closely, you can see his slippers.
A remarkable achievement by the devoted staff at Care for Wild and a spark of hope for us rhino lovers. Read more about Care for Wild and their rhino birth below.
Did we mention that we offer eight carefully crafted ways to enjoy the awesomeness of the Mara / Serengeti wonderland? We cater for all budgets and all times of the year – from the busy prime season when the herds are crossing the Mara River to the secret season, which locals know is the best time to be there. Over and above that, you could plan your own safari using our app or ask us to stitch together your ideal safari.
Louwhen Bowker, Care for Wild project rep, writes on the AG forum:
“Following our announcement of a new birth at Care for Wild Rhino Sanctuary in South Africa, we are extremely humbled and privileged to be able to share this incredible footage with the world. White rhino cow Olive gave birth to a male calf on 11 August 2022. The birth was captured on video by Olive’s guard. Despite keeping his distance, Olive remained close to her long-term protector throughout the early stages of labour and kept him close during delivery. This is an unbelievably special moment to see this precious new life take his first breaths.”
WATCH: Watch as the Nomads, a group of four young male lions, prowl the western bank of the Luangwa River in Zambia, in search of new territory. In their pursuit, they enter the territory of the powerful MK Pride. Can a hunting party of MK lionesses keep them at bay? (08:00). Click here to watch
From chameleons the size of house cats to those smaller than the head of a match, custom colours are central to the Chamaeleonidae family survival strategy. How did they come to evolve this kaleidoscopic capacity? Escapees from the 1970s pet trade may hold some of the answers…
Chameleons can modify their skin colour thanks to specialised skin cells and a combination of different pigments. As relatively slow movers, they rely on camouflage and muted browns and greens to stay hidden from potential predators (and to sneak up on prey).
They do not however have the magical ability to match the colour of their backgrounds, and their talent for expressing bright colours has more to do with impressing potential mates and intimidating rivals. Thus, chameleon ancestors walked a delicate tightrope between flamboyant breeding displays and avoiding the unwanted attentions of those looking to hunt them.
In 1972, 36 Jackson’s chameleons (Trioceros jacksonii xantholophus) – native to Kenya and Tanzania – were brought onto the Hawaiian island of Oahu, destined for a life as pets. They arrived somewhat bedraggled and sunlight-deprived and were placed outside for some invigorating fresh air, at which point they promptly escaped. Fifty years later, Jackson’s chameleons have established themselves as an invasive species in Hawaii. A lack of snakes and avian predators made the islands a chameleon paradise, which is where evolutionary research comes in.
Chameleon colour signals change in response to different social stimuli
When two male Jackson’s chameleons size each other up in the wild, they display a lurid yellow-green colour. But when presented with a predator, they adopt a far more subtle and camouflaged approach.
Researchers wanted to test if 50 years’ worth of a carefree, largely predator-less existence would mean that the Hawaiian Jackson’s chameleons had more elaborate or brighter displays. To do this, the scientists exposed both Kenyan and Hawaiian chameleons to rival male and female chameleons, as well as fake models of predators. The colour changes were measured using an optic spectrometer.
The Hawaiian chameleons proved far more uninhibited than their Kenyan relatives, flaunting significantly brighter displays of colour across a greater spectrum when presented with rivals and females. They also stood out against the native Hawaiian vegetation even when faced with predators, particularly snakes.
Male chameleons experience intense sexual selection. During the breeding season, they change from dull green to a highly conspicuous bright yellow display signal. They also readily fight by locking horns and sometimes pierce their rival’s skin with their horns. In (A) a dominant male is shown in display colouration. (B) A subordinate male that lost a contest and turned from bright yellow to brown. (C) Two males fighting, both are in display colouration and relatively evenly matched. (D) A courting male in full display colour, while the female has turned to a contrasting colour, rejecting the male. See the Supplementary Materials for additional photos, including in response to a snake.
It would be a stretch to conclude that the lucky Hawaiian immigrants have evolved in only 50 years. Instead, this is more likely an example of biological plasticity (adaption to local environmental factors) – a snapshot of the ultimate evolutionary process in action. In this case, a lack of danger brought sexual competitiveness to the forefront of a biological arms race.
We all have our own ways of dealing with stress. Some speak to professionals or pop pills. Others release endorphins via exercise or yoga, and meditate themselves into a state of zen-ness and some go on African safaris. Hippocrates prescribed a dose of greenery. “Nature,” he said, “is the greatest physician”. Whilst it’s unlikely that Hippocrates ever went on an African safari in Hwange, his words still ring true today. But many are discovering this great secret: the art of healing through safari. A safari is a cathartic experience, with lions or elephants playing the part of therapists, prowling their way deep into our psyche, stomping out negative thoughts (at least temporarily, anyway).
The pandemic blindsided us and brought challenges we didn’t see coming and never thought possible. We were isolated from each other, from travel, and for many, from the natural world. As we start life in a post-COVID era, can we find solace amongst the animals? I headed to Zimbabwe to find out.
A dose of the good stuff
For the past 13 years I’ve worked as an environmental photojournalist and filmmaker, covering stories of human-animal conflict. In the process I have witnessed the best – and the worst – of humanity. I had lived in Africa before – in Mozambique, South Africa and Zanzibar – and as the pressures of a few years of gruelling work began to weigh on me, I longed for the continent.
I missed the smells of a savannah after a heavy rainstorm and those dense, brilliant night skies. I daydreamed of wild, open spaces packed with wildlife, and sitting around a campfire chugging whiskey, listening to stories of lives spent in the bush.
As travel opened up in the post-pandemic world, I decided it was time to test out Hippocrates’ theory, and in March my girlfriend Marie and I set off for Zimbabwe from our home in the Philippines. At first, we were unsure of visiting during green season (the rainy months between December and April). But a good buddy, Mark Butcher (aka ‘Butch’), who runs a few lodges in Zimbabwe – one of which (Bomani Tented Lodge) I added to my itinerary – reassured me that green season meant relaxed animals due to an abundance of water and food, and fewer tourists.
Rhinos, Rhodes and rings
After four flights we arrived at Bulawayo Airport a little bleary-eyed, to be greeted by Phil and Sharon Stead, owners of Amalinda Safari Collection. From here it was a 45-minute drive to Amalinda Lodge in Matobo National Park: the first stop on our three-week tour.
The Matobo National Park is found in the Matobo Hills, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and is the oldest national park in Zimbabwe. And it might be one of the most romantic destinations on Earth. Every part of Amalinda Lodge pays homage to Matobo’s giant granite domes. We ate amongst them, slept next to them, swam on top of them, and went on game drives with them as the backdrop.
The Matobo Hills also house one of Africa’s rhino conservation success stories and provide impressive tracking encounters. On our first morning, we came within 5m of a pair of white rhinos, as our guide Howard – aka the “rhino oracle” – explained how rhinos here are flourishing due to intensive anti-poaching efforts.
Matopos offers some of the best rhino sightings in all of Zimbabwe
Back at the lodge that evening, we made our way up to a vantage point with Sharon, Phil and a couple of bottles of Champagne. As the sun set over Matobo’s two-billion-year-old hills, I knelt down on one knee, pretended to pull a drone out of my bag, and whipped out an engagement ring for Marie instead. She said “yes”. It had been quite the first day in Zimbabwe.
The next couple of days passed by, a heady mix of celebrating, spending time with rhinos, and enjoying our honeymoon suite. We even found time to visit the grave of Cecil John Rhodes, set on top of a mountain with sensational views. Ending on a high, we packed our bags and headed on the next leg: to Bomani Tented Lodge, in Hwange National Park.
Bomani, Bigboy and the Baggage Handlers
Upon arrival, it turned out that Butch was true to his word: we did indeed have the entire place to ourselves. Bomani is situated on a 2000-hectare private reserve: visitors have virtually no neighbours aside from the animals that regularly visit the waterhole in front of the lodge. Bomani has a real family atmosphere and we were made to feel at home by the lodge manager, the charismatic Bigboy, and our guide, Ndaba.
Whilst enjoying a cup of coffee over the campfire with Butch at 5am, mist dispersing around the lodge, a golden blur caught Butch’s eye. It turned out to be the lion Lesang (pictured in the main image of this story), son of renowned lion Cecil, a magnificent specimen who was on the lookout for a mate.
Bomani Tented Lodge is positioned on a private concession; A baboon resting near Bomani Lodge, as a giraffe bask in the afternoon light
Lesang is one of many lions that roam locally, along with a grizzled coalition known as ‘The Baggage Handlers’ (so named because they once raided the luggage of a charter aircraft on the runway to get to some vacuum-packed fillet steaks). On a couple of occasions, we were fortunate to see them with kills.
During the many coffees shared with Butch and the Imvelo team, I learnt of some of the ways they are contributing to the surrounding community, including building schools, creating employment, providing water and assisting with healthcare. They have recently been involved in an ambitious project to bring white rhinos back to Hwange. What makes the initiative so exciting is that rhinos are being reintroduced onto community land, where community members become custodians and benefit from tourism through increased employment.
The Cobras undergo training at their camp near Bomani Lodge; two members of the Cobras check their weapons prior to a drill; the Cobras prepare for their night patrol, keeping Hwange safe from poachers
Shortly after our trip, Butch and the team were busy preparing the rhinos for their trip to Hwange. Once in Hwange, they will enter into the care of the ‘Cobras’ – an anti-poaching group selected from the community and trained by Imvelo. Having seen the Cobras in action, it looks like the rhinos will be in safe hands.
In preparation for rhinos returning to Hwange, The Cobras work on a drill where donkeys replace rhinos.
A short drive from Bomani leads to Ngamo Plain – a wide-open savannah filled with the who’s who of safari. On a single morning, Butch showed us lion, cheetah, elephant, zebra, buffalo, wildebeest, waterbuck and a lot more.
Using a slow shutter speed and panning adds motion blur to animals on the move; There are few animals as photogenic as the waterbuck; As the sun sets over the Ngamo Plains, two cheetahs remain on the lookout for prey; A foal and her mother take a break to play on Hwange’s Ngamo Plains; A cheetah cub licks her lips after enjoying a meal
The final leg
Waving goodbye to the team from Imvelo, we headed north to Khulu Bush Camp in the north-eastern section of Hwange, to meet up again with Sharon and Phil. The lodge is a mirror of Sharon: elegant, stylish and beautifully put together.
Khulu is famous for its deck and plunge pool, where one can view elephants gathering at a large waterhole to drink. Sitting there with a gin and tonic in hand, we received news that a lioness and her cubs were feasting on a kudu close to the lodge.
Another highlight of our stay was hiding under a platform at neighbouring Ivory Lodge, where the elephants would congregate. Crouching with my camera, mere inches away from their trunks, made me sweat in places I didn’t know I could sweat. Shooting from this close with a wide-angle lens provides an intimate insight into elephant herds that telephotos can’t.
Taking advantage of Khulu’s famous gin bar, waiting for the elephants to arrive and drink; Lion cubs devouring a kudu, close to Khulu Lodge, Hwange; Photographing elephants under the floodlights provides even and soft lighting; Hiding underneath a platform at Ivory Lodge allows a different perspective on this herd of elephants
The Amalinda Collection also has its own conservation body, the Mother Africa Trust, which aims to empower local communities around Hwange and Matobo. Sharon took us to some of the lion bomas funded by the trust, which protect cattle from predators. Mother Africa has also been involved in building schools and has a dedicated anti-poaching unit.
While we were at the homestead, we met a man who had been injured by a bull elephant a few years ago and now struggles to walk. For many here, supporting family brings daily battles. One misplaced step and treasured cattle could be killed or worse – human life can be lost. The daily stresses I had come to Hwange to escape paled in comparison to the true grit I witnessed here.
A trip to Africa – experiencing its raw realities and overwhelming biodiversity – brings a true sense of perspective. We left Zimbabwe humbled, thrilled, exhausted, and with renewed energy and appreciation for our natural world. For those wanting to deal with demons, there’s nowhere quite like it.
One of the ‘Baggage Handlers’ eyes up a herd of zebra on the Ngamo Plains
Want to go on Hwange safari? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
Resources
Zimbabwe’s oldest and largest national park, Hwange is a safari paradise that hosts large populations of elephants, lions and wild dogs. Read more here.
The annual wildlife count in Zimbabwe’s Hwange National Park is a wonderful citizen-science project for all. Tony Park tells his story.
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Moving elephants + rhino run + Serengeti migration safari
The skimpy bikini barely covered her bits, and the danger of a wardrobe malfunction was real. No robe or kikoi in sight – just a few tiny pieces of string. This was no private beach – it was a roadside cafe on the busy main road in the bustling rural town of Gede, eastern Kenya. Men were gawking (as we do) but, more importantly, several people were obviously uncomfortable (bordering on angry) at the ample display of flesh amongst the modestly dressed locals. She was a tourist from Europe and the only Mzungu in the establishment. My guide – we were parked across the road – told me that scenes like this are common in August, when western world holidaymakers descend on the tropical coastline of Kenya. What is it about some people on holiday that they abandon all sense of decency and respect for local culture? Shakes his head, walks away.
Meanwhile, the knobthorn trees in my bushveld hometown bordering the Greater Kruger are smothered in canopies of white flowers, and their sweet aroma wafts through my window as I type this note to you. Many trees are still bare, but here and there tiny green buds are popping up as the temperatures rise and daylight hours lengthen. It’s a good time to be in the bushveld!
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor – Taryn van Jaarsveld
This week I’d like to send a shoutout to conservationists. This month, 263 elephants were translocated in a cross-country odyssey that is the stuff of legend. I can only imagine the sleepless nights, tiresome labour and toilsome hours put in by the wildlife warriors involved in the move. The elephants are starting to settle into their new home in Kasungu National Park after they were darted, loaded into trucks, and transported 350km north from Liwonde National Park in a colossal month-long operation driven by African Parks. Read more about this milestone in Malawi’s conservation journey in our first story.
Kruger’s wildlife warriors are also continuing the good fight, battling the scourge of rhino poaching in the region. Those on the frontlines defending these precious specimens could use all the help they can get. But how can you help? Simon recently accompanied the runners and walkers undertaking the epic Timbavati Traverse, an ultramarathon through Timbavati Private Nature Reserve held to raise funds for the increasing costs of fighting the rhino war. Read more about how you can support the cause below.
Happy celebrating Africa to you all!
From our Scientific Editor – Jamie Paterson
As any sitcom trope will tell you, the sight of a spider inspires terror and squealing in the majority of the human population. A few individuals are scooped up in the nearest glass and deposited safely outside, but I suspect most bedroom-dwelling arachnids end up as eight-legged smudges on laminate floors. So here’s a little fact that might make you think twice next time:
Did you know that scientists have discovered evidence of a REM sleep-like state in jumping spiders? The random twitching of their legs even suggests that they might dream – like a dog or a cat chasing something in their sleep. Cute, right?
Desert & delta safari – 11 days traversing the Okavango Delta, Chobe and Nxai Pan national parks (Botswana) and Victoria Falls (Zimbabwe). Mid-range and luxury packages are available.
Serengeti great migration safari. This iconic safari will get you front-row seat action as the Great Wildebeest Migration makes its way through the vast Serengeti ecosystem, where most of the great migration occurs. Our chosen dates and camps are to maximise sightings based on where the herds are at the time.
WATCH: Malawian elephants on the move: View incredible footage from the recent translocation of 263 elephants from Liwonde to Kasungu (02:14). Click here to watch
A pod of hippos keeping a close eye on the runners
His words bounced around my head that night around the fire as Timbavati warden Edwin Pearce briefed us on the next day’s adventure. ‘Not on our watch.’ He was referring to the scourge of rhino poaching and the fear amongst us all that rhinos would be poached to extinction in the wild. Unfortunately, the Kruger region has buckled under a massive rhino poaching onslaught, and rhinos need all the help they can get – from us all. One of the fund-raising activities to finance the ever-increasing costs of fighting the rhino war is the Timbavati Traverse – a unique walking and running marathon held in the reserve.
I was thrilled to be invited to cycle the event as an assistant guide – to help keep the runners safe from dangerous wildlife. Timbavati Private Nature Reserve is, of course, home to the Big 5…
Runners and walkers enjoying the thrill of the Timbavati Traverse for a good cause
As a veteran of many mountain bike events, I have to take my hat off to Timbavati for how well managed this event is. The race village buzzed with vibey entertainment, the food tables along the route groaned with delicious treats and the armed rangers who accompanied each running and walking group were very professional. This is one slick, superbly managed event.
This crash of four rhinos kept us waiting while they watched us from a short distance away
And the animals certainly played along. My group had close (but safe) encounters with herds of elephants and buffaloes and with two crashes of rhinos – how serendipitous! One group of four white rhinos was so close to the track that we waited about 20 minutes before they headed off. The chilly morning mist was lifting, the robin-chats were announcing the new day with their sweet melodies, and hornbills were catching the first rays of the sun high up in the knobthorn trees. And four rhinos were parked about 30 meters away. It was a surreal moment for us all. Later that morning, we saw another three rhinos heading for cover after we disturbed their mud bath next to the track. So, rather than the usual race, this is a journey – something to be enjoyed at a gentle amble.
The refreshment tables en route were stocked with excellent food for this endurance event
You and I need to step up to help our protected area managers raise the cash required to fight this war. Every little bit helps. Of course, the tourism industry plays a huge role, and many fantastic NGOs move mountains daily. But the diminishing importance that governments worldwide place on wild matters makes efforts such as this vital. It’s up to the private sector to play the role our political leaders are paid to do but fail dismally at. It is what it is.
The author (red shoes) and his running companions and guides
If you enjoy walking or running, why not train up and book your place in this epic event or sponsor someone less able to afford the price ticket. Or train and raise sponsorship from friends or one of the many online crowd-funding platforms. The two distance options are a 45km run and 21km walk.
Elephants sedated and loaded in Liwonde National Park
31st of July 2022 saw the conclusion of a colossal one-month operation to translocate 263 elephants from Liwonde National Park to Kasungu National Park, Malawi. This impressive undertaking marks another milestone in Malawi’s journey towards establishing the country as a conservation role model in Africa.
Kasunga National Park is Malawi’s second-largest national park. Once home to a population of around 1,200 elephants during the 1970s, rampant poaching desecrated elephant numbers, and just 49 individuals remained in 2015. Since 2015, IFAW has been working with the DNPW to address law enforcement, wildlife crime, infrastructure and capacity within the park. With the park’s future secured, IFAW and the DNPW formed a partnership to boost populations and fast-track restoration efforts. With the generous support of non-profit Elephant Cooperation and various other philanthropic funders, 263 Liwonde elephants were darted, loaded into trucks, and transported 350km north to their new home.
African Parks’ involvement in Malawi dates back to 2003 when the organisation first partnered with DNPW to assume managerial responsibility for Majete Wildlife Reserve. Following Majete’s spectacular revival, Liwonde National Park and Nkhotakota Wildlife Reserve joined the African Parks portfolio in 2015, followed shortly by Mangochi Forest Reserve in 2018.
DID YOU KNOW that African Parks offers safari camps (lodges and campsites) where 100% of tourism revenue goes to conservation and local communities? Find out more and book your African Parks safari.
In keeping with a proud African Parks tradition, these parks have flourished, with burgeoning tourist numbers, improved local community relations and increased security. Their success has become a springboard for Malawian conservation and benefited protected spaces across the country. With poaching all but eliminated, Liwonde National Park in southern Malawi has essentially reached its carrying capacity for elephants. Thus, a unique scenario exists where the national park can act as a “source population” to augment elephant populations in protected areas across the country.
The immense operation was a success as 263 elephants were moved from Liwonde National Park to Kasungu National Park
In addition to the elephants, the move also saw 431 additional wildlife, including impala, buffalo, warthog, sable, and waterbuck translocated to supplement Kasunga’s remaining wildlife. Brighton Kumchedwa, Malawi’s Director of National Parks and Wildlife, said of the initiative that “[t]he addition of elephants and other wildlife species to Kasungu National Park will benefit Malawi tourism and communities through job creation, thereby fuelling a conservation-driven economy”.
This is not the first time that Liwonde’s elephants have moved across the country as part of Malawian conservation efforts. In 2016, the largest elephant translocation ever undertaken saw 500 elephants moved from Liwonde and Majete to repopulate Nkhotakota Wildlife Reserve in central Malawi. The translocations have also helped alleviate pressure on Liwonde’s recovering habitats and reduced human-wildlife conflict on the densely populated fringes of the park.
The success of this project is a testament to the DNPW’s strategy of working with partners to secure its natural resources and maintain healthy ecosystems in the country’s parks. Returning animals to protected spaces is essential in supporting the nascent tourism industry and establishing the country as a world-class safari destination.
Please take your seats, dinner is about to be served. Tswalu Kalahari Reserve, South Africa
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Wild Akagera + painted wolf pups + responsible safaris
1,8 metric tons – that’s the amount of carbon dioxide I added to the climate change problem during my recent safari to Kenya. I want desperately not to have my travel choices contribute to destroying our precious ecosystems and biodiversity. And so I tried to work out how many indigenous trees to plant to offset my personal CO2 emissions for this safari. Because I love planting indigenous trees.
My online research generated a myriad of requests to donate to NGOs undertaking to plant trees on my behalf. That sounds like a neat way to quickly offload my guilt without much personal effort. But it turns out that the science behind this solution is not as simple as that because many factors come into play. One suggestion that stuck out during my research is that preserving existing (and restoring degraded) habitats is a more effective strategy than planting young trees.
Coincidently, during my trip to Kenya, I spent time with a wonderful NGO securing tracts of indigenous forest by purchasing land from local communities and creating sustainable forest-related livelihoods for those communities. Of course, this project is not unique – there are numerous worldwide. But this project relates specifically to my safari. And so, I plan to mitigate my footprint by donating to this cause. More about this fantastic project when teamAG publishes my writings in the coming months.
Feel free to treat my carbon footprint mitigation attempts with scorn or to share your own strategies in the comments section below (app only) or in the forum section of our app.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor – Taryn van Jaarsveld
The quintessential Rwandan safari consists of trekking to find gorillas and other primates, and exploring rainforests and volcanoes. But did you know that Rwanda has a Big Five park, which is a refuge for savannah-adapted wildlife? Akagera National Park’s status as a premier safari destination has risen over the past decade, in large part thanks to African Parks’ involvement. Read our first story below to find out all there is to know about travelling to this corner of the continent.
This week, we are also delving into research that shows there is order in wild dog hunts. Scientists have long been intrigued by the social structures and hierarchies of wild dog packs. But new findings confirmed a fascinating approach in pack dynamics: when the pack makes a kill, pups eat first. Read more about what all this means in our second story below.
In the past few weeks, we’ve been analysing the issues surrounding leopard habituation. Our in-depth analysis, undertaken by Jamie Paterson and Maxine Gaines, delves into the unintended consequences this has for leopards.
This story is now available on our public website for easy access – see below.
Happy celebrating Africa!
From our Scientific Editor – Jamie Paterson
Now and again, a little tidbit of new research comes along that completely unsettles my understanding of how certain things work.
If you (like me and many other guides I know) were under the impression that woodpeckers’ skulls act as shock absorbers, prepare to have your world rocked. Did you know that woodpeckers’ heads function as stiff hammers rather than safety helmets? This, despite the fact that the shock of the repeated impacts exceeds the concussion threshold for humans.
This week we feature 2 epic short safaris for the time-pressured traveller and those wanting to top up their longer safaris with the ultimate finale
Botswana’s salt pans – 4 days
This could be your zen moment – those vast desolate pans and giant ancient baobabs bring out the philosopher in us all. Or take advantage of the many activities on offer (how about that salt pan sleep-out?) to end your safari with a bang. Prices to suit all budgets
Gorilla trekking in Rwanda – 3 days
This primal experience is on most ultimate traveller bucket lists. Why not add 3 days of gorilla trekking to your Maasai Mara or Serengeti safari to create the ultimate dream vacation?
DID YOU KNOW that you will find more than 340 camps & lodges on our app? And we feature ready-made packages that even the most experienced traveller will drool over. Login, select ‘Travel with us’ from the menu above and search based on place and other important choices (such as lodges in non-malaria areas or packages that include the Big 5). You can add your selection of lodges and packages to your wishlist – which will remain saved until you choose to edit or delete.
New safaris in the works
This cheetah and her cubs posed beautifully for our CEO Simon last week in Tsavo East National Park, Kenya. Simon has just returned from his safari, which was spent researching exciting destinations to add to our list of recommended lodges, and finding new adventures for our travel experts to add to your next itinerary. Watch this space for exciting things to come!
WATCH: How African wild dogs keep the ecosystem in check: In Gorongosa, Mozambique, where the species was wiped out completely, an ambitious scheme reintroduced them – with positive consequences for the whole ecosystem (07:31). Click here to watch
Research shows that wild dog pups are granted exclusive access as soon as they arrive to feed on a carcass
One of the most endearing characteristics of the African wild dog (painted wolf) is the bond between pack members, particularly when they have pups in their midst. While typically only the dominant female will breed each year, every individual cooperates in raising the next generation, bringing food back to the den for both the mother and the youngsters. Recent research quantifies how this altruistic approach plays out when the pups leave the den, and the pack makes a kill: essentially, the pups get to eat first.
Researchers from the University of New South Wales, the Taronga Western Plains Zoo and Wild Entrust Africa (formerly known as the Botswana Predator Conservation Trust) analysed nearly three decades of observational data from the Okavango Delta and surrounding areas. Individual painted wolves were identified by the unique coat patterns, and the research focused on established breeding packs rather than newly established packs without pups. While previous studies have qualitatively and anecdotally described the exclusive access given to painted wolf pups at a kill, the authors of the current study were able to quantify (assign values that can be statistically analysed to) these feeding patterns.
African wild dogs are cursorial predators (they run through the vegetation and flush their prey), and pack members are often separated while hunting. The adults that catch the prey will start feeding (allowing them access to the most nutritious organs first) until the rest of the pack members catch up. If the pack has pups, they are granted exclusive access to the carcass as soon as they arrive. The adult dogs will sit back and wait “patiently” for their opportunity to feed. This is in stark contrast to most other social predators, where access to food is generally determined by rank and strength. For example, lion cubs that arrive at a carcass will have to fight for their place at the dinner table and often have to wait until the pride adults have sated their initial hunger.
Once the painted wolf puppies have eaten their fill, the dominant members of the pack will feed, followed by the next youngest in line. This confirms that painted wolves do follow an age-based feeding system. Consequently, older and less dominant members of the pack may find little meat remaining by the time they get the opportunity to feed. Despite this, the researchers observed little overt aggression around kills (again, in contrast to lion feeding behaviour), even from the dominant pair.
For any predator, hunting carries an inherent risk of injury. For the wild dog, high-speed chases ending in a struggle with prey can result in broken bones, torn ligaments, and myriad other potential injuries. So, if older pack members are unlikely to get priority access, what incentivises their participation given the potential risks involved? The authors postulate that older dogs are motivated to actively participate in kills to feed before the younger pack members arrive. However, there are occasions when the pack is separated during the hunt. If remaining pack members are unaware that prey has been caught, the painted wolves responsible for the kill will feed for a while then circle back to recruit the rest of the pack. This speedy arrival of the rest of the pack likely ensures more eyes and ears on alert for kleptoparasites and larger predators like lions, which are a significant cause of natural wild dog mortalities.
Researchers observed little overt aggression between wild dogs around kills
Of course, this system also ensures that the pups are provisioned while they cannot hunt for themselves. The dominant breeding female is also guaranteed access to valuable carcass parts once the pups have fed. In packs where intra-pack relatedness is high, the subdominant pack members gain by helping to raise litters of close kin.
Like wild dogs, human beings also developed a food sharing system at some point in our evolutionary history. Though it is difficult to fully contextualise, the authors suggest that “a detailed understanding of food sharing in African wild dogs may contribute to our understanding of the origins and implications of sharing more broadly.”
Africa Geographic would like to extend thanks to first author, Dr Neil Jordan, for allowing the use of his personal graphics of the study findings. Dr Jordan is affiliated with the Centre for Ecosystem Science, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences (BEES) of the University of New South Wales (UNSW), Sydney; the Taronga Institute of Science and Learning of the Taronga Western Plains Zoo; and Wild Entrust Africa.
Every protected space in Africa comes with its own story, with elements from every genre: drama, thriller, romance and tragedy. The fates and fortunes of these parks are irrevocably bound to those of the people around them, and no two chronicles are ever the same. Each visitor to an African wilderness experiences a snapshot in time, a chapter or two at most. But for those fortunate enough to visit Rwanda’s Akagera National Park, these may just be the best chapters in the entire saga. In the past decade, Akagera has established itself as a park on the rise – demonstrating an almost unbelievable transformation into Rwanda’s only Big 5 park and one of the premier African safari destinations on the continent.
Akagera National Park
The 1,122km2 (112,200 hectares) Akagera National Park is situated on the eastern edge of Rwanda, where the boundary with Tanzania is marked by the sinuous bends of the Akagera River (for which the park is named). Akagera safeguards Central Africa’s largest protected wetland, consisting of a complex system of lakes linked by papyrus-lined swamps. Away from the marshes, the jagged lines of animal pathways weave across vast plains and sweeping highlands like a network of veins, a testament to Akagera’s status as Rwanda’s last refuge for savannah-adapted wildlife.
Find out about Akagera for your next African safari. We have ready-made safaris to choose from, or ask us to build one just for you.
As clouds gather above the rolling sandstone hills and elephants feed peacefully in woodland valleys below, the breathtaking vistas are almost primaeval. The landscape, teeming with life at every level, seems so eternal that it is hard to imagine that its very existence was so recently threatened. Yet less than three decades ago, during the Rwandan Civil War and the years of recovery that followed, the park was invaded and denuded, its wildlife decimated by poaching and human-wildlife conflict.
Sizeable herds of buffalo, topi and zebra are everywhere in Akagera, taking advantage of bountiful grasses
Akagera’s rehabilitation can be attributed to the partnership between African Parks and the Rwanda Development Board. They entered into a joint management agreement in 2009 and began the day-to-day running of the park in 2010. Their progressive stewardship stayed the destruction and turned the narrative from looming catastrophe to one of long-term, sustainable conservation. Thanks to considerable investment in the park’s infrastructure and security, existing wildlife populations began to recover, bolstered by ambitious reintroduction programmes. Tourist numbers, both local and international, grew in leaps and bounds, and by 2019, Akagera was 90% self-financing.
Most importantly, community involvement has always been a fundamental tenant of African Park’s approach to managing all the parks under their guardianship, and Akagera is no different. Today, 300,000 people on the park boundary directly benefit from its existence, while educational programmes and support for community enterprises have reshaped local perceptions. Nearly half of the visitors to the park in 2019 were Rwandan citizens.
Maasai giraffe were among some of the first large mammals to be reintroduced after poaching in the latter half of the 20th century wiped out existing populations
The return of the animals
Under certain circumstances, nature’s remarkable innate resilience allows wildlife numbers to recover independently, and the only human intervention needed is to provide them with a safe space to do so. This is always the preferred approach, but more dramatic measures are necessary when population numbers are too low to recover, if genetic sustainability is compromised, or a species is locally extinct. In Akagera, the restoration to its natural state has necessitated several large-scale wildlife reintroductions that have effectively reversed several local extinctions.
Savannah elephants and Maasai giraffe were among some of the first large mammal species to be reintroduced after poaching in the latter half of the 20th century wiped out existing populations. A small herd of young elephants arrived in the park in 1975, with giraffes following some ten years later. Today the park’s growing elephant population is estimated to be around 100 individuals, while some 80 giraffes are wandering its confines.
White rhinos have also been reintroduced into the park
Akagera is also reclaiming its title as one of Africa’s rhino havens. In the 1970s, the park was estimated to be home to over 50 eastern black rhinos, but widescale poaching hit them particularly hard. The last sighting of a black rhino occurred in 2007 before they were considered locally extinct. Ten years later, the park was deemed to be sufficiently secure for their return, and 18 eastern black rhinos made the cross-continent journey from South Africa to their new home in Rwanda. They were joined two years later by a further five rhinos sourced from European zoos – the first such operation of its kind. Despite their somewhat different (definitely colder) start in life, the zoo rhinos seem to be adapting well to life in their ancestral homeland. At the end of 2021, the first white rhinos arrived from Phinda Private Game Reserve in South Africa in what was the single largest rhino translocation ever conducted.
The park’s lions suffered a similar fate during the 1990s – all 300 lions in the park were killed before the 21st century. A founder population of seven lions was sourced from South Africa in 2015, followed by two males in 2017 to increase genetic diversity. To suggest that the lions have taken to their new home would be something of an understatement – the population has quadrupled in seven years. Spotted hyenas and leopards are also found in healthy numbers in the park.
Lions once again can call the Akagera home
Akagera’s flourishing ecosystem
Though the reintroductions of specific iconic species were prodigious enterprises in their own right, the natural recovery of Akagera’s landscapes and existing wildlife populations has been equally impressive. At the start of 2010, wildlife numbers were estimated to be fewer than 5,000 and are now believed to be well over 13,000 and ever-increasing.
Savannah elephants now also call the park home
Sizeable herds of buffalo, topi and zebra are everywhere, taking advantage of the bountiful grasses, while defassa waterbuck are perfectly at home wading through the swamps and reeds past pods of hippo. The endangered roan antelope may be somewhat elusive, but the towering statuesque eland are unmistakable, dwarfing surrounding impala and duiker. Klipspringer show off tip-toe agility on the rocky crags of hilly slopes. The primates are represented by large olive baboon and vervet monkey troops, the consummate survivors. Sightings of blue monkey are less frequent, but they have been spotted over recent years, firmly disproving the belief that they are extinct in the park.
Sizeable herds of zebra are found in Akagera
Akagera National Park is also one of the best birding regions in Africa, if not the world, with over a whopping 480 species recorded in the park. The diversity of habitats on display means that fervid birders can apply their skills in several different ways, from peering through reeds and rushes for a papyrus gonalek to scanning the skies for the grasshopper buzzard, or listening out for the call of a red-faced barbet in a thicket. Other notable species include Tabora and Carruthers’ cicticolas, white-crested turaco and northern brown-throated weaver. Shoebills have been seen lurking in the swamps, and, most recently, a sighting of the somewhat unfairly named plain nightjar had the birding chatrooms all aflutter.
Birding in Akagera is prolific – keep an eye out for grey crowned cranes
Explore & stay
With the plans for Akagera’s continued upward trajectory firmly rooted in tourism, every effort has been made to make the park the perfect destination for visitors from every walk of life. Each of the activities on offer was carefully selected to show off the park’s many strengths and provide the ideal way to explore every inch of the many varied habitats on display. Naturally, game drives (including night drives) form the backbone of the park experience, but guided walks, specialised birding tours and boat cruises on forest-fringed Lake Ihema offer an entirely different perspective. Very unusually, travellers can even opt for the “behind the scenes” tour of the park headquarters, where they can talk to park officials and learn more about the strenuous business of keeping a national park operational. Cultural community experiences also provide the opportunity to learn more about Rwanda’s remarkable people while contributing to local enterprises.
Explore the park on foot or by boat
Though Akagera is accessible year-round, the best time to visit is during the dry season, from June until September, when the wildlife viewing is at its best and rain is less likely to be disruptive. For the budget traveller, there are four public campsites: Shakani on the shores of Lake Shakani (where fishing is permitted), Mutamba at the highest point in the park, Muyumbu overlooking Lake Ihema and Lake Shakani, and Mihindi, near the shores of Lake Mihindi. Karenge Bush Camp is a good mid-range option, offering furnished tented accommodation. There is also a few high-end accommodation options inside the park, including Ruzizi Tented Lodge, which is fully catered.
When it comes to safari stereotypes, Rwanda is invariably associated with gorilla trekking, but in truth, this tiny country offers the full African adventure. Akagera National Park is the ideal complement to a gorilla trekking mission into Volcanoes National Park or a canopy tour of Nyungwe National Park. For those wanting to learn more about the bird and mammal offerings in Rwanda, Christian Boix’s (Africa Geographic director and one of Africa’s top birding guides) book Wild Rwanda is the region’s most authoritative “where to find” birds and mammals guide.
DID YOU KNOW that African Parks offers safari camps (lodges and campsites) where 100% of tourism revenue goes to conservation and local communities? Find out more and book your African Parks safari.
Everybody loves a comeback story, but it is even more uplifting when the main character is a vital piece of African wilderness. Akagera National Park is already unrecognisably improved from the ravaged land of twenty years ago – proof that responsible tourism and sustainable conservation bring long-term security to both people and wildlife.
In May 2022, the news broke of the tragic death of leopard Hosana, one of the well-known leopards of the Sabi Sand Game Reserve in South Africa. The announcement inspired a social media furore (to the point that #Hosana trended on Twitter). It also reopened several complex conservation/tourism concerns for public dissection, analysis and, on occasion, misinterpretation. For the authors of this article, with deep personal connections to Hosana and Sabi Sand Game Reserve, his death inspired a desire to tackle some of these issues head-on.
Hosana’s end at the hands of a counter-poaching unit (CPU) may have lit the fire, but much of what follows comes from years of observing, questioning and researching conventional beliefs in old habits and established practices. The concerns raised extend beyond Hosana and deal with complex topics like guide, tracker and field-staff training, habituation, tourism ethics, and human-wildlife conflict. Given the intricacy of the issues at play, we have attempted to address each topic thoroughly to avoid misinterpretation and false conclusions.
When named and known leopards are killed in conflict with humans, the automatic assumption appears to be that habituation must be at fault – often with conflicting ideas of what that means. We set out to investigate the validity of this assumption as systematically and scientifically as possible to avoid questionable leaps of logic, speculation and hysteria. We approached scientific organisations, experienced guides, trackers and reserve managers and sifted through multiple research papers to examine the question from every angle.
We found that, unsurprisingly, human-wildlife conflict continues to be one of the leading causes of anthropogenic leopard mortalities (Viollaz 2016). However, there is no evidence that habituated leopards are disproportionately affected. Nor is there any indication that habituated leopards are more likely to be dangerous to people or livestock in South Africa. However, we did confirm that there is a dearth of appropriate training for wildlife encounters offered to most field operatives and counter-poaching units across the country. This is a danger to the humans working within wild spaces and the wildlife they are trying to protect.
The following article makes continuous reference to the Sabi Sand Game Reserve (hereafter the Sabi Sands) in South Africa. This is not an indictment of the reserve. The area has one of the highest densities of leopards on the continent and is the “home of leopard habituation” as we know it. It is an invaluable reference point for this discussion. Our conclusions are specific to South Africa, where national parks and reserves are fenced. While many of the issues raised could be applied to national parks, private reserves and private concessions in other parts of Africa, our research was region-specific.
Sabi Sands has one of the highest densities of leopards in Africa
Leopard habituation
Hosana’s death inspired considerable discussion on social media around habituation, rehashing a well-worn topic that is often debated with little appreciation of what precisely it entails. So what does habituation mean?
It is crucial to be pedantic here because, otherwise, far too much bad behaviour falls under the label of “habituation”. At its simplest definition in this context, we are referring to the habituation of leopards as the removal of the strongest feelings of fear and the desire to escape from safari vehicles (and their associated sounds, smells and so on). Repeated exposure teaches the animal not to be afraid.
Habituation should not be confused with either taming or attracting animals. We would argue that the regular feeding of wildlife by visitors (as often occurs in public campsites in national parks, resulting in aggressive “problem” animals) is taming or attraction, not habituation. When a wild animal begins associating humans or vehicles with a basic need (such as food) and loses all fear, that animal has been partially tamed. Similarly, driving too close to animals or interfering with their behaviour is not bad habituation; it is bad guiding.
When “done right”, habituation results in an animal that simply ignores the humans in vehicles around it and continues to behave naturally, allowing it to be viewed with minimal impact. From the animal’s perspective, it does not expend valuable time and energy getting away from people. The importance of this cannot be overstated because most wild animals are carefully balanced on a knife-edge of survival, and running and hiding to avoid vehicles only adds to this strain and distraction.
Leopard habituation was essentially pioneered during the late 1970s at Londolozi Private Game Reserve in what is now the Sabi Sands (Hess, 1991). Through the exceptional tracking skills and abundant patience of a few individuals, a kind of trust was established. It gave rise to generations of leopards comfortable with vehicles and established the reserve as one of Africa’s top leopard-viewing destinations (Hess, 1991; Hancock, 2000; Kure, 2003).
Young cubs learn by observing their habituated mothers’ reactions, so tourist-filled vehicles quickly become nothing to fear. Thus, over time, the habituation process in a reserve with a long history of leopard viewing gets easier and less intrusive. However, these are wild animals, so nuances and variations are inevitable. Leopards have distinct personalities, and specific individuals (even those from the same litter) may either prove impossible to habituate or be extremely confiding. Habituation can also be specific: a leopard that will lie in the shade of a green safari vehicle may be extremely unsettled by a white car following behind it.
Bad impressions or experiences are remembered, which is why habituation requires that each guide work respectfully with each animal to reinforce the message that humans in vehicles are not a threat. Detailed observation of their behaviour is essential: “listening” to the animal, watching their body language, switching off the vehicle while they are alert or hunting, keeping a comfortable following distance and so on. The aim is to be an impartial observer, and habituation makes that easier. However, months of careful habituation work can be undone very quickly by a few insensitive guides (which we address at a later stage).
When “done right”, habituation results in a leopard that simply ignores the humans in vehicles and continues to behave naturally, allowing it to be viewed with minimal impact
The benefits of leopard habituation
Of the many threats to the planet’s wild fauna and flora, habitat loss has perhaps the most profound and far-reaching effects on species and ecosystems (Purvis et al., 2000). In the face of inexorable human advancement, space for wild animals is ever-shrinking, and Africa is no exception. Ecotourism and photographic safaris have made an almost incalculable contribution towards mitigating this reality – providing a viable economic model to keep land in a (mostly) wild state and protecting wildlife in the process (Buckley, 2003; Buckley 2010, Balmford et al., 2015; Mossaz et al., 2015). There is no doubt that the presence of habituated leopards (and other predators) brings tourists to certain reserves to view them (Lindsey et al., 2005). How many visitors to the Sabi Sands travelled thousands of miles to see Hosana? There is an obvious relationship between tourism, the money generated from tourism and the ability to pay for conservation, buy and protect more land, maintain fences, provide jobs for desperately poor people and so on (Buckley 2003, Buckley, 2010).
The links between habituation and scientific knowledge are perhaps not as well known (except for the work done with the great apes). Yet the conservation of many secretive (and potentially dangerous) species hinges on this knowledge. Cryptic carnivores like leopards are challenging to study (Balme et al., 2009), and scientific work on these species primarily relies on camera trapping and collaring animals. Collaring poses many risks to the animals in question (Hayward et al., 2012), while camera trapping is far less intrusive (du Preez et al. 2014). Regardless, collaring and camera trapping are limited in terms of what they reveal about the behaviour of the studied species. Habituation of leopards has opened our eyes to much that was hidden before (Balme et al., 2013): grandmothers adopting and successfully raising their grandchildren (Balme et al. 2012), males tolerating adult cubs (Pirie et al. 2014) as well as sharing kills and mates with their independent male offspring. The philopatry of female leopards was revealed to guides by habituated leopards (Hess, 1991) years before being confirmed by telemetry studies (Balme et al. 2017; Fattebert et al., 2015; Fattebert et al., 2016). Through habituation we have been granted extraordinarily detailed insights into the secret lives of these beautiful cryptic cats. This knowledge is critical for conservation. Many assume that to conserve a species, we just need an understanding of population numbers and habitat and prey requirements. But behavioural science is crucial too.
A controversial example of how habituation can influence conservation decisions relates to recent leopard hunting regulations implemented in South Africa. These allow for male leopards of seven years or older to be legally hunted, provided you have the correct permits (DEA 2018). The justification is that at seven years old, they are mature males who have likely sired cubs and passed on their genes to the next generation (Balme et al. 2012) and are therefore expendable.
Every guide we have ever spoken to disagrees with the logic behind this. A seven-year-old male is only starting to establish himself as a dominant male with a territory. We know this because of years of habituating and following habituated males. Hosana was over six years old at the time of his death, and as far as we are aware, he has potentially only fathered three cubs that survive him. Two of these (the Nkuwa female’s cub and the Serengeti female’s cub) are still relatively young and very vulnerable to infanticide when a new male moves into his vacant territory. The other potential cub is a young male born of the Nkangala female. He is not entirely independent yet, and has a long road to travel before we can say for sure that he will survive and breed. Without the knowledge that comes from careful and long-term observations of habituated leopards, we would have to accept the suggestion of seven years being a reasonable age to hunt a male leopard. Habituation provides conservationists with crucial information to advise the government on the ethical management of leopards – management critical to the survival of the species.
Leopard habituation on foot
There is a fundamental distinction between habituating animals to people in vehicles and habituating them to people on foot. Truly wild animals are almost always human-averse. The only exceptions are wild animals on islands where human presence has been non-existent or infrequent over evolutionary time. Most unhabituated animals have an innate fear or wariness of people and will flee or hide (or, in rare circumstances, attack) when confronted by a person. Some of this response comes from recent persecution, but much of this wariness must have its roots in evolution. Humans are alpha predators and have been for thousands of years. Animals know to expect humans around manmade infrastructure (such as lodges) but respond differently to the sight of a person walking through the bushveld.
The upshot is that a wild animal comfortable around safari vehicles filled with tourists is not automatically relaxed with people on foot. However, in reserves in many parts of Africa, tracking is the only reliable way to locate leopards for the safari vehicles, so a slightly different desensitisation process is followed. Expert trackers follow tracks and find the animal. When the animal is sighted, the tracker and guide back away slowly to indicate that they are not a threat. The leopard may run initially but, given their curious natures, seldom moves far, allowing the tracker and guide team to return with the vehicle and drive to the spot where the animal was last seen.
As this process is repeated, some leopards gradually learn that people on foot come and go and do not represent a threat. This is not done with the intention of walking guests to these animals or fully habituating them on foot, far from it. Most reserves have strict policies against tracking cats with tourists in tow. Though young individuals may initially be curious and even approach or follow a tracking team, they invariably grow out of this behaviour. A wild adult leopard will move away from people approaching too closely on foot.
Hosana on foot
Jamie Paterson’s personal account:
During my time spent presenting live safaris for WildEarth on Djuma Private Game Reserve from 2015 to 2019, I believe that we as a film crew spent more time than was appropriate with Hosana on foot. I have spent months reflecting on this conclusion and seeking advice from those more expert than myself. We only started approaching him and his sister without the vehicle when they were just under a year old, but they would still have been at a highly impressionable age. It was not uncommon for us to spend extended periods sitting within their comfort zones.
Whether or not our actions contributed to his death is impossible to know and may even be unlikely. However, upon reflection, I do think spending so much time with him on foot had the potential to make him more vulnerable to anthropogenic conflict. This is my personal belief and one that is not necessarily shared by those who worked with me at the time. It is challenging to view objectively because Hosana’s death was, whatever the circumstances, a freak event. Like all adult leopards we had experience with, we know that he grew out of his youthful curiosity and began moving away from people on foot. Had he not encountered the counter-poaching unit (CPU) that day, he probably would have gone on to live a natural life with no harm done.
But in my opinion, the fact that Hosana began to behave differently as an adult does not mean that the lesson we instilled in him over the years (that people hanging around on foot do not represent a threat) was forgotten. To be clear, I do not for one second believe that this process would have made him more dangerous to people or even more likely to charge. But whatever the circumstances surrounding his death, the risk was always that if push came to shove (defending a kill, for instance), we had already shaped his natural instincts and responses to the sight of people moving into his personal space.
I raise this now not as a confession (a few thousand people watched us do it live) but because I feel there is a fundamental lesson to be learnt from this. I know that during my time at WildEarth, we as a guiding team strove to maintain a high standard of ethics and keep our impact to a minimum. We did not spend time with those cubs to exploit them for financial or narrative gain – the thought that we could be jeopardising their futures would have horrified us. We were exceedingly cautious about reading their behaviour, never frightening them and never venturing (or allowing them) too close. We experienced something magical with Hosana and wanted to share it with the world to build a connection between our audiences and a wild leopard. The circumstances all aligned – his mother was relaxed, he was young and male and curious, and so on. To my knowledge, no other leopard followed by WildEarth’s live safaris has been habituated to people on foot to the same extent.
We all have 20/20 hindsight, and I cannot speak for others, but I look back on my actions with regret. I know of guides who leave their trackers on foot with young leopards while at other sightings and those that spend their day off sitting with their favourite leopards. I am in no position to pass on instruction, but we (and the experts we have spoken to) cannot condone this. I hope future film crews and guides will remember this message when deciding how to view an individual animal on foot, particularly a relaxed predator. We must constantly remind ourselves that we are not the only people that an animal may encounter on foot and that the animal may move away to an area where they are unknown and where their accommodating nature could be misunderstood.
Famous Sabi Sands leopard Hosana
Human-wildlife conflict
Human-wildlife conflict is an enormous topic and one that is largely beyond the scope of this article. Nearly two-thirds of leopard distribution in South Africa fall outside protected areas (Jacobson et al., 2016). Leopards are highly adaptable, have a broad geographic range and readily adapt to human-dominated environments, making them a leading carnivore conflict species in South Africa (Seoraj-Pillai, 2016). Snaring and the poaching of leopards for their pelts are also significant threats to leopard safety.
Leopards have probably been lurking around human habitation, largely unseen, for as long as there have been humans and leopards in the same place. In South Africa, there is no evidence to suggest that habituated leopards from private reserves are more likely to endanger livestock or people. All the studies we accessed on leopard livestock killings and other types of conflict come from research conducted in areas where leopards are unhabituated (example: Constant, 2014; Pitman et al., 2017; Seoraj-Pillai, 2016; Viollaz et al., 2021). Leopard attacks on people, which are rare, seldom seem to involve habituated individuals (we know of two incidents involving habituated leopards during our respective careers). Our research into historic leopard attacks all involved unhabituated animals (a reminder that we consider animals around camps that have been fed or associate people with food as tamed, not habituated). Habituated leopards are still wild animals – they may go on to kill livestock or injure people – but they do not appear to be more likely to do so because they have grown up in private reserves around people.
The authors question whether young dispersal leopards who are more comfortable around humans and lodges may be more at risk of being robbed of instinctive wariness
But what of the reverse? Does habituation make these leopards more vulnerable? Young male leopards disperse in search of territory. Some may get lucky and find themselves a territorial vacuum down the road from their natal range, but others must seek further afield. The longest recorded dispersal was a subadult male that travelled a minimum distance of 353km (194.5km in a straight line) through three different countries: Mozambique, Swaziland and South Africa (Fattebert et al. 2013). Thus the chances of a young habituated male leopard leaving the sanctuary of the reserve he was born in are higher than for a female.
Some young males simply disappear, never to be seen again. The majority will have died of natural causes – dispersal is a dangerous time in a young leopard’s life. However, the authors wondered if these young dispersal male leopards that have spent their lives near people and walking through lodges may be blithely walking into a far more dangerous world, robbed of an instinctive wariness that might have increased their survival odds.
Fortunately, neither expert opinion nor our research supports this conclusion. Balme et al. (2019) investigated the population dynamics of Sabi Sands and found that few leopards leave the reserve’s boundaries. According to their data, human factors have accounted for less than 2% of known leopard deaths in and around the Sabi Sands since 1975. By comparison, over half of all known leopard deaths in the Phinda-uMkhuze complex between 2002 and 2012 were anthropogenic, including legal destruction by farmers due to livestock depredation, snaring and poaching (Balme et al., 2009). (It should be noted that the leopard population in the Phinda-uMkhuze complex has since largely recovered due to policy changes.)
This may not be an apple-to-apple comparison, but these two protected areas share similar habitats, levels of prey abundance and natural leopard densities (Naude et al., 2020). As such, these are revealing statistics. They tell us that other more pressing factors are at play than habituation, such as fence quality, neighbouring-land use and even variations in local cultural perspectives of leopards. So, we can but conclude that habituated leopards – like Hukumuri and others – may still die in human-wildlife conflict because it is one of the significant threats facing leopards in South Africa today. But not because they are habituated to vehicles or people.
Another famous leopard, Hukumuri, was shot after killing livestock in a rural village near Sabi Sands
The importance of training
This is one of the most important conversations to come out of Hosana’s death and one that we believe to be far more pressing than the impact of habituation: the training of guides, counter-poaching units and field operatives for wildlife encounters. Guide, expert tracker and author Alex Van Den Heever recently informed us that over 90% of South Africa’s field rangers he has evaluated in tracking skills – those walking the bushveld daily – are not sufficiently skilled to manage wildlife encounters. This aligns with the authors’ personal experiences and is a deplorable state of affairs. It is incumbent upon reserve and park authorities to ensure that the teams employed to operate within their wild spaces are fully trained.
Approaching this topic without seeming to point fingers is nigh on impossible, and yet that is not the intention. This is not to say that every reserve and national park is employing poorly trained CPUs or field operatives. Those involved in counter-poaching operations put their lives on the line to keep our wilderness areas safe for the myriad species that inhabit them. We salute them and are forever indebted to them for being the soldiers in the war against poaching. However, if we as guides need to question our motives and ethics around habituation, and ask some tough questions, perhaps the CPUs and field rangers operating in these areas also need to question if they could do things differently.
Anyone (be they guides, trackers, CPUs, field rangers, security staff and even hospitality staff) working in a reserve or national park where wildlife will be encountered should be appropriately trained for such events. In places where animals are habituated, this training needs to consider that the wildlife may be more relaxed around people on foot and may not behave as expected or move off as readily if approached.
It is telling that over the many decades of living alongside habituated leopards in the Sabi Sands, incidents of conflict within the reserve are limited to a handful of isolated events. To the best of our knowledge (and that of those we questioned), no guide has ever had to shoot a leopard in self-defence, on foot or from a vehicle. That is as it should be. The number of leopard/human encounters on foot in the Sabi Sands is exceptionally high because, as mentioned above, they are tracked by guides and trackers for vehicle sightings. Tracking these cats often results in finding mothers and cubs and leopards with kills. In these circumstances, one would assume leopards might react defensively or aggressively, but this is rarely the case. This is due partly to the habituation process and partly to the skill of the guides and trackers at not provoking the animal, remaining neutral and appearing unthreatening.
Two vastly different forms of training are offered to those who walk in the bushveld. One approach is that of “sensitivity comes first”. Reputable guide-training facilities focus not only on rifle handling and shooting but also train guides not to provoke an animal to the point that it feels the need to charge. Through countless scenarios, training walks, shadowing experienced trackers, Big-5 pressure testing and unarmed walk experiences, guides are equipped with the experience, confidence and knowledge to approach animals on foot without threatening them. The overwhelming message in good training is that if an animal charges you, it is invariably your fault. You have to use your training to de-escalate the situation to ensure the safety of the animal, your guests, and yourself. Sensitive training emphasises that it is not the rifle that gets you out of a tricky situation but your calm assessment and reaction. The rifle is there for legal reasons, and we, as guides, must be appropriately trained to use it. But the focus is on respect for the animals and one’s ability to get out of encounters without provoking the animal to the point that it has no option but to attack.
Then there is the kind of training we will refer to as reactive training. The emphasis here is on rifle handling, speed and shot placement – how to react quickly with a rifle and put the target down as fast as possible. Unfortunately, reactive training is prevalent in the guiding industry and even more so for CPUs sent out into reserves to search for poachers. Maxine has trained guides in three African countries and has spoken to rangers in national parks and guides in Botswana and Zimbabwe – their training follows an almost identical approach. Some reserves and countries still require that you provoke an elephant or buffalo to charge and then shoot it as part of your training to be a guide (ZPGA 2022). During their careers as guides, both authors have attended “dangerous game” workshops and training sessions for rangers and guides that focus mainly on shot placement and rifle handling skills over reading an animal’s behaviour and making appropriate choices. The rifle instinctively becomes the first resort, the best defence against wild animals. There is a disconnect here, and we believe the ecotourism industry, particularly in Southern Africa, needs to evolve beyond this.
Naturally, CPUs need specialised training to face the very real threat of armed poachers. Walking with wildlife can be dangerous, and we acknowledge that there may be instances where there is no choice but to shoot an animal. There is an undeniable need for secrecy around how CPUs are trained. We are also aware that in many instances, CPUs are armed with low-caliber weapons intended for human encounters, and not for large animals (though this arguably increases the need for a sensitive approach to animal behaviour). There is no excuse for sending poorly trained (for wildlife encounters) teams out into the wild to endanger their own lives and those of the animals they encounter. We see no reason why the knowledge and experience of expert trackers, guides, field rangers and CPUs could not be shared to the benefit of all parties.
Van den Heever reports that Tracker Academy has started a new training programme aimed in part at addressing these concerns. The academy’s Rhino Guardians programme will equip field rangers with the skills necessary to improve tracking competence, dealing with potentially dangerous animals on foot, and bushcraft.
Ethics of the guides
This is a well-established topic, and we can add little new except to re-emphasise the importance of self-reflection as a guide. Many guides unfortunately lack the humility to understand that tourists come to Africa to see the animals, not the guide. Thus instead of making the wilderness the focus of the safari, they selfishly promote themselves at the expense of the wildlife. These are the “bad” guides – tip chasers and attention-seekers with little genuine respect for the wild – and this will only be exacerbated by the appeal of transient social media fame. Nothing we say is likely to change that. It is up to the reserve management and guiding teams to weed out these insensitive guides and either offer further training or dismiss them. In the best reserves, this does happen. In others, it does not, and the same mistakes are repeated again and again.
However, the truth is that even good, sensitive guides may find that certain boundaries can be hard to gauge because there is no one-size-fits-all instruction manual for ethical guiding. This is why regularly evaluating one’s choices and having open discussions is vital – ask questions of yourself and others. We spoke at the start of established practices – some are tried, tested and correct. But our knowledge of what is and is not appropriate is constantly evolving, and the best guiding teams adopt new ethical practices (like using spotlight filters, for example) when new evidence is presented. Trophy hunting may be rightly subject to considerable scrutiny, but there is no reason why the ecotourism industry – which also has a significant ecological impact – should be given a free pass.
Final thoughts
These questions and conversations are perhaps not new to those who have spent a lifetime discussing them around the fire in guiding and reserve management circles. However, they are important ones to continue addressing. They speak to the responsibilities of private reserves and “ecotourism”/photographic safaris and the role of the potentially lucrative tourism industry in conservation. Left unaddressed, deaths of animals such as Hosana leave room for misunderstanding and feed the growing cynicism directed at management teams of conservation areas.
We are gravely concerned by the apparent lack of training offered to guides, field operatives and CPUs that we expect to risk their lives to keep our wildlife safe. This is a recipe for future tragedies, human and animal alike.
Had we the time and tools to quantify the benefits and drawbacks of habituation (correctly understood and defined), there is no rational doubt that the benefits would outweigh any potential negatives by a substantial margin in the South African context. To reiterate, the Sabi Sands is home to one of the highest densities of leopards in Africa – higher than comparable habitats in neighbouring Kruger National Park (L Smythe, personal communication). Incidents of conflict within the reserve or in neighbouring villages (that we are aware of) are low compared to the neighbouring Kruger National Park and other regions with wild, unhabituated leopards.
Among the deluge of tributes to Hosana, we have seen a few scoff at the fuss made of this “named celebrity” leopard. We know the many arguments against naming wild animals – they have been debated to death and are largely moot in today’s world. But the impact of this one leopard, whose life was broadcast across the planet, cannot be overstated. He inspired a passion for wildlife across generations, cultures and continents. He brought people who otherwise might never have considered a safari, to Africa. He also brought Africa to those for whom travel was an impossibility. He taught us so much about leopard life. Human-wildlife conflict and habitat loss continue to be the two greatest threats to Africa’s wildlife and wild spaces. Hosana’s death should serve as a stark reminder of this. While questions around habituation and guiding practices will always be critical discussion points, we cannot lose sight of the fact that leopards (and Africa’s wild spaces) face other, far graver threats.
The authors would like to thank the following individuals for their invaluable assistance and guidance in compiling this article: Alex Van Den Heever, Dr Lucy Smythe, James Hendry, Dr Julien Fattebert and James Richard.
Purvis, A., Gittleman, J.L., Cowlishaw, G. and Mace, G.M., 2000. Predicting extinction risk in declining species. Proceedings of the royal society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 267 (1456), pp.1947-1952.
Stein, A.B., Athreya, V., Gerngross, P., Balme, G., Henschel, P., Karanth, U., Miquelle, D., Rostro, S., Kamler, J.F. and Laguardia, A., 2016. Panthera pardus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e. T15954A50659089. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
Jamie Paterson, scientific editor at Africa Geographic, was born in South Africa and grew up exploring the country’s wild spaces at every available opportunity. On successfully completing her honours in law at the University of Cambridge, she returned home and dove headlong into the wilderness, working as both a research and trails guide. Jamie also spent several years as a wildlife television presenter for WildEarth, NatGeo Wild and SafariLIVE in the Lowveld of South Africa and the Maasai Mara in Kenya. A desire to tell Africa’s stories as they deserve to be told led her to Africa Geographic, where she now works as the scientific editor. Jamie is currently completing a degree in Veterinary Science at the University of Pretoria.
Maxine Gaines is a wildlife biologist, with a BSc Honours degree and over 12 years of experience observing and studying leopards in the wild. Her undergrad degree was a BSc with majors in Botany and Zoology from Wits University. Maxine then went on to study a BSc Honours in Environmental Management through UNISA which she achieved cum laude. She has more than 12 years of experience observing and studying leopards in the wild, 10 of these at Londolozi Game Reserve in the Sabi Sands, Greater Kruger National Park. There, leopards were a particular interest and Maxine was one of three Leopard Specialist Guides for many years. After leaving Londolozi, she was privileged to work as a guide and trainer of field guides for &Beyond (then CCAfrica) in East Africa. She was able to add to her knowledge of leopard behaviour in this very different environment. She is currently a student again enrolled at UNISA for an MSc in Nature Conservation, with Predator Behaviour and Conservation being the focus of her studies.
This week we are celebrating African icons. In our first story, we celebrate a safari icon: the humble tent – a symbol of freedom for adventurers. From simple canvas stretched over poles to opulent villas in remote destinations, tents enable their inhabitants to be fully immersed in their surroundings and experience the rawness of the wild. We’ve put together a selection of our favourite tented camps on the continent below.
In our second story, we are delving into the evolutionary wonders of another icon of the African safari: the giraffe. How does the world’s tallest animal cope with high blood pressure? Learn more below.
We’d also like to take a moment this week to honour the rangers who make conservation in Africa possible. 31 July is World Ranger Day. But we head into this year’s commemorations under a cloud. In the past few weeks we’ve learned of tragedies befalling rangers who are dedicated to protecting rhinos and other endangered species. Whether meeting poachers on the ground or being targeted by poaching syndicates for the good work they are doing, these rangers risk their lives and families to fight for our wildlife. This day is about more than taking a moment to acknowledge their work – it is to honour the sacrifices made by these wildlife warriors. What can you do to help? Keep backing conservation in Africa, and the ranger-support and anti-poaching projects that empower rangers to do their good work.
Happy celebrating Africa to you all!
Taryn van Jaarsveld – Editor
From our Scientific Editor – Jamie Paterson
I have been fortunate to spend a significant portion of my life staring at wild animals, but, every now and again, I still have moments of existential wonder at their remarkable shapes and sizes. When you next find yourself with a minute or two to spare, have another look at the winners of this year’s Photographer of the Year and marvel at the diversity of forms, figures and colours on display.
Did you know that giraffe have a mean average blood pressure twice that of most mammals? Blood pressures that high could easily kill a human being (or at least substantially compromise the cardiovascular system). So, how do giraffe survive it? You’ll have to read our second story below to find out.
Meet monitor Christine Mwende and supertusker Konomoju2. Our CEO Simon spent time with them and Tsavo Trust in Tsavo East National Park in Kenya a few days ago. Simon is currently at the coastal paradise of Watamu tracking down the Sokoke scops owl, golden-rumped sengi and other wondrous creatures before heading to the Maasai Mara National Park for the Greatest Show on Earth.
WATCH: In their mission to protect Amboseli’s wildlife, Big Life Foundation has built a barrier against poachers. Now, people from local communities work to protect wildlife. Ranger by ranger, their force has grown bigger. More than 300 rangers now protect 647 000ha (02:20). Click here to watch
A tent is a marvellous thing: not just a safe, weatherproof cocoon but a symbol of freedom for avid explorers the world over. For the safari industry, tents have always played a pivotal role in countless journeys to Africa, sometimes evolving from simple canvas stretched over poles to opulent villas in remote destinations. Yet the one thing they all have in common is a sense of absolute immersion, with just a thin piece of material between their occupants and the wilderness (and creatures) on the other side… These are our some of our favourite tented camps from across Africa:
Everything but the Range Rover
Ultra-luxury in the middle of some of the remotest corners of Africa may sound like something of an oxymoron, but these tented camps prove that nothing is impossible.
Duba Plains Suite, Okavango Delta, Botswana
This exquisite private two-bedroom tented villa is tucked away in an exclusive section of the Okavango Delta, arguably the home of the luxury safari. The suite is raised on a wooden decking offering an unparalleled vantage point to observe the Delta’s famed wildlife viewing. Elegant features and attention to detail make this one of the most luxurious tented camp options.
Mara Plains Jahazi Suite, Olare Motorogi Conservancy
The intimate Mara Plains Jahazi Suite is so beautifully designed and appointed that were it not for the sweeping views and draped canvas overhead, it would be easy to forget that one was in a tent in Africa. Dine out to a lamplit dinner on the veranda before retreating to a night of sleep serenaded by Mara’s wild creatures.
Jack’s Camp, Makgadikgadi Salt Pans, Botswana
In the middle of a land of vast space and otherworldly vistas, Jack’s Camp is resplendent, swathed in muslin and canvas: an homage to a forgotten era of safaris. The rich colours and ornate décor make time spent in the camp almost as engaging as exploring the wilderness beyond.
Angama Mara, Mara Triangle, Kenya
There are few views as magnificent as the one from Angama Mara’s beautifully appointed tents, decorated in the dazzling colours of traditional Maa culture. The name “Angama Mara” was inspired by the Swahili word for “suspended in mid-air”, and each tent “floats” 300 metres above the plains of the Maasai Mara, with the dark green S-bends of the Mara River curving south as far as the eye can see.
Jack’s Camp in the Makgadikgadi Salt Pans pays homage to a forgotten era of safaris; Mara Plains Jahazi Suite is intimate and beautifully designed; iconic Angama Mara offers some of the continent’s best views; find luxury in the Okavango Delta at Duba Plains Suite
The definition of glamping
With the rise of the luxury tented safari experience came the increasing popularity of the term “glamping” – a portmanteau of “glamorous” and “camping”. These destinations take glamping to a whole new level.
Lemala Nanyukie Lodge, Serengeti National Park, Tanzania
“Nanyukie” translates as “endless plains” in Maa, the perfect description of the celebrated Serengeti surroundings. Lemala Nanyukie Lodge is based in a region of the Serengeti known for its exceptional concentration of cats, so anticipate falling asleep to the sound of a lion’s roar rumbling through the canvas walls, at one of Africa’s most comfortable tented camps.
Saseka Tented Camp, Thornybush Private Game Reserve, Greater Kruger, South Africa
Each of the luxury tents in Saseka comes with its own private deck, outdoor shower, and pool with views over the riverbed of one of the most wildlife-dense reserves in South Africa.
Mara Nyika Camp, Naboisho Conservancy, Kenya
Mara Nyika is an intimate tented camp set in a valley of one of the Maasai Mara’s largest private conservancies. Privacy and pampering are the fundamental pillars of the Mara Nyika Camp experience, set against one of the most spectacular backdrops in Africa.
Chisa Busanga Camp, Kafue National Park, Zambia
On a beautiful island in the heart of Busanga Plains you’ll find extraordinary Chisa Busanga Camp – characterised by human-sized bird’s nests inspired by the design of a weaver’s nest. Built from sticks and lined with canvas, this architectural marvel offers a unique way to experience the seasonal Kafue National Park.
Stay in Chisa Busanga’s human-sized bird nests; enjoy river views in Greater Kruger at Saseka Tented Camp; Mara Nyika is based in one of Maasai Mara’s largest private conservancies; pampering is the order of the day at Lemale Nanyukie
The tent next door
Roughing it in the wild is all good and well, but there is absolutely nothing wrong with wanting some creature comforts while doing so. Thankfully, you’ll find the perfect balance at these tented camps.
Ongava Tented Camp, bordering Etosha National Park, Namibia
A safari classic, the Meru-style tents of Ongava Tented Camp all have ensuite facilities, open-air showers and private verandas. Tucked in a hidden valley at the foot of a dolomite hill, the camp is a natural extension of the arid landscape surrounding it.
Explorer Camp, Shamwari Private Game Reserve, South Africa
Explorer Camp is the ideal destination for those looking to explore Shamwari Private Game Reserve on foot. Here, visitors will discover the natural bounty of diverse flora, abundant insects, and the region’s many large and small mammals. Rustic and intimate, Explorer Camp offers the perfect combination of simple amenities and natural immersion.
Lemala Ngorongoro, Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania
Hidden in an ancient acacia forest a short distance from the rim of the world-famous Ngorongoro Crater, the spacious tents of Lemala Ngorongoro Tented Camp are carefully positioned to provide privacy to their guests while keeping the impact on the pristine forest to a minimum. And it’s just a short drive to the magnificent wildlife viewing on the Crater’s floor!
Hide out in an ancient acacia forest at Lemala Ngorongoro; Immerse yourself in the Etosha landscape at Ongava; Discover Shamwari on foot with Explorer Camp as your base
Back to basics
Escaping to the wild doesn’t have to be about enjoying every convenience, and sometimes simpler really is better. There are plenty of ways to camp out in comfort without breaking the bank!
Flatdogs Camp, South Luangwa National Park, Zambia
The safari tents at Flatdogs Camp encapsulate the essence of an authentic “Africa under canvas” experience, set in a prime position along a riverbank in the heart of the world-renowned South Luangwa National Park.
Ndutu Kati Kati Tented Camp, Serengeti National Park, Tanzania
Ndutu Kati Kati is a seasonal mobile camp, strategically situated in southern Serengeti from December to March, just in time to take advantage of the excitement of the arrival of the Great Migration. This camp is all about wildlife viewing, and the simple tents are the perfect base to rest between adventures.
Sango Safari Camp, Khwai Community Concession, Botswana
Nestled in the shade of the riverine trees overlooking the remarkable Khwai River, the ensuite Meru-style tents of Sango Safari Camp offer the perfect base from which to explore this magnificent part of the Okavango Delta. As one of the continent’s most exceptional little tented camps, Sango Safari Camp provides a neat compromise between affordability and subtle comfort.
Flat Dogs is based in a prime position along the riverbank in South Luangwa; enjoy affordable comfort in Khwai at Sango Safari Camp; be up close to Migration action at Ndutu Kati Kati
Back of beyond
Get off the beaten track and explore, then curl up in bed and embrace the sounds of the African bushveld after dark.
Ivory Trail Adventure, Gonarezhou National Park, Zimbabwe
This mobile camping experience allows exploration of the remotest corners of one of Zimbabwe’s greatest wilderness areas. The Ivory Trail Adventure is undeniably aptly named, with simple stretcher beds, bucket showers, and a long-drop toilet.
Ishasha Wilderness Camp, Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda
Escape to the banks of the Ntungwe River at the Ishasha Wilderness Camp in Uganda’s Queen Elizabeth National Park, where you will share your space with resident troops of black-and-white colobus monkeys or a herd of passing elephants.
Mundulea Bush Camp and Walking Trails, Mundulea Nature Reserve, Namibia
The low-impact tents of Mundulea Bush Camp are hidden among woodland and dolomite outcrops in the unspoiled Karstveld. Each tent has its own private veranda area where guests can take a moment to soak in the absolute peace and quiet of this remote region of Namibia’s central highlands.
Mwaleshi Camp, North Luangwa National Park, Zambia
In the vast wilderness of Africa’s golden valley, North Luangwa National Park is often referred to as the home of the walking safari, and most of comfortable Mwaleshi Camp’s activities are conducted on foot. Here canvas has been replaced by thatching, but the effect is just as immersive. The simple camp perfectly matches the authentic, down-to-earth tone that epitomises the Zambian safari experience.
Mwaleshi is an iconic destination for walking safaris; experience colobus monkeys and elephants at Ishasha; explore remote wilderness on the Ivory Trail Adventure; enjoy the unspoiled Karstveld at Mundelea Bush Camp
Want to head out on your canvas safari? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
Giraffe evolution has long fascinated biologists. Unique in the animal kingdom, their towering stature confers considerable advantages for access to out-of-the-way resources and vantage for spotting predators. Recent research delves into how giraffe genetics have shaped their ability to defy gravity. The giraffe’s great height comes with significant physiological challenges, including maintaining the necessary blood pressure and bone density to support it.
Giraffes need to pump blood up to two metres above the level of the heart to supply the brain with oxygenated blood. This, in turn, necessitates pumping blood at a pressure double that of most other mammals – pressure that would cause severe damage to the human cardiovascular system.
How the giraffe survives with such high blood pressure is a mystery slowly being unravelled by scientists
Factoring in growth
Research had previously isolated a gene known as FGFRL1 (the fibroblast growth factor receptor-like protein 1). In giraffes, this gene shows seven mutations not present in other ruminants. Given that different mutations in this gene are known to cause cardiovascular and skeletal defects in humans and mice, researchers hypothesised that the giraffe’s exceptional FGFRL1 must be responsible for some of its specialised adaptations.
To test this, the authors of the new study used cutting-edge technology to insert the giraffe gene into mice. The modified mice and a control group without the gene then received a drug to increase blood pressure. The results were pretty conclusive: the “giraffe-type FGFRL1 mice” suffered less cardiovascular and organ damage than the normal mice. In fact, after 28 days of exposure to the angiotensin II drug, the modified mice showed no indications of hypertension – their blood pressure remained at the average.
Though the mechanisms behind this gene action are still not understood, the authors tentatively speculate that this research may well contribute to future gene therapies for humans suffering the adverse effects of high blood pressure.
Giraffes have average bone mineral density, despite fast skeletal growth rates
Dem bones
Giraffes have one of the highest skeletal growth rates of any mammal – a calf will double its height during its first year. As a general rule, fast skeletal growth rates are associated with decreased bone strength, but adult giraffes have average bone mineral density. Interestingly, the “giraffe-type FGFRL1 mice” had significantly higher bone mineral densities, bone volume/total volume ratios and average trabeculae (essentially, the supportive “struts” in bone) thickness than the normal mice. Thus, it seems highly probable that the FGFRL1 gene in giraffes plays a role in maintaining compact and robust bones.
This particular finding goes to the heart of the basics of evolution and, in particular, evolutionary pleiotropy. Pleiotropy describes a situation where one gene impacts two or more seemingly unrelated physical traits. This may help explain how substantial phenotypic changes could have taken place over a relatively short evolutionary time.
Constant vigilance
In compiling the genome assembly, the study details how giraffes are adapted to have what is thought to be the best eyesight of any of the Artiodactyls (even-toed ungulates such as antelope and buffalo). This may be particularly important for giraffe because their reaction speeds are fractionally slower than most mammals because of a delay in neuron transmission caused by neuron length. Not only did the researchers identify several genes related to optical development, but they also showed that the giraffe has a reduced sense of smell. Compared to its closest relative, the okapi, the giraffe lacks at least 53 olfactory-related genes. This may well be a natural trade-off in sensory acuity seen in other animals (often arboreal species).
Unlike most other animals, a resting giraffe is not particularly well suited to rising quickly and gracefully, making them more vulnerable to predators. They also require high volumes of food. As a result, giraffe sleep durations are among the lowest recorded. The study outlines clear evidence of the rapid evolution of specific genes critical in maintaining circadian rhythms and sleep arousal systems. Thus, the giraffe’s genome allows for short and fragmented sleep.
A tall order
Though the mysteries of the giraffe’s great height are far from entirely revealed, this research goes a long way towards improving our understanding of evolution on a genetic level. In particular, it provides crucial insights into how pleiotropy and some “lucky” mutations produced one of the most fascinating creatures on the planet.
To learn about how you can contribute to the conservation of giraffes, read more about our project partner The Giraffe Conservation Foundation. Login to view – details below.
I have just arrived at Tsavo East National Park in Kenya – my first stop on an epic safari planned by teamAG
We head out soon to spend precious time with those giant dignified tuskers that define this area and perhaps even catch a glimpse of hirola – the world’s rarest antelope! I will be accompanying a biodiversity patrol for a few days – to appreciate the work that goes into keeping Tsavo safe. After that, I journey to the coastal forest of Arabuko Sokoke to learn about the work being done to preserve this precious place – and to track down Sokoke scops owl, golden-rumped sengi and other delights. And finally, my safari heads off to the Maasai Mara to join clients on a photographic safari. We will use a modified photography vehicle, and off-road driving permits only issued to approved guides who drive responsibly. That’s three stories you can look forward to 🙂
FOMO? Perhaps it’s time to contact us to start planning your next safari. You can do that by replying to this newsletter or emailing our team at travel@africageographic.com – let them know your wishlist. First, check out our packages here (website) and here (app). Safari njema!
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor – Taryn van Jaarsveld
A few weeks ago, we ran a balanced and heartfelt reflection on famous Sabi Sands leopardHosana’s untimely death. The ensuing discussion on our story continued for weeks, as interested parties weighed in on our platforms. What became clear was that a slew of issues required consideration and investigation.
This week Jamie and co-author Maxine Gaines – who both hold deep connections to Hosana and Sabi Sand Game Reserve – have, after thorough research and enquiry, penned an exceptional and exhaustive analysis on leopard habituation and the ethics of tourism surrounding leopards. The story below is available exclusively on our app for the next few days, where you can join the discussion with the AG tribe. Get the app to view – it’s free.
Malawi’s Majete Wildlife Reserve has all the makings of a coveted safari destination. This realm of towering granite hills, grassy plains, abundant wildlife and the mighty Shire River has seen droves of tourists returning to experience a vibrant and thriving wilderness. Read our guide on this reserve, and on how to visit it, in our second story below.
Happy celebrating Africa to you all!
From our Scientific Editor – Jamie Paterson
Almost exactly seven years ago, I first set foot in the Sabi Sand Game Reserve, bursting with excitement and somewhat wide-eyed at the position I had found myself in. Would that I could travel back in time – what words of frail wisdom would I impart? (I have some ideas, though not all are relevant to the topic at hand.)
Did you know that the habituation of leopards (and many other species), has contributed enormously to our scientific knowledge of these beautiful, cryptic animals? Our first story of the week, written by myself and my friend Maxine Gaines, is the culmination of months of work and careful consideration. It tells the story of leopards we have known, their habituation to people and the ethos of the industry we both understand well. Its messages are borne from the heart, and we sincerely hope they are received in the spirit in which they were intended.
Conservation today is a tangled web of complex challenges, each strand convoluted and inextricably linked to several others. It is often much easier to villainise and rail against the “bad guys” (and tar others with the same brush) than to face the fact that silver bullet solutions are few and far between.
Somehow taking a middle ground has become the new extremism, attracting ire and condemnation. But I still believe in honesty and transparency and hope our story below reflects that.
Our CEO’S choice is one for the experienced safari-goer seeking the ultimate experience (and images) of raw Africa at her best. Join popular photographer guide Villiers Steyn and experienced local guides in Chitake, Mana Pools, Zimbabwe. Four places left.
JUST DO IT! For the pursuit of culinary delights and Big-5 safari heaven, there is this: Bush & beach, Pinotage to predators – South Africa – 12 days. You know you want to
Find other ready-made packages or even design your own safari. It’s easy: login to our app, tap/click the ‘Travel with us’ tab, and select either ‘packages’ or ‘lodges’. You can filter your choice by place and other important choices (such as lodges in non-malaria areas or packages that include the Big 5). You can add your selection of lodges and packages to your wishlist – which will remain saved until you choose to edit or delete.
You can help desert lions
Did you know that the AG app hosts a hand-picked selection of trusted conservation and community projects that are of real benefit to Africa’s people, ecosystems and wildlife? This empowers the AG tribe to offer support & donate to projects that make a difference.
We’ve just added Desert Lion Conservation Trust to our list of conservation projects. The trust has been collecting data on the desert-adapted lion population and studying their behaviour, biology and ability to adapt to the harsh desert environment. Their work is mitigating threats and providing much-needed help to these magnificent and resilient lions. See how you can help.
WATCH: Lemurs get high | We know many animals self-medicate. Check out these lemurs chewing on toxic millipedes and spreading them on their bodies – seemingly as an insect repellent – while becoming intoxicated in the process (02:40). Click here to watch
It’s been a long journey, and the guardians of the small crate and its precious cargo are exhausted. A pair of amber eyes gleam in the darkness, wary and burning with wildfire. The crate slides open, and in a blur of spots and tawny fur, the cheetah hurtles out into the wild of her new home – one of the first cheetahs to set foot in Malawi’s Majete Wildlife Reserve in decades. Her arrival is just one step in the delicate process of transforming this vital piece of Africa back into a vibrant and thriving wilderness.
Majete Wildlife Reserve has all the makings of a coveted safari destination, a reserve now afforded the opportunity to live up to its considerable potential. And two years after cheetahs returned to Majete, the first cubs emerged from a secret den, marking the dawn of a new era for the reserve.
The reserve and Malawi’s wild spaces
In the Lower Shire River valley in Malawi’s southwestern corner, Majete Wildlife Reserve encompasses 700km2 (70,000 hectares) of towering granite hills, grassy plains, and miombo woodlands. Bulbous star chestnuts have forced their way up through the rocky kopjes, and hulking baobabs dot the savanna, while the riparian forests of the river valley are lush with ilala palms and ancient mahoganies.
Every river in Africa has its own distinctive character, and these landscape lifelines tend to dominate and define the continent’s wild spaces. So it is in Majete, where the two main rivers are entirely unalike. The Mkulumadzi is gentle and charming, flowing through patches of boulders and along small open floodplains. The more famous Shire is mighty, fast and deep (check out this footage of the capricious river after heavy rains), forcing its resident hippos and crocodiles to endure the currents. The Shire subsumes the smaller Mkulumadzi in the heart of Majete and continues south to tumble over the picturesque Kapichira Falls. Nearly two hundred years ago, David Livingstone and his crew followed the course of this river, which would eventually (after a detour around the falls) lead them to the shores of Lake Malawi. The Shire is the only outlet of Lake Malawi in the north and winds its way through Malawi before eventually joining the Zambezi River to the south.
Towering hills and miombo woodlands characterise the reserve; the might Shire River subsumes the smaller Mkulumadzi in the heart of Majete; towering baobabs dot the landscape; wildlife numbers are on the rise in the reserve; a small island in the Shire River
Second chances and new hopes
Majete Wildlife Reserve was the first protected area to fall under the management auspices of African Parks back in 2003. Prior to that, the reserve was a reserve in name only. Charcoal burning and logging had divested vast patches of land of their woodlands, and poaching had claimed the lives of everything from elephants and rhinos to the once vast herds of buffalo and innumerable antelope species. Not one tourist had ventured to the reserve in three years.
DID YOU KNOW that African Parks offers safari camps (lodges and campsites) where 100% of tourism revenue goes to conservation and local communities? Find out more and book your African Parks safari.
After a lengthy negotiation, the non-profit organisation African Parks entered into a public-private partnership with the Malawi Department of National Parks and Wildlife (DNPW). As part of their now well-established (but then trailblazing) method, African Parks assumed responsibility for the rehabilitation and long-term management of the reserve while providing a source of sustainable income for surrounding communities. They inherited a “wasteland with no perceived value, and little to no hope for a revival”.
African Parks has implemented programs to protect the reserve, with teams successfully securing the safety of wildlife populations in the reserve
But revive it they did, in a careful and painstaking process that has taken close to twenty years. Rather than rushing into a hasty attempt to restock Majete, management teams established the necessary infrastructure and relationships needed to secure the reserve’s long-term future. As is fundamental to the African Parks’ approach, the first step was to institute community development and engagement programs to prove the importance of protecting the reserve. Fences sprang up around the perimeter, the road network was increased tenfold, and lodges, camps and a visitor centre were prepared for the inevitable return of the tourists.
The early days establishment of a smaller and more manageable fenced inner sanctuary (fence since removed) provided a safe haven for both the remaining and translocated wildlife to flourish. Meanwhile, the reserve’s team of 12 grew to over 140 well-equipped, well-motivated and well-trained staff members. In a remarkable testament to their efforts, not one elephant or rhino has been lost to poaching since their return to the reserve.
Tourists have begun to reappear in their droves, with 11,000 visitors generating more than USD 500,000 in revenue in 2019. Aside from the reserve running costs, this money is channelled into community education scholarships, social infrastructure such as clinics, malaria prevention, and bee-keeping projects.
Back from the brink
With remaining wildlife numbers on the rise and their safety ensured, the time had come to bring back the species lost to poaching. First came seven black rhinos in 2003, followed by elephants with the arrival of a herd of 70 in 2006 and additional herds in 2008 and 2009. Today a healthy population of elephants roam Majete Wildlife Reserve, fulfilling their role as ecosystem engineers and reversing the damage to the reserve’s habitats. Translocated giraffes, buffaloes, and sable antelopes all joined the ranks of a burgeoning herbivore population. Since African Parks took over management, more than 5,000 animals from 17 species have been brought into Majete.
Today the reserve is home to a multitude of antelope species, including waterbuck, eland, Lichtenstein’s hartebeest, common duiker, kudu, nyala, bushbuck, Sharpe’s grysbok and suni. With sufficient prey species on the menu, the large carnivores were next on the arrival list. Lions, leopards, cheetahs and, most recently, wild dogs have all made the journey from other countries (mainly South Africa – a trip of over 5,000km) to restore Malawi’s predator populations. These animals fall under the umbrella of the Malawi Predator Metapopulation Management Plan, allowing for an overarching management approach. Along with elephants and rhinos, they and their offspring have aided in the rewilding and genetic supplementation of other reserves around Malawi, such as the Nkhotakota Wildlife Reserve in the north of the country.
The gradual rehabilitation of Majete has also been of tremendous benefit to its avian residents (and migrants). Over 300 bird species have been recorded in the reserve. July to November marks the passage of a plethora of migratory bird species through the reserves, including African skimmers and diminutive rock pratincoles. For enthusiasts, Arnot’s and boulder chats, racket-tailed rollers, Pel’s fishing owls, cuckoo hawks, and Boehm’s bee-eaters are all highlights.
Predators, including lions, have made the journey from other countries to restore Malawi’s predator populations; camps such as Thawale have become popular with tourists; the road network of Majete has grown tenfold; Majete has a burgeoning herbivore population; cheetahs have also been returned to the area and are thriving in the reserve
Explore & stay
Selecting an African safari destination is often a deeply personal decision, based on any number of different factors and requirements, from budget to wildlife viewing. One such motivating factor not to be overlooked or dismissed is the story of a reserve and the vital contribution each visit makes to its survival. Every tourist who arrives at this nascent reserve to learn (and retell) its story is an essential cog in the tourism-conservation machine.
Find out about Majete for your next African safari. We have ready-made safaris to choose from, or ask us to build one just for you.
They will also find themselves well rewarded by a piece of African paradise unspoilt by mass commercial tourism. This may not be the perfect destination for first-time safari-goers clutching a wildlife checklist, but seasoned travellers will revel in the low-key atmosphere, unusual scenery and unexpected joy of encountering wildlife once locally extinct.
The reserve is open to day visitors, but there are campsite and lodge options for those looking to opt for a longer exploration. Thawale Lodge is one such destination in a prime location, offering a fully-catered experience of Majete.
You can see more on Thawale Lodge here:
The Mkulumadzi River and its lawn-like flood plains are well-suited to guided walking safaris, with the bonus of enjoying a well-earned lunch and swimming at the reserve’s Heritage and Education Centre afterwards. Boat excursions on the Shire River are also on offer. The reserve is open year-round but arguably at its best during the dry months from April until October, when the wildlife concentrates around available water. Majete can get very warm, with midday temperatures often exceeding 40 degrees Celsius and very humid conditions with the arrival of seasonal rains.
Sundowners in the reserve; camps and lodges such as Game Capture Camp (top right) and Thawale Lodge (middle row) are becoming firm favourites with tourists; wild dogs have also returned to the reserve; and lions are now very much at home
Magical Majete
There could be no better description of the restoration of Majete Wildlife Reserve than a labour of love, born of twenty years’ worth of dedicated toil. In many ways, for African Parks, it set the stage for the future – a platform to trial new and innovative methods to protect the continent’s most vulnerable wild spaces and proof of just what can be accomplished. What’s more, Majete’s success became a springboard for Malawian conservation, echoes of which can be seen across the country’s other parks and reserves.
African Parks entered into management agreements for Liwonde National Park and Nkhotakota Wildlife Reserve, both in Malawi, in 2015.
Jackal alert! A startled ostrich takes evasive action. Photographer of the Year 2022 entrant.
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Cheetah first + self-medicating chimps + gorilla trekking
It’s time to take the management of national parks and reserves away from government and hand over to experts in the private sector. And I mean on a worldwide basis. Time and again, we see ‘protected areas’ neglected to the point that they are poached to a state of barren wasteland or government-sanctioned rape by extraction industries such as mining and logging. How often have we been told that there is no money for conservation or that other priorities are more important? Government ministers are usually political appointments – with precious little understanding of conservation, let alone the deep passion that is so necessary. Imagine if your retirement fund was run by a labour union steward or open-heart surgery performed by bookkeepers. It’s simply ludicrous that government-appointed stooges head up our precious protected areas with little to no experience or passion. And then there is the fraud and corruption that is now endemic amongst some of our ‘leaders’. That said, I need to make a loud shout-out to the rangers and others at ground level who keep the wheels turning, despite such huge odds.
Some African countries have seen the light and handed over protected area management duties to stellar organisations like African Parks. And the results speak for themselves. Well done to these far-sighted leaders. So let’s see more of that!
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor – Taryn van Jaarsveld
A few months ago, researchers in the Kgalagadi were observing the cheetah they dubbed ‘Lizzie’ and her subadult cub Lokesh, wandering over the dunes. Behind Lokesh, small blurry bundles came into view. With the appearance of these four new cubs, our understanding of cheetah behaviour would change forever. Read our first story below to find out what is so fascinating about this occurrence, which is providing invaluable insight into our understanding of these precious cats. I can only imagine the childlike awe Lizzie’s observers experienced on this discovery – a reminder that despite the bad news, losses, and often thankless struggles faced by conservationists, there is still hope and new wonder to be uncovered.
So too are we discovering new behaviour in primates. Scientists have observed self-medicating behaviour in chimps. Read more about these and other innovative examples of animals self-medicating in our second story.
Happy celebrating Africa to you all!
From our Scientific Editor – Jamie Paterson
With limited exceptions, we know very little about the lives of individual wild animals. No matter how extraordinary, a sighting offers but a snapshot in time. So is it any wonder these wild creatures, like the cheetah of our first story, continue to surprise?
I suspect that we are destined to learn a great deal more about the complex sociality of seemingly solitary cats. Indeed, the past few years have seen the experts frantically rewriting the books on cougar social behaviours. And did you know that wild leopard and cheetah mothers may adopt another’s cubs? Take Naserian, for instance – a cheetah I spent a few months following in the Maasai Mara. She adopted her nephew and raised him alongside her young son for several months.
Isn’t the wild’s endless capacity for the unexpected simply marvellous?
If you have safari FOMO because so many lucky travellers are currently out there enjoying their African adventures then consider these two epic opportunities to reboot and indulge yourself 🙂
• Or really push the boat out and indulge in this 19-day mega safari – a proper southern African sojourn. From Cape Town to Vic Falls and Chobe to Khwai, this is the ultimate gift to yourself and your loved ones
• Visit our app to see more epic packages or plan your own safari by selecting ‘lodges’ in the menu dropdown. It’s easy
Marvellous Madikwe
App subscriber Colin West writes:
“We have just returned from our first stay at Buffalo Ridge Safari Lodge in Madikwe Game Reserve. We have loved Madikwe ever since our first visit 11 years ago. It is a great location with extensive views, spacious lodges, and extremely experienced guides. The lodge is owned by a local community who are determined to make your stay memorable and enjoyable. Around the lodge we saw elephants feeding around the main deck, while klipspringers rested on the steps leading up to the game-drive vehicles. We had great close-up sightings of cheetah, elephant, lion, and so many other creatures. This was very much down to Godfrey, our guide, who looked after us so well. We thoroughly recommend Buffalo Ridge to anyone wanting a top-end experience without having to pay top-end prices.”
Want to write a review? Share tales of your travels as Colin did, on our forum.
WATCH: Here’s what happens after an elephant dies. As this film crew witnessed, elephant carcasses briefly become busy ecosystems of their own. (Viewer discretion advised.) (06:47). Click here to watch
Scientists have observed chimpanzees treating the injuries of their fellow troop mates (Photo courtesy @miller_wildlife_photography)
Cases of animals self-medicating have been widely recorded over the past few decades. Self medicating is a survival trait that chimpanzees, birds, orangutans and lemurs all share with humans. Now, scientists have observed chimpanzees treating peers for injuries – a first for the animal kingdom.
Scientists observed 19 different instances where the chimpanzees “medicated” themselves:
Members of the Rekambo chimpanzee troop in Gabon have recently been observed rubbing insects onto open wounds.
Even more astonishing, the chimpanzees not only treated their own wounds in this fashion but those of others as well.
No other animal (apart from humans, of course) has ever been observed treating the injuries of others.
Most interesting, is that this case was not just a once-off event.
One mother rubbed an insect onto her offspring’s wound, and the same behaviour was observed in two other adult chimpanzees.
It is still uncertain what kind of insects were used and whether the “insect ointment” the chimps created aided injury healing or prevented infection.
Was it the chimpanzees’ intention to treat the injuries? That remains unanswered for now but seems likely given that these celebrated primates targeted open wounds.
There are also many examples in nature of animals using the chemical properties of plants or insects for a specific purpose:
Chimpanzees have been seen swallowing bitter, unpalatable leaves of Aspilia plants, some of which are anti-helminthics (to rid their bodies of parasitic worms).
Hornbills have been observed using crushed millipedes to line the cavities and entrances of their nests, which may help to keep bacteria and fungi from flourishing in the confined place while the chicks fledge.
Lemurs have also been recorded chewing on millipedes, possibly to treat tummy troubles. The lemurs swallowed some of the unpleasant mixture and spread the remaining ointment on their genitals, anuses, and tails.
Many birds have been observed “anting” – rubbing ants over their bodies. The formic acid produced by some of these ants is thought to help soothe irritated skin and keep ectoparasites and microbes at bay.
While many cases of animals self-medicating – also known as zoopharmacognosy – are coming to light, there is still much for us to learn in this fascinating field. Have you observed these behaviours, or similar behaviours, in the wild? Let us know.
Millipedes are a popular ‘treatment’ for many animals, as they secrete noxious chemicals with antimicrobial properties
Somewhere far north in the Auob riverbed in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park of South Africa, a female cheetah wanders out of the dunes. Her eyes lock onto a springbok and she moves closer to her unsuspecting quarry. Moments later she is at full speed. The springbok sees her and runs – but it is too late. The cheetah sits on the side of the dune, panting heavily, successful in her mission to feed her family. So far, this is nothing unusual. A female cheetah hunting a springbok to provide for her growing cubs is a daily occurrence in the southern Kalahari Desert. On this occasion, however, everything is different.
Her sub-adult male cub, 15 months old, appears over the dunes. Behind him four small bundles of fur appear, hardly recognisable as cheetahs, emerging from the den to join their mother and older brother on the kill. The mother – dubbed “Lizzie” by researchers from the Kalahari Leopard Project, was born in 2016. Her mother is known to researchers as “Corinne” and is currently one of the oldest cheetahs in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park.
Cheetahs are one of the most intensively studied large carnivores on the planet. But a female raising two of her own litters of different age classes at the same time is something scientists have never seen before. The first sighting of these cheetah cubs occurred in October 2021. After observing this cheetah family for some time, the Cheetahs of the Kalahari Project has been able to gain insight into this rare occurrence.
In the beginning
The story began in early 2016 when Lizzie was born. Her mother Corinne was one of the best-known cheetahs in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, and both Corinne and Lizzie had been monitored since birth by the Kalahari Leopard Project. Corinne was born in March 2011 and her mother was collared by cheetah researchers Gus and Margie Mills in 2006. Knowledge of the matrilineal bloodline of these cheetahs thus goes back four generations.
After dispersal from her mother, Lizzie became a prolific independent hunter and claimed a home range in the far north of her mother’s range. In June 2020 she had her first litter, of which one male cub – Lokesh – survived the denning phase. He grew up as a single cub and nothing out of the ordinary happened for almost a year.
Lizzie developed into a skilled hunter. Where other cheetahs have to get within 50–100m of their prey before launching an attack, it is not rare for her to start running from about 250m from her target
In May 2021 we noticed that Lizzie started marking, behaviour that is normally only displayed by females in oestrus. Multiple males ventured far out of their normal territories to visit Lizzie’s home range. When we received news of sightings of Lizzie accompanied by different males during May, we still did not expect her to get pregnant. Her 11-month-old male cub was still far from independence and cheetah females do not usually enter oestrus unless their current cubs have dispersed, are very close to dispersal age, or if all of their cubs die. But during the winter months we didn’t see or hear anything about Lizzie. We grew fearful that something had happened to her and her cub. Thankfully, they reappeared in September while hunting springbok in the riverbed. But we noticed something odd: Lizzie had suckling marks.
On 30 October 2021 our suspicions were confirmed when Lizzie finally showed her new litter of four cubs to the world. Cheetah females keep their litters hidden in a den for about eight weeks. Thereafter the mother will start to take them with her wherever she goes. Most cubs are fully weaned within three weeks after emerging from their den and they are introduced to fresh meat as soon as the denning phase is over.
From the moment her new litter emerged we monitored this special family on a daily basis and recorded their behaviour in detail. Lizzie and her extended family started moving around in their usual home range, allowing us to spend months in their presence.
Lizzie surprised observers by birthing another litter of four cubs while her older cub was still present
Navigating new relationships
This situation – an adult female with a new litter of eight-week-old cubs, accompanied by an older cub (a 15-month-old brother in this case), had never been documented by anyone in the wild before. The cubs’ relationship with their older sibling seemed fragile for the first days after their emergence from the den and Lokesh often played too rough with the little ones. We noticed the subadult male seemed caught between two worlds. He tried to hunt with his mother, but also couldn’t resist playing with his younger siblings.
The unusual family – mother, subadult Lokesh and four young siblings – kept a tight bond
Their behaviour in the next few weeks was remarkable. The subadult male started to take on the role of “surrogate mom”, and the young cubs spent more time with him. He played with them, washed them and called for them when they lagged behind. This gave Lizzie the opportunity to focus on hunting efficiently for her large family. He would still accompany his mother during hunts – spoiling quite a few of them! But whenever the two were out hunting, Lokesh would focus on the young cubs if danger emerged. On multiple occasions, jackals threatened the young cubs while Lizzie and Lokesh were hunting. She would often make a call and the subadult male would abandon the hunt and return to his younger siblings. Lizzie often left Lokesh with his younger siblings, seemingly to “babysit” them. The first month flew by and it seemed these young cubs were safe with two older cheetahs looking after them.
While older brother Lokesh took on responsibilities such as helping to hunt or “babysitting” the cubs while their mother was out hunting, he still maintained a playful relationship with the cubs. In the third image, Lizzie shares a moment of tenderness with her cubs
Disaster strikes
The young cubs were growing fast and discovering more of their mother’s home range. But moving larger distances meant more chance of running into danger. A shortage of prey and an unusually high density of cheetahs in Lizzie’s home range in January 2022 meant she had to walk up to 20km a day to find food. All four cubs made it into the new year – though one of the four was significantly smaller than the others. The first disaster struck on the night of 7 January.
Lizzie is a skilled hunter. Where other cheetahs usually need to get within 50–100m of their prey before launching a pursuit, she can hunt from wide distances. On occasion, she has even taken the chance to start running at a distance of about 250m from her prey, and been successful. But her determination to succeed in the hunt landed her in trouble that night.
Lizzie missed a hunting opportunity that afternoon and so followed a group of springbok into the twilight. After we followed her tracks the next day, it became evident that she had walked over 7km on a moonless night in pursuit of prey. I struggled to locate the family at first. But we soon spotted Lizzie coming down from the dunes, followed by a very nervous Lokesh and only three small cubs. Going back on their tracks, we found that one small set of tracks had gone missing. One of the cubs had likely been separated from the family. From tracking and circumstantial evidence we determined black-backed jackals had killed the cub after it was lost, and we later found seven jackals eating the cub’s remains.
Lizzie and her family later returned to the area where the tracks had indicated the cub had gone missing. They called for the cub incessantly for the next two days, staying in the area for some time – unusual for Lizzie. The entire family, including the subadult male, were calling for long periods of time during the days after the loss.
After that, prey became even more scarce and Lizzie would walk many kilometres a day to find the odd springbok in the riverbed. She went into the dunes to hunt steenbok on occasion but often returned unsuccessful.
On 18 January Lizzie and her family walked 10km to a waterhole to drink. Unaware of three lions sleeping nearby, Lizzie and her family walked dangerously close to them through the riverbed. A sudden thunderstorm created a dust devil of sand and visibility decreased. A lightning strike woke the lions, who then noticed the cheetah and cubs. The sandstorm created cover for the lioness and she charged the unsuspecting cheetahs. She killed one cub. Both Lizzie and Lokesh sprinted back to distract the other lions from killing more youngsters. Cheetahs are no match for any lion and the two males charged at the adult cheetahs. Lizzie and Lokesh made a narrow escape. One cub was left disoriented, calling for its mother and siblings from the riverbed. Lokesh came back from the dunes and managed to draw the cub away from danger.
In contrast to their actions when losing the first cub, the cheetah family did not remain in the area or call for the cub. They had seen the lions kill the cub and there was no doubt as to its fate.
When the cubs were a few months old, one cub was separated from the family, and observers later saw jackals eating its remains; a few weeks later the family (pictured here just before the incident) were surprised by lions; in the confusion of a sandstorm, the lioness managed to catch and kill one of the cubs
Greener pastures
After this the family’s fortune changed for the better. The two remaining cubs continued to grow, play and explore the home range. Lokesh’s bond with them stayed strong. He became a better hunter. By the end of May 2022, the family were still together. He would still play with his smaller siblings, but his behaviour towards the now older cubs became more sexual. The cubs responded with more defensive behaviour, less playful than before. The subadult male had remained with his mother for a total of 23 months.
The two young cubs are now big enough to outrun threats and are growing quickly. The Cheetahs of the Kalahari Project will keep monitoring these and other cheetahs within the southern Kalahari and hope to contribute to cheetah conservation in the wild with the knowledge we gain. One thing we know for sure is that cheetahs will never cease to amaze us!
Why is this case so special?
We at the Cheetahs of the Kalahari Project have a few years of experience working with or studying large carnivores in the wild, and we had never heard of a case in which a wild female cared simultaneously for her overlapping litters of different age groups. After consulting friends and colleagues we discovered how truly special this case was. Gus and Margie Mills who conducted the first extensive cheetah study in the southern Kalahari between 2006 and 2012, Vincent van der Merwe from the Endangered Wildlife Trust and Femke Broekhuis from the Serengeti Cheetah Project all have many years of field experience with wild cheetahs, and none of them had ever heard of a case like this. This (to our knowledge) is the first and most extensively studied case of a female cheetah with overlapping litters in natural history.
Citizen scientists contribute important data to the Cheetahs of the Kalahari Project. If you have been to the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park in the last ten years and have photographed cheetah there, share your pics and info with the Cheetahs of the Kalahari Project (cheetahsofkgalagadi@gmail.com). Include the location, date and any important additional info. Read more about the project here.
Chanan Weiss and his family connect with a mountain gorilla on Karisimbi Mountain, in Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda.
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Trophy hunting lions + Madagascar + Mara Champagne safari
The butterfly effect is a simplistic explanation of how a tiny movement – like a butterfly flapping its wings – can later result in a far greater effect elsewhere – like a tornado. Your African safari is a bit like that. And the more remote and off-the-beaten-track your destination is, the larger the local effect. Your holiday creates employment and sustainable livelihoods, which promotes pride, long-term thinking and substantial conservation benefits. Convince a friend to join you or follow in your footsteps and your butterfly effect will amplify. This is no bunny-hugger wishy-washy namby-pamby fairytale – it’s proven fact. And I have seen it with my own eyes – many times. Be a butterfly for Africa – create a whirlwind of safari goodness. My team are standing by for your safari enquiry.
This is a good time to remind you about the Africa Geographic manifesto – what drives teamAG and makes us do what we do
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor – Taryn van Jaarsveld
Lion numbers have decreased by 43% throughout Africa in the past 25 years, and their range has declined by more than 90%. Trophy hunting cannot be tagged as the primary culprit for declining lion numbers, but there is little evidence to prove the wildlife conservation benefits that many supporters claim.
This week we share one of the most comprehensive overviews of the relationship between lion trophy hunting, community development and lion conservation. In our second story below, Dr. Hans Bauer, an Oxford University research fellow who has been working in the African conservation space for the past 25 years, examines how trophy hunting has delivered (or, as his findings reflect, failed to deliver) for wildlife on the continent, and highlights how local communities benefit very little from this industry. This is an important article that highlights challenges to conservation in Africa, and questions trophy hunting’s true value in habitat and wildlife preservation.
On a brighter note, we shine a light on one of the richest biodiversity hotspots in Africa, featuring tropical rainforests, azure lagoons, and white beaches. Northern Madagascar offers a wide array of weird and wonderful fauna, flora and scenery. Not to mention the opportunity to see fossas and lemurs up close! The extensive guide below is the last in our four-part Madagascar series, offering in-depth insight into travelling this magical land.
Happy travelling Africa to you all!
From our Scientific Editor – Jamie Paterson
In a tiny pocket of forest in northwest Madagascar lives a very unusual lemur. It is critically endangered, and there are believed to be fewer than 1,000 individuals remaining. They look almost identical to the closely-related black lemur (Eulemur macaco) but for one striking difference…
Did you know that the blue-eyed black lemur (Eulemur flavifrons) is one of the only primate species apart from humans to have consistently blue eyes? As far as scientists can tell, there is no shared genetic basis between the blue eyes of humans and those of lemurs. Instead, it is an example of the convergent evolution of a rare phenotype on the distant branches of the primate family tree.
Just a fun fact to keep in mind while reading our first story below!
App subscriber Chanan Weiss and family travelled to Rwanda, DRC and Tanzania’s Mafia Island with AG in June. Visiting Nyungwe Forest – one of Africa’s oldest rainforests – Chanan had the joy of coming across a troop of Angola colobus monkeys. Chanan captured this intimate moment between a colobus and its baby. The Weiss family also experienced straw-coloured fruit bats on Lake Kivu’s Napolean Island, Grauer’s gorilla in Kahuzi-Biéga National Park, and mountain gorillas in Volcanoes National Park.
“This was a long-anticipated adventure that was better than we could have imagined,” says Chanan.
Book with AG and you too can head out on an African adventure, and spend a few days on the mountainous edge of the Nyungwe Forest at dreamy forest retreat Nyungwe House.
WATCH: Why Africa needs community-led conservation: In this TED Talk, conservationist Resson Kantai Duff calls for a major shift in how conservation in Africa works, showing why the people closest to the land are the ones best fit to care for it (13:32). Click here to watch
This time we adventure to northern Madagascar, in our four-part series on this wondrous island. See the resources section at the end of this story for the other three stories in the series.
For the last 88 million years, life on Madagascar has been on its own – creating an island of evolutionary oddities and myriad diverse travel experiences. Sometimes referred to as a “Noah’s Ark” or the “eighth continent” due to its geographic isolation and high levels of endemism, the island of Madagascar is, simply put, enormous. It is approximately 587,000km2 (around two and a half times the size of the United Kingdom). A combination of ocean currents and dramatic topography has created a tapestry of different climates and habitats perfectly suited to the island’s peculiar inhabitants (or the other way round).
The island is home to over 300 recorded birds (60% of which are endemic) and 260 species of reptile – including two-thirds of the world’s chameleon species. There are over 110 species of lemurs spread throughout Madagascar’s protected areas, in a variety of shapes and sizes but all possessing a shared, wide-eyed charisma. Six of the world’s eight baobab species occur only in Madagascar. All in all, the natural history is unique, shaped by the fascinating and beautiful, isolated island habitats.
In an ideal world, a trip to Madagascar would extend over weeks to give the curious traveller every opportunity to explore the magnificent island. Realistically, however, time is usually limited and deciding where to invest one’s attention is guaranteed to create a significant traveller’s quandary. This four-part series is intended to help guide this decision.
Northern Madagascar
The island’s northernmost tip – the “tropical north” – is one of its richest biodiversity hotspots, with lush tropical rainforests and mangroves extending to azure lagoons and white, palm-fringed beaches. Here visitors will find the perfect chance to explore some of Madagascar’s whacky fauna, flora, and scenery in the national parks, before stretching out on the sand to admire the Indian Ocean, cocktail in hand.
The Diana Region of north Madagascar is home to some twenty protected areas, from national parks to “New Protected Areas” and strict nature reserves. These are scattered between picturesque cacao, coffee, and ylang-ylang plantations, while the coastline and the archipelago deliver a tropical paradise escape. From geographical wonders to endemic wildlife, northern Madagascar provides the most efficient opportunity to enjoy the best of Malagasy worlds with the added advantage of being off the main tourist route (with, perhaps, the exception of Nosy Be).
Marojejy National Park
Amber Mountain National Park
Named for the copal deposits of amber resin from the forest’s trees, Amber Mountain National Park is Madagascar’s oldest national park. It is a small (182km2) reserve that packs a significant biodiversity punch. This unique montane rainforest pocket is known for its spectacular waterfalls, green-lit forest paths and crater lakes – a verdant mountain surrounded by arid lands. The tropical oasis was formed on an isolated volcanic massif, which receives more than three times the annual rainfall than the low altitude regions. The forests are decorated by liana-draped trees and orchids, while the floor is carpeted by ferns and lined with thick moss.
Like many of Madagascar’s protected areas, Amber Mountain is home to a treasure trove of unusual wildlife, including a multitude of mammals and an abundance of quirky reptiles. Naturally, the eight lemur species (including the newly discovered and endemic Montagne d’Ambre dwarf lemur) are the park’s flagship attraction, but the forest is also home to a number of Madagascar’s captivating predators. Visitors should keep an eye out for the russet ring-tailed vontsira (ring-tailed mongoose) and the genet-like Malagasy civet. For those with sharp eyes, chameleons such as the endemic Amber Mountain dwarf chameleon are hidden in plain sight on every surface from the leaves and bark to the litter on the forest floor. Imagine the thrill of finding your own Brookesia (dwarf chameleon) in Amber Mountain’s leaf litter-strewn paths.
Like most tropical African forests, Amber Mountain offers exciting birdlife: the endemic Amber Mountain rock thrush, the white-throated rail, Madagascar blue pigeon and even the odd sighting of the endangered Madagascar fish eagle.
Clockwise from top left: Spearpoint leaf-tailed gecko; Madagascar fish eagle; Madagascar day gecko; grey-headed love birds
Ankarana Special Reserve
and the “grey tsingy”
The Malagasy word “tsingy” is a perfect fit for the landscape of Ankarana Special Reserve, situated around 100km south of Diego Suarez. It translates roughly as a land where you cannot walk barefoot (alternatively, to walk on tiptoes). This, of course, could be applied to a significant portion of Madagascar, much of Africa and all public locker rooms but is particularly well suited to the jagged forest of limestone rocks that create one of the most bizarre landscapes imaginable. Prehistoric (literally – the rocks were formed some 150-million years ago) razor-sharp rocks have kept human advancement at bay, and wildlife has flourished as a result. (A much vaster example of this geology is Tsingy de Bemaraha National Park in western Madagascar.)
The pinnacles of rock in Ankarana rise from the plateau, and a network of well-maintained trails and rope bridges link vantage points, making exploration of the park strenuous but rewarding. Below, hidden within the rock crevices and canyons, are dense sections of dry forest home to one of the highest densities of primates anywhere in the world. Ankarana is a population stronghold of the endangered crowned lemur and Sanford’s brown lemur, both found only in northern Madagascar. It is also one of the few protected areas where sightings of Madagascar’s largest mammal predator – the fossa – are relatively common.
Clockwise from top left: Golden-brown mouse lemur; Sanford’s brown lemur; crowned lemur; ring-tailed mongoose
The geography is as fascinating below ground as it is above it. The foundations of the Ankarana Reserve are riddled with caves and tunnels – remnants of a time when the area was an underwater coral reef. The reserve is steeped in the history of the Antankarana people who once sought refuge in these caves, undeterred by the presence of the enormous Madagascan free-tailed bats. Some of the caves remain sacred and are out of bounds for visitors because of local beliefs and taboos. Even more bizarrely, some of these watery channels can only be explored at certain times of the year (November to April) because they are otherwise inhabited by Nile crocodiles! Though the chances of encountering a crocodile are slim, the fact that these creatures have adapted to life in the gloom of a cave for most of the year is astonishing. Though considerably smaller than the crocodiles, massive Oustalet’s, panther chameleons and superbly camouflaged leaf-tailed geckos abound in Ankarana.
Red Tsingy
Between Ankarana and the main city of Antsiranana (previously Diégo-Suarez), a much smaller tsingy-like region exists, referred to as the “Tsingy Rouge”. Here the scarlet sands have eroded to make crimson spires of dried silt. Unlike the uncompromising solidity of the grey tsingy, the Red Tsingy is fragile, and visitors are now prohibited from standing on or among the stalagmites.
The Nosy Be Archipelago
After the rigours of enthralling but rough-and-ready exploration, the final stop in any tour of northern Madagascar must be a visit to one of the region’s pristine coastlines where you can laze on the beach and maybe be lucky enough to revel in the sight of a white-tailed tropicbird gliding over the coastline. Visitors can choose to stop off at the region’s capital – Antsiranana – for a less exorbitantly priced beach holiday or retreat to the seclusion of one of the offshore islands.
Nosy Be translates as “big island” and is one of Madagascar’s most popular tourist destinations. Here the luscious scents of cinnamon, vanilla, frangipani, and ylang-ylang plantations infuse the air, creating an olfactory extravaganza – hence the nickname “perfume island”. Nosy Be is a tropical paradise for beach-lovers, with warm clear waters, coral reefs, and water sports like kite surfing and scuba diving. The thrill of sighting a whale shark off the beaches is also a highlight. Away from the white sands, the Lokobe Strict Reserve is one of the best places in Madagascar to see the endangered, gremlin-like black lemurs.
Nosy Be is also the gateway to some smaller and often uninhabited islands. You might share a reef off Nosy Tanikly with a pod of dolphins, enjoy a beach picnic on the isthmus of Nosy Iranja. Kayaking in the silent dawn around Nosy Sakatia might thrill you with the sound of a leatherback turtle breaking the surface to breathe. While a sunset from Tsara Komba, sunkissed, salty-lipped and holding a Kumquat Rhum Arrange cocktail in hand is the perfect way to celebrate a day well spent.
Stunning beaches, oceans and hospitality of northern Madagascar
The ins and outs of exploring Madagascar
Madagascar’s tropical climate is typically enjoyable all year round, though the wet season runs from November to March, usually with minimal winds. February carries the highest risk of fierce tropical cyclones. The cooler dry season from April until October alleviates the worst of the oppressive heat, particularly when hiking on the islands or through Ankarana Special Reserve. The winds pick up at the beaches, making it the ideal time for kite surfing enthusiasts but less pleasant for those who do not appreciate being stung by grains of sand.
There are plenty of budget and camping opportunities in or near all of the destinations mentioned above. It is advisable to travel in Madagascar with a reputable company, but it is possible to hire a car to drive between the various attractions. However, the roads are bad, particularly during the wet season, and a 4 x 4 is essential. That said, road travel is fascinating and often accompanied by the glorious scent of roadside-roasted cashew nuts.
Coquerel’s sifaka, native to northwest Madagascar
Final thoughts
Northern Madagascar is a fantastical land – a natural evolutionary playground and a human kaleidoscope of cultural influences. Remarkable, offbeat, and enticing, this magical island offers an intoxicating combination of unique wildlife viewing and magnificent scenery. There is far more to Madagascar than our four-part series could ever hope to convey, but there is no question that it is a country with something to offer everyone. Our travel consultants are always on standby to help you plan the Madagascan holiday of your dreams.
Want to go on safari to Northern Madagascar? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
Ken Behrens is a birder, naturalist, consultant, guide, and photographer, who is based in Madagascar. He is the co-author of several books, including Wildlife of Madagascar. His work can be seen at ken-behrens.com
By Hans Bauer, Research fellow: Northern Lion Conservation, University of Oxford. Originally published by The Conversation
Trophy hunting will not save Africa’s lions – so the UK ban on imports is a positive step for wildlife conservation. Over the past 25 years, I have spent a lot of time counting lions as part of my job. Only last month, I spent three hours with two males – possibly brothers – right next to my car in Maze National Park, Ethiopia. Lions come in the night, very quietly. Despite weighing well over 150kg, you do not hear their footsteps. What you hear is their breathing, the turbo of the killing machine.
Had I turned on a light immediately, they would have run away. These lions are skittish, even if they face no threat from trophy hunters in Africa’s national parks. So we spend half an hour in the pitch dark before I finally switch on a small red light to count the eye reflections. Another pause, then a bigger red light enables us to see their sex and age.
We get lucky: with the big spotlight they move to a discrete distance, but we still get to watch them for an hour before retiring to our tents a few hundred metres away. The lions have long lost interest in us but the ranger makes a campfire which smoulders all night, just to be safe. This park has no outposts, no visitors and no emergency services, so we need to stay out of trouble.
Maybe you have counted lions in a zoo or wildlife park: “I see three – no wait, there’s a tip of another tail and a flickering ear, so four, or five?” People on safari in popular destinations where lions are habituated to cars may have had the same experience. In the wilderness, however, lions are hard to spot – across much of their range you don’t see them very often at all, especially during the day.
I have spent countless nights sitting on top of my vehicle, playing buffalo or warthog cries with a megaphone, trying to catch a glimpse of lions attracted by these sounds. I have walked for days to find footprints or put up automated camera traps. For every day of fieldwork there is a day of grant writing before and a day of reporting afterwards – but yes, it is a wonderful job.
I once found lions in a part of Ethiopia where they had not been documented and added a blob on the distribution map. Unfortunately, over the last 25 years, it has been much more common to reduce or delete entries from our African Lion Database.
My research shows that during this time, lion numbers have decreased by 43% throughout Africa, and that their range has declined by more than 90%. There are now roughly 25,000 lions in 60 separate population groups, half of which consist of less than 100 lions. Their existence is particularly threatened across West, Central and East Africa.
Lion range throughout Africa has declined by more than 90%
I first went to Cameroon in 1992 to do my Master’s project in Waza National Park, and have worked in various parts of Africa ever since (I currently live in Mali). My main research focus with WildCRU – Europe’s first university-based conservation research unit – is the mitigation of human-lion conflicts. I study the difficult balance between people’s livelihoods and the conservation of biodiversity, working close-up at village level but also at national and international perspectives.
This led to me being asked to give evidence to the UK’s All-Party Parliamentary Group (APPG) on Banning Trophy Hunting, which on 29 June 2022 presented its report on the impacts of trophy hunting to the environment secretary, George Eustice. This follows the UK government’s announcement in December 2021 that it would ban the importing of body parts of 7,000 species* including lions, rhinos, elephants and polar bears. On average, roughly ten lion “trophies” are imported into the UK each year, among many other threatened species.
There are many ways to look at this issue, and the debate usually ends up in a deadlock between utilitarians and moralists. I won’t hide my sympathy for the latter – I work with organisations such as the Born Free Foundation. But after a week in the field living on pasta and tinned tomato sauce, I will eat bushmeat in a village with no alternatives if it has been harvested legally and sustainably.
The future of trophy hunting in Africa was not on the table during the APPG’s discussions about a UK import ban – and if it was, it would be for African scientists to advise their governments of the pros and cons. In my view, however, the evidence is clear that trophy hunting has not delivered for wildlife in most parts of Africa, and that local communities benefit next to nothing from its continued practice.
How trophy hunting works
Trophy hunting is a controversial topic in conservation circles. In some cases, the fact that lions are doing better in parts of southern Africa has – wrongly, in my view – been attributed to it. But in itself, trophy hunting is not the lions’ biggest threat either; my research shows that more are killed when they attack livestock, or perish when their habitat and prey is diminished by agricultural encroachment or poaching.
In Africa, trophy hunting’s popularity grew during colonial times when all sorts of slain animals were sent back to Europe. Nowadays, antelopes are this industry’s most hunted animals – but the most prestigious targets remain the “big five”: lion, leopard, elephant, rhinoceros and buffalo.
Hunting clients may pay up to £100,000 to hunt a lion
A client might pay a local entrepreneur or hunting guide anywhere between £10,000 and £100,000 for a “bag” that includes a lion – and the super-rich may pay (or donate) even more. It’s a lot of money for a holiday, and trophy hunting mostly attracts rich, white, middle-aged men from western countries.
Hunting guides are businessmen (almost all are male). They generally lease government land that has been designated for conservation through “sustainable use”. Known as trophy hunting “blocks”, these areas vary widely (anywhere between 500km² and 5,000km²) and each has annual quotas for the amounts of different species that may be shot by trophy hunters.
In theory, this restricts the killings to a level the population can sustain. Hunting guides then manage their blocks to maintain these wildlife numbers, including organising anti-poaching patrols. The guides employ staff, pay the land lease, trophy fees and a bunch of other costs – including to a taxidermist and export company to deliver the skin and skull to their client after the kill. It is a big industry that claims to be good for both wildlife and local people, but these guides are not charity workers; they maximise their benefits and minimise their costs.
Trophy hunting also does not focus (as is sometimes suggested) on killing off the older, weaker animals in any block. Wildlife populations grow fastest when their densities are low, so that food and aggression are not limiting factors. In order to minimise any such competition – and to offer the biggest trophies – trophy hunts will target healthy animals, not just the old and infirm.
Lions, lion hunting and livestock
The methodology used for setting trophy hunting quotas varies from country to country. Cameroon, for example, has traditionally had very high quotas for lions, but these were not based on scientific rigour. In 2015 we published our first survey results based on observations done by three teams tracking lions over a vast range.
Each team drove for thousands of kilometres across Cameroon, very slowly, always with two trackers stationed on the bonnet of each 4×4 looking for footprints. We got stuck, camped, waited for trophy hunters to depart before being allowed into a particular area, struggled to get diesel, tolerated the heat and the tsetse flies – it was all part of our daily routine following the lions.
Ultimately, we counted 250 lions, 316 leopards and 1,376 spotted hyenas. Cameroon does not offer a trophy hunting quota for leopards, and hyenas are not popular with hunters – but as a result of our count, the country’s annual lion quota was reduced from 30 to ten. Today this quota is still applied throughout northern Cameroon’s Bénoué ecosystem, which has 32 trophy hunting blocks in between its three national parks.
Of these 32 blocks, however, more than ten no longer have any resident lions. And when the blocks lose their lions, this also threatens those living in the national parks – as there is a big difference between having 250 lions spread across 30,000km² of contiguous habitat, or three isolated populations of 50 in parks of 3,000km² each.
When I visited Cameroon again in 2021, I observed cattle everywhere – which is not a good combination with lions. Many of these herds had come from neighbouring countries – pastoralists running from the threat of terrorists in Mali and Niger. As a result, the pressure on these areas, and those who manage them, is intense. It is hard enough to integrate local communities in conservation work, much harder with nomadic people.
Whenever livestock grazes in an area with lions, you inevitably get some depredation. Lions will kill some livestock and, in retaliation, people will kill some lions. This is perhaps the biggest challenge in lion conservation, and all the programmes I know are working to mitigate it. There are tools available to reduce the damage, from flashlights and watchdogs to mobile enclosures and more. But this only works if you know the people living there and can collaborate towards a common goal – not if you have different people passing through every time.
In fact, the pastoralists I have met are usually quite tolerant – they like lions. A herder in Cameroon once told me: “If a lion attacks one cow this year, I will know that God has not forgotten me.” Another in Ethiopia said: “We do not think lions take our livestock to hurt us. As a result, we do not refer to it as an ‘attack’ or ‘killing’ – they are taking what they need.”
Nonetheless, some people – pastoralists and others – inevitably pay a high price for co-existing with lions, and they would prefer them in someone else’s backyard.
I have collared lions in several countries. I know the thrill of a hunt, but a dart gun does not kill – and the information you get from a lion’s collar is amazing. In Waza National Park, I followed lions this way and some behaved very well – but the worst offender killed a hundred-thousand dollars’ worth of cattle in our time there. The park’s warden asked me: “How long do you think the local people will pay this price for lion conservation?”
Almost all lion trophy hunting zones in Africa are part of larger ecosystems that include national parks, and in most cases the hunt quotas are based on the entire population of lions, including those living in the parks. An argument used by trophy hunters is that they are protecting extra land with extra lions – but it’s not that simple.
Declines in lion populations have been observed in some countries in East, Central and West Africa where lion hunting is legal
While trophy hunting blocks do add lions and extra habitat, they can still become a drain on the overall population when lions move out of the parks into emptied territories within the blocks. These so-called “source-sink dynamics” became a global news story in July 2015 because of Cecil, the black-maned lion that my WildCRU colleagues were satellite-tracking when he was killed by an American trophy hunter.
Cecil had been lured from Hwange National Park in Zimbabwe and was shot by Walter Palmer, a dentist from the Minneapolis area. It was actually quite a routine occurrence, but the death of Cecil the Lion created a worldwide media storm – feeding into the UK’s proposal for a ban on trophy hunt imports.
The lion hunting model starts to unravel
Throughout most of Africa, lion numbers are declining. While trophy hunting is far from the only reason for this, the evidence clearly shows it has failed in its promise to provide a significant boost to wildlife conservation. I once thought it might offer benefits too, but studying its impacts and costs has taught me otherwise.
Trophy hunting is allowed in countries throughout East, Central and West Africa including Burkina Faso, Benin, Central African Republic, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Sudan and the Congo – and in all these countries, lion declines have been particularly steep. The Central African Republic is the most extreme example: almost half the country was designated as hunting blocks, yet wildlife there has all but disappeared. In 2012, the late researcher and conservationist Philippe Bouchépublished Game Over! – the title said it all.
Trophy hunting has proved increasingly vulnerable to, on one hand, rising management costs due to the increased threats of agricultural encroachment and poaching (of both lions and their prey), and on the other, reduced income from smaller wildlife populations.
Two rules-of-thumb are widely used: a sustainable annual “harvest” is one lion per 2,000km², and the annual management of a trophy hunt block costs around US$1,000 per km². Together, they suggest it costs around two million dollars to “produce a lion”. These numbers vary hugely between areas and, of course, trophy hunters shoot other species at the same time, but exceptional conditions are needed for the hunt companies to break even. At the same time, local communities living with wildlife are, understandably, demanding their fair share. The model starts to unravel and fall apart.
In Zambia and Tanzania, for example, 40% and 72% respectively of trophy hunting areas have been abandoned. Management costs are rising and private operators do not find it profitable anymore, except in a handful of the best areas. This is not due to any outright ban but rather, the inability to balance costs and benefits.
Across Africa, in the vast majority of cases, trophy hunting has not delivered more lions – whether because of financial imbalances, increased terrorism, land mismanagement or increased livestock mobility (or a combination of these factors). This failure to deliver undermines the already contested justification for the continued killing of lions by trophy hunters. And as the decline continues, many communities stand to lose a wildlife heritage that could, under a different approach to conservation, provide them with employment and stability.
Success stories?
Namibia and Botswana in southern Africa are often cited as models for conservation, which implies their experience could be replicated elsewhere. Trophy hunting has been presented as a success factor in these countries. But in reality, how instructive are the experiences of two large countries with a combined population of less than 5 million people for the other billion-plus Africans living in more densely populated areas?
Certainly, these two countries have a lot of wildlife – but is this due to the effects of trophy hunting, or to very low human population densities, diversified tourism industries and well-resourced wildlife institutions? In Botswana, trophy hunting was banned from 2014 to 2020, but despite abundant polemicising from both pro- and anti-hunting advocacy groups, I’m not aware of any evidence of a significant impact on its national lion and elephant numbers. In short, Botswana’s conservation efforts will succeed with or without trophy hunting.
While southern Africa has, in general, been quite successful in keeping its wildlife species stable, this is also not always through natural processes. There has been a lot of habitat engineering and captive breeding, so that many of the animals you find in confined nature reserves are, in fact, bred and auctioned.
In South Africa, for example, around 8,000 lions live in captivity for the benefit of a small number of rich owners, having been bred like livestock. This model does nothing to improve habitat or biodiversity levels, nor does it support rural socio-economic development. The country’s overall trophy hunting quota is around five wild lions and 500 captive lions each year, and while the US banned trophy imports from South Africa in 2016, most imported lion trophies into the UK have been killed there.
An estimated 8,000 lions are kept in captivity in South Africa
Another issue for Africa as a whole is that biologists have flocked to southern Africa’s conservation hotspots such as the Okavango Delta in Botswana and Kruger National Park in South Africa, which possess good infrastructure and lots of wildlife. As a result, there is an over-representation of people who have worked there among Africa’s community of conservation science, advocacy and practice. Many may never have worked outside southern Africa, and may not be aware of what is happening in the rest of the continent.
I’m not denying that some countries have been successful in their conservation efforts, and that trophy hunting has, in isolated cases, been part of that success. But the “if it pays, it stays” approach which seems to underpin many arguments in favour of trophy hunting has much more often led to the loss of natural ecosystems. This decay affects the vast majority of lion ranges, and an even greater majority of African citizens.
The banning of trophy hunt imports in the UK and elsewhere can, I believe, help to reduce or even reverse this decline. The UK ban is supported by a large majority of British voters. France, the Netherlands and Australia have already banned lion trophy imports, and the EU and US have restricted their imports. Since most clients want their trophy, that means significantly fewer potential clients overall, indirectly affecting Africa’s policy options.
The way forward
Throughout the continent, most policymakers stick to the prevailing narrative that trophy hunting supports conservation. In this way, a small white elite continues to have exclusive access to conservation areas that are off-limits for the average citizen to visit, or for public agencies to invest in. Trophy hunting is getting in the way of much-needed innovation and investment.
I agree with trophy hunters that the land they use is important habitat for lions and their prey. No one wants these areas to spiral down. However, the current situation feels like that famous frog in boiling water story – countries in Africa are afraid to jump out until they no longer can.
The largest and most important conservation area in West Africa is the 25,000km² W-Arly-Pendjari (WAP) region, on the boundary between Benin, Burkina Faso and Niger. With around 400 lions, it is the only three-digit lion population in West Africa, and it also possesses the largest West African populations of elephant and buffalo.
Half of WAP’s land is managed for trophy hunting. Yet over 20 years, these blocks have contributed less than 1% of the region’s total conservation budget. Much of the area is now increasingly threatened by terrorist incursions and large parts have been abandoned, including the hunting blocks.
In Benin, however, the situation is changing. Lion trophy hunting has been ditched and a trust fund established that promises to fund the country’s conservation activities in perpetuity. While mainly funded by Benin and German government agencies, the fund has an independent international structure and several other donors have contributed. The park’s management, now delegated to a non-profit organisation, is striving to improve local livelihoods by generating employment and offering support for community initiatives that do not harm the local wildlife.
Of course, we should not expect wildlife to fix poverty and instability where 50 years of development work have been unsuccessful. But I visit Benin every year and where I used to find a dozen friendly but unorganised staff, I now see hundreds of local people trained, employed and proud. In the past, some children might have gone to school reluctant to learn things they would not need as subsistence farmers. After visiting the park, however, I see signs that they want to learn skills and compete for career options their parents did not have.
Another glimpse of a better future can be seen in Akagera National Park, Rwanda, which was completely depleted in the 1980s and 1990s. Rwanda is the only country in Africa with a population density higher than India’s. It is a country facing a huge number of challenges, yet Akagera is a conservation success story. Following an initial investment in the area’s recovery, it is now breaking even through ecotourism with primarily Rwandan visitors. While this cannot be expected to work everywhere, it has worked in this most unlikely of places.
The true cost of saving African lions, and their prey and habitats, is estimated to be around US$ 1 billion per year. With such funding, Africa could quadruple its lion numbers up to 100,000 without creating any new protected areas. At the moment, lions exist at only about a quarter of their ranges’ full capacities. Funding and community engagement are both critical to increasing this figure.
Ultimately, international solidarity is a much more substantial, and sustainable, source of funding than trophy hunting. Our approach to the extinction crisis should be similar to the one for climate: biodiversity justice as well as climate justice. The 2021 COP26 climate summit in Glasgow discussed the proposed annual fund of US$100 billion to help less wealthy nations adapt to climate change and mitigate further rises in temperature. A similar fund for supporting global biodiversity will be proposed at the COP15 summit in Montreal in December 2023. A billion dollars for Africa’s lions and other wildlife may sound unrealistic, but in the arena of international policy, it should not really be a problem.
African nations are sovereign, and hold the key to the future of the lion. Some may be keen to retain trophy hunting – but they know that demand is shrinking as UK politicians are the latest to respond to the concerns of their constituents.
Above all, the trophy hunting debate is divisive, draining energy from conservationists in Africa and around the world who agree on most other issues. Now is surely the time to focus our efforts on far better alternatives for the conservation of lions and other endangered species.
Lions currently exist at only about a quarter of their ranges’ full capacities
Remember those two lions in Maze National Park? They are part of a small population which has the park as its core area, but which roam the entire landscape in that part of southern Ethiopia. Sometimes a few lions make it across to the next park for some welcome genetic exchange. Maze’s head warden has lots of rangers to assist in monitoring them, but only one motorbike. There is no hotel for hours around, no fuel station, no media. He does not need trophy hunters, he needs a car.
* Ed’s note: While this figure has been retrieved from the official announcement by the UK government, the validity of the number “7,000” has been brought into question by researchers, who claim only 73 different species have been imported into Britain in the past 40 years.
Resources
Lion hunting sustainability in Africa has been extensively investigated by pragmatic experts desperate to conserve our remaining wild lions – read more here.
Dr Craig Packer, known for his research on lions in Tanzania, has been calling on the lion hunting industry and government departments to adopt a transparent, scientifically-based strategy to ensure the sustainability of lion populations. Read our interview with Dr Packer here.
There is much debate about the impact of Kruger’s increasing elephant population on trees – especially knobthorn and marula. Often the discussions degenerate to hardliners calling for elephants to be culled in large numbers to protect trees.
Did you know that impalas destroy countless tree saplings? And that there is a growing body of evidence relating to a complex relationship between elephants, fire and climate change regarding treefall rates and bush encroachment?
Decision-makers have realised that the provision of artificial dams and waterholes is a significant reason for the ‘elephant problem’. You see, elephants remain near these water sources during the dry months and denude the nearby trees – instead of roaming far and wide as they would usually do. The removal of these manmade water sources is ongoing in the Kruger National Park. However, this same strategy is not being pursued in the contiguous private game reserves (the Greater Kruger) – probably because the negative impact on the tourism experience would be significant. I have seen some dams in the private reserves being renovated and, in the process, made larger. Hmmmmm …
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor – Taryn van Jaarsveld
Think of the quintessential African safari and your mind will surely conjure images of the baobab-dotted savannahs of Kenya. You’ll picture wildebeest herds spread across the Maasai Mara, and elephants trundling the plains below Mt Kilimanjaro. But there is a resilient protected area in the country that doesn’t always get the attention it deserves. Meru National Park is a vital wilderness area in Kenya. As home to arguably one of the most famous lions in history – Elsa of Born Free fame – Meru captures the nostalgia of the true African safari. Check out our first story below for all the insights you need to visit this magnificent piece of the continent.
This week we’re also delving into a complex wildlife management issue. Pongola Game Reserve (PGR) in northern KwaZulu-Natal recently announced it would no longer be keeping elephants on its property. We have given PGR General Manager Malcolm Thomson the platform to explain the reserve’s decision. Faced with rapidly growing elephant populations and many restrictions on the management of these numbers, Malcolm explains it is no longer practical, viable or economically sustainable for PGR to host elephants. This is an important story in highlighting the management challenges elephants pose for landowners. Read about these challenges below.
Happy celebrating Africa to you all!
From our Scientific Editor – Jamie Paterson
Did you know that in a secret valley in the Maasai Mara (the Mara Triangle, to be exact), there is a forsaken Volkswagen bus? It has been there for over thirty years, abandoned after a breakdown and reclaimed by nature to be used as a jackal den. Hidden within is a geocache (for those not in the know, geocaching is a global, GPS-based treasure hunt).
Have you ever seen the Mara Triangle VW? What are some of the best-kept historical secrets of Africa’s wild spaces? Download our app and share your comments below!
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“We are sincerely thankful for the donation received from Africa Geographic app subscribers. With the donation, we’ve been able to continue our annual commitment to improving the breeding success of the endangered Cape vultures in Botswana. In 2018, research findings showed that bone deformities in Cape vulture chicks were preventing chicks from flying, and in some cases causing fatalities. This inspired a new project – providing bone fragments to supplement the vultures’ diet to improve eggshell structure as well as strong bone development. The donations received from AG subscribers helped us provide this much-needed supplementation.”
Photo: Cape vultures feeding on bone fragments, photographed by KRC’s camera traps (left), and a Cape vulture pictured in flight (right).
WATCH: The warthogs and mongooses of Mweya, Uganda, have developed a very interesting symbiotic relationship. Watch to see a warthog take a trip to the mongoose spa (01:53). Click here to watch
With unearthly stands of gaunt doum palms, sprawling grasslands, twisting riverine forests, and swamps populated by abundant wildlife, Meru National Park is perhaps Kenya’s best-kept (or maybe forgotten) safari secret. Exploring this national park is less about ticking off a checklist or rushing to the next sighting, and more about marvelling at the scale of this unspoilt wilderness free from the crowds of the more popular Kenyan safari circuits.
There is no doubt that had Joy Adamson still been alive today to witness the miraculous recovery of Meru National Park, she would have been delighted. Today, the park has been restored to its former glory – a magnificent chunk of wilderness central to one of Kenya’s largest protected areas.
Meru National Park and the Meru Conservation Area
Meru National Park occupies 870km² (870,000 hectares) of central Kenya, some 300km from the capital city Nairobi and offering views of snow-capped Mount Kenya on the distant western horizon. The park forms a vital part of the much larger Meru Conservation Area, which centres around the Tana River system and protects nearly 5,000km² (five million hectares). It covers habitats that range from lush green vegetation on rich volcanic soils to semi-arid scrublands and open plains. In addition to the Meru National Park, the complex of protected areas includes Bisanadi, Rahole and Mwingi (formerly Kitui North) National Reserves and the massive Kora National Park. The result is one of Kenya’s most extensive protected spaces, second only to the Tsavo ecosystem in size.
Meru National Park
807km2 (87,000 hectares)
Kora National Park
1,787km2 (178,700 hectares)
Bisanadi National Reserve
606km2 (60,600 hectares)
Mwingi National Reserve
745 km2 (74,500 hectares)
Rahole National Reserve
870km2 (87,000 hectares)
The Tana River that marks Meru National Park’s southern boundary is Kenya’s longest river, flowing from the Aberdare Mountain Range and fed by springs from Mount Kenya, before winding a sinuous path to the Indian Ocean. The many permanent rivers that flow through Meru, including the major Rojerwero and Ura Rivers, are part of the Tana River basin and define the landscape of the park. These waterways are fed by springs on the Nyambeni Mountains and flow in parallel, creating the impression that the park is made up of a series of islands. Beneath a thick fringe of riverine forest, hippos and crocodiles lurk in the dark waters.
Many permanent rivers that flow through Meru form part of the Tana River basin
The wilderness that inspired Born Free
Like many of Africa’s protected areas, Meru’s story is one of triumphs and tragedies. The park gained international renown during the 1960s when the adventures of George and Joy Adamson and their hand-raised lioness Elsa made first literary and then cinematic history. The Adamsons raised Elsa from a cub, and Joy documented their experiences in a series of novels, the Born Free series. Elsa was eventually released into Meru National Park to live wild, and her final resting place is marked by a small gravesite on the park’s southern boundary. The park’s popularity skyrocketed when the eponymous film was produced, and visitors flocked to explore the famous setting.
Tragedy struck during the 1980s as poaching and unrest tore through much of Kenya. Both Joy and George were murdered in separate incidents, and the region’s wildlife was decimated. The park fell into disrepair, and the flood of tourists slowed to a trickle before drying up almost entirely. Hope came some 20 years later when concerted conservation work by the Kenyan Wildlife Service, the French Development Agency and the International Fund for Animal Welfare set in motion the painstaking process of returning the park to its former glory. The infrastructure was repaired with a substantial cash donation, and security and anti-poaching measures were put in place.
Meru’s vistas are characterised by lush green vegetation on rich volcanic soils, featuring semi-arid scrublands and open plains
For the birds, and the Big 5
Today, the park is one of the country’s best maintained, but, more importantly, the wildlife and ecosystem have bounced back. Relocations of various species bolstered remaining populations, and Big 5 sightings are increasingly common (though not guaranteed). Elephant numbers have grown from fewer than 210 at the height of the poaching to over 670 at present. The region is also considered a Lion Conservation Unit by the IUCN. Though the long grasses in some areas can make predator spotting challenging, lions, cheetahs, and leopards are all present in healthy numbers, and encounters are even more special because they are seldom shared with anyone else.
The park’s reintroduced rhinos – black and white – are restricted to a smaller, fenced sanctuary where they can be best protected. However, this does little to detract from the wildness of the experience – the 84km² (8,400 hectares) enclosure section is perfectly sized to ensure that eager tourists have to work for their sightings!
Iconic animals aside, the many varied habitats of Meru are made all the more unique by the disparate rainfall levels across the park. This ensures a spectacular variety of fauna and flora, from moist savanna to the more arid specialists. Large herds of buffalos, impalas and zebras trudge through the swamps and feed alongside the rivers, and the sharp whistles of alarmed Bohor reedbucks hint at their presence in the reeds. The stark geometric patterns of reticulated giraffes tower over the woodlands. Lesser kudus, gerenuks, common beisa oryx, Grévy’s zebras and Somali ostriches prefer the drier parts of the park, while the tiny Günther’s and Kirk’s dik-diks are ubiquitous throughout.
The same diversity of habitats supporting Meru’s assortment of mammal species makes the park exceptionally attractive to birding enthusiasts. Over 400 species have been recorded here, with everything from wetland birds to grass and woodland specials. Pel’s fishing owls lurk beneath the canopies of the dense river trees, and recent sightings of threatened Hinde’s babblers in the park had birders aflutter. Other birds of particular interest include African finfoots, red-necked falcons, three-banded coursers, Somali bee-eaters, golden palm weavers, Boran cisticolas and black-billed wood hoopoes.
Big 5 sightings are abundant; keep an eye out for regulars such as hyenas; the park is a birding haven featuring an abundance of species, including grey crowned cranes and white-throated bee-eaters; rhinos are protected in a safe sanctuary within the park (some photos courtesy Rudolf Hug)
Explore & Stay
Want to go on safari to Meru? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
Though the safari experience in Meru matches, if not outstrips, that of many of Kenya’s more popular safari destinations, visitor numbers to the park have remained low. The result is an extraordinary sense of true wilderness that the Kenyan Wildlife Service describes as “brilliant on a magnificent scale”. From the vantage point of one of the many rocky outcrops, travellers can look out across the diverse scenery without another person in sight.
Experience true wilderness in Meru; for a luxury experience, many boutique lodges are perfectly positioned with views of scenic parts of the park; the Tana River is forced through a narrow rock valley at Adamson Falls; fly fishing and camping is offered just outside the national park
The park is easily accessible via the tar road from Nairobi or direct flight to an airstrip. There are several well-maintained public campsites for those looking to explore on a budget. The roads are generally in exceptional condition, and navigating the park is made simple by sign-posted junctions.
Though Meru is open throughout the year, the best wildlife viewing occurs during the long dry season from June until September. Like much of East Africa, the park experiences two rainy seasons: the long rains from March until May and the short rains in October and November. The long grasses during the rainy season can make it difficult to see animals, and elephants often move out of the park along ancient migratory paths to the north. Given its Equatorial position, daytime temperatures vary little throughout the year, and the days in Meru are usually hot and often dry.
Elsa’s Kopje offers panoramic views over the Meru plains
There are several other activities in and around the park for those with spare time (or for whom the excitement of daily game drives has palled). A trip to Adamson Falls, where the Tana River is forced through a narrow rock valley, is a popular attraction. Walking safaris offer the perfect opportunity to take in the scenery at a more sedate pace.
Further afield, outside the confines of the park, riverboat tours of the Tana River, fly camping, fishing and horse- and camelback safaris are all options for more intrepid tourists.
For those looking for a more luxurious experience, several tiny boutique lodges and camps in and around the park are perfectly positioned in some of the most scenic parts of Meru. The quiet and intimate arrangement makes Meru a perfect destination for families with children.
Several boutique lodges and camps in and around Meru offer scenic views, and comfortable accommodation from which to explore this wild safari destination
A land triumphantly reborn
It is common for travel articles on Meru (and many other parts of Africa) to describe the park as “unspoilt”. This is an understandably attractive representation – one which recreates the ‘blue chip’ documentary feeling of a vast wilderness untouched by human influence. But Meru is not untouched or unspoilt and to describe it as such is to understate the effort that has gone into undoing the damage of history.
Instead, Meru National Park is an extraordinary expanse of vital Kenyan wilderness, restored and resilient. And in the process, it has returned once again to a safe and immersive safari destination – a land reborn.
An elephant photographed in Pongola Game Reserve during a lengthy period of drought
EDITOR’S COMMENT: Pongola Game Reserve in northern KwaZulu-Natal is home to an impressive array of wildlife, including four of the Big Five (excluding lion), hippopotamus and crocodile. The reserve (and in particular, one of its main landowners, the Karel Landman Trust) recently broke the news that it would no longer be keeping elephants on its property. In this opinion editorial, the general manager for Pongola Game Reserve, Malcolm Thomson, explains the management challenges that led the KLT to this decision. Africa Geographic has provided the reserve with the platform to lay these issues out on the table from the perspective of private landowners as a case study for how these practicalities play out on the ground. Views are the author’s own. One thing is clear: there are no easy answers when it comes to managing elephant populations in small reserves and finding humane and practical solutions to real problems.
Update 20 January 2023: There has been an increase in the number of human-wildlife conflict incidents on the eastern shores of Jozini Dam in recent months, with a reported 69 elephants roaming the dam’s shores after escaping Pongola Game Reserve East into Phongola Nature Reserve. According to the reports, at least 25 elephants have been killed in poaching incidents related to this conflict. In an incident on January 11th, tourists on a cruise boat on Jozini Dam were forced to take cover as poachers were firing shots nearby. Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife announced it will be engaging with the PGRE to translocate the elephants back onto the PGRE property or into a suitable protected area as early as March//April 2023. Ezemvelo said it had also engaged with the local community to discuss the recent incidents of human-wildlife conflict.
By Malcolm Thomson – General Manager: Pongola Game Reserve
The current situation regarding elephant management and maintenance of elephants on private property in South Africa has led to many private landowners who have elephants on their property having to rethink their positions on whether to keep them there. Many reserves are not dependent on the tourism value of these elephants. Current legislation, and the national norms and standards regarding their management, place so many restrictions on elephant management that, for many, it is no longer practical, viable or economically sustainable to host elephants.
Many years ago, when legislation in South Africa changed to allow private landowners to own the wildlife on their property, wildlife numbers increased substantially due to the establishment of many private game reserves and because wildlife had value. It became viable to maintain and manage wildlife on a sustainable-use basis (through both consumptive and non-consumptive utilisation). This benefited wildlife to such an extent that more land is conserved on private property in South Africa today than in state-owned reserves. Conservation can be defined as “the wise, sustainable utilisation of our natural resources”. Elephants are just one species of many that private landowners manage towards the goal of wise, sustainable utilisation.
The current restrictions on elephant management are set to reverse the above gains made in private wildlife management. Elephants will soon begin to disappear off private property as they no longer have any benefit to the private landowners, who are prevented from maintaining a viable and productive conservation business. If the current situation continues, one will probably only find elephants in state parks and a small number of private game reserves in the future.
Pongola’s position
Pongola Game Reserve has been in operation for nearly 50 years. The PGR’s (namely the Karel Landman Trust’s) revenue streams come from various sources. These include accommodation, ecotourism activities as well as consumptive utilisation (editor’s note: ‘consumptive wildlife utilisation’ in the wildlife industry refers to hunting, harvesting for the commercial sale of meat, local consumption, and the capturing and selling of live wildlife). We are dependent on our wildlife business to survive financially.
We can’t afford to subsidise species with utilisation restrictions, especially if they also destroy habitats that other species depend on. Elephants are major habitat changers and, if not managed in balance with the other species in a reserve, may degrade that habitat. This is happening in many of the habitats where elephants are present.
It is hard to argue that elephant populations in South Africa are in crisis, as many try to. Most elephant populations in South Africa substantially exceed the carrying capacities of the properties on which they occur. This is directly due to the legislative management restriction imposed by the government. The only crisis is that there are far too many elephants and nowhere for them to go.
Elephants at the water’s edge in Pongola Game Reserve
In our case, Pongola Game Reserve was sold the vision of creating a transfrontier park (across South Africa and Eswatini) by the state. This has never materialised. We introduced elephants in 1997 as part of the transfrontier park vision. At the time, there were no restrictions placed on elephant management and they were managed in the same way as we manage all our other species, which is as it should be. Restrictions were only placed on their management in 2008 when the government issued National Norms and Standards for the Management of Elephants in South Africa. This was when our problems began.
Income through sustainable utilisation
Before detailing our challenges, it needs to be made clear that we own the elephants by definition of the law, and they are our assets. We carry 100% of their management costs. The government does not contribute financially to their management. Despite this fact, the state dictates how we are permitted to manage them. Our business is sustainable-utilisation based, and this is how we successfully manage all our other species, yet we are restricted on the management of our elephant.
Pongola Game Reserve cannot continue to run a business with the current unrealistic restrictions on the sustainable use of certain species. The associated red tape results in loss of potential income for the private wildlife industry. Landowners will resort to commercial farming due to their wildlife business becoming unviable – undoing the excellent progress made on land under conservation and reversing the increases made in wildlife numbers in South Africa.
Desperate times
One practical example of how this plays out is right on our doorstep, where one landowner, whose property previously formed part of the Pongola Game Reserve, changed his land use back to agriculture. This was due to the impracticalities associated with the excessive elephant numbers on the reserve and the financial implications. Once habitat for black rhinos, elephants and other wildlife, that area is now cleared of vegetation and planted with sugarcane.
Another example demonstrates the unmoving stance taken by the state. Pongola experienced a devastating drought between 2014 and 2020, which resulted in the reserve needing to cull a large number of zebra, blue wildebeest and impala to enable other species to have a better chance of survival. We also applied for the culling of 86 elephants as the population was already way above the reserve’s carrying capacity of 30 elephants. Our pleas were ignored with no sympathy or understanding for our situation.
Pongola Game Reserve is unable to balance tourism income with the costs of keeping elephants
Restrictions on elephant management
Several conditions need to be met before managers can be permitted to implement any lethal management solutions for elephants. While our previous management plan included approval for the hunting of a certain number of elephant bulls, the management plan for the next 10 years is currently under review. Until the plan is approved, we cannot hunt any bulls.
Among the conditions that need to be met before lethal management is approved, our most significant challenges are:
Range manipulation – provide proof that management is unable to expand the land available to the elephant:
There is only so much one can do to achieve “land expansion”, so this option is mainly unrealistic and is a temporary solution. All this does is delay the inevitable need to decrease numbers, as the population will become too large for an expanded property.
Translocation – provide proof that management is unable to find alternative properties to which excess elephants can be moved (involving capture and relocation): The fact is that new properties to which elephants can be moved are scarce. For property owners with suitable habitats, many already have too many elephants themselves or don’t want to take elephants due to the current unrealistic management restrictions.
Contraception – implement contraception program on the females: Contraception has no practical population management benefits. All it does is create an ageing population over a period of time. We do not believe that contraception is an ethical solution. Furthermore, it is a costly exercise.
The above conditions need to be met before one can revert to lethal management through culling and hunting. It takes years to reach this point, and in the time being, the elephant population continues to grow unchecked, with all the negative ramifications to the surrounding environment that go along with it. Properties need to monetise the population somehow to spend money on the population sustainably. For us, the only positive income balance to come from elephants is through controlled hunting.
While up until recently we were allowed to hunt bulls, we have not had access to these bulls for hunting. Elephants previously roamed the section of the Pongola Game Reserve northeast of the (N2) highway – within a total area of 8,497 ha in size (including Dubula and the PGRE property – see map below). During the drought when Pongolapoort Dam levels were low, and due to overpopulation, the elephants moved around the boundary fences at the dam onto the Royal Jozini Big 6 Private Estate in Eswatini. After that, a large portion of the population moved around the northern side of the dam back into South Africa onto the eastern shores of Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife’s Phongolo Nature Reserve. There is a standard game fence (with electric strands) between Dubula and the Phongolo Nature Reserve, but the low water levels enabled elephants to move to Phongolo.
While water levels have now risen, elephants can still, and do, cross on occasion. The elephants are still in Royal Jozini Big 6 Private Estate and Phongolo Nature Reserve, with the occasional movement of some elephants into Pongola Game Reserve. Neither Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife nor the Royal Jozini Big 6 Private Estate will permit any lethal management (in the form of hunting or culling) while the elephants are still on their properties. Due to the high numbers of elephant they will continue to occupy these new areas. Without culling and hunting, the elephant population will continue to reach high numbers.
Furthermore, the 2022 hunting and export quota for elephant, black rhino and leopard has been suspended, due to a court application by The Humane Society International – Africa against the Minister of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment, for not following due process in the allocation of these quota. As such Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife will not be issuing any hunting or export permits for these species.
The property lines between Pongola Game Reserve, Phongolo Nature Reserve and Royal Jozini Big 6 Private Estate show how elephants were able to move between properties when water levels were low during times of drought.
Legislation states that, when culling, managers need to cull an entire herd at once (and not just a portion of the herd or selectively cull individuals over time). This brings challenges of its own. Practically speaking, how would one dispose of 85 carcasses simultaneously? In a country where poverty and hunger are all around us, you cannot waste a valuable protein source.
We should be permitted to manage our elephants the same way we do all our other species. The argument that elephants are more “special” than other species is not valid: all species should be managed under similar principles.
Due to all of the above, it is not practical, beneficial or economically viable for Pongola Game Reserve to continue maintaining elephants.
Our decision to remove elephants in the near future has resulted in the engagement and the attention of the National Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment (DFFE) and Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife. Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife indicated that they are currently drafting a proposal (for the bigger picture and Pongola area) which is awaiting approval from their head office before being submitted to us for discussion. It became clear through our engagement that we are not unique regarding our concerns, as there are many other private properties currently in the same position. DFFE has undertaken to investigate improvements in this regard.
Our decision to remove elephants will stand unless the ‘bigger picture proposal’ being developed by Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife is beneficial to the goals of our elephant management. Similarly, if the new National Norms and Standards for the Management of Elephants in South Africa being drafted by the government are not beneficial to the management of elephant on private property and our goals of sustainable utilisation, then there is no point in keeping the elephant and a decision will need to made on how to achieve their removal. This will take some time to implement, as this on its own brings several logistical issues.
Rethinking the future of elephant management
The reality for the private wildlife industry and the business of conservation is that the adage of “if it pays, it stays” holds. The state will have to rethink current legislation if elephant populations are to remain on private properties and reserves in the future.
We in the private wildlife industry are professionals in what we do. Let us do what we do best to benefit wildlife in South Africa, which can thrive through sustainable use management, as we have proved in the past and continue to do.
Note: On 4 May 2022, Pongola Game Reserve received feedback from Minister of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment, Barbara Creecy, commenting on Examvelo KZN Wildlife’s commitment to developing a joint management agreement with private sector stakeholders. The letter states there is a “need for innovative and balanced partnership arrangements between state protected areas and adjacent private wildlife areas.” These, Creecy states in the letter, “result in win-win sustainable arrangements, with strong conservation outcomes, and which stimulate the local economy through biodiversity-based enterprises.” The letter further reads, “reaching such agreements in Pongola can provide an important model for success, and I encourage all stakeholder [sic] to work collaboratively, with meaningful participation, to quickly craft the joint management plan [for elephants], and give momentum to economic growth of the area.”
Is there a direct link between elephants and the ongoing loss of large trees? A recent study suggests elephants benefit ecosystems (in open systems) by improving plant diversity. Read more about this here.
Researchers suggest adapting conservaton strategies to the sentience of elephants. Read more here.
Some 23 years ago, I learnt a lesson about context that defines me today.
Lizz and I had endured a particularly gruelling few years at work, so we packed the Landy and headed north for a 3-month sabbatical. Meandering south through the Luangwa Valley in Zambia after spending time in a bush camp on the Mwaleshi River in North Luangwa National Park, we had reached the Nsefu sector of South Luangwa NP. Earlier, we had been delayed for a few hours by a herd of browsing elephants surrounding us. I was concerned that we would not reach the town of Mfuwe before darkness descended. Seeing a dignified old man strolling his shamba (agricultural plot), I decided to ask his advice in case we needed to spend the night nearby.
After the usual pleasantries that so define discussions with rural African folk, I explained our situation. He provided the requested advice, and then, after a long pause, he politely questioned my state of mind at such a trivial roadblock to our plans. “Do you see these cans?” he asked, holding two flatted Coke cans. “These are all that stand between my family and starvation.” Every day and night, I must keep elephants and other animals away from our fields, or we will lose everything. If I see elephants, I run at them and bang the cans together to scare them away. I never know when they will arrive or whether I will succeed in keeping our food safe. For you, the cans mean whether your food is fresh or not. Either way, you are ok. For me, they are everything.”
Postscript: We made it to Mfuwe before nightfall. We gave the gent what remained of our tinned supplies. I still drive the same Landy 🙂
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor – Taryn van Jaarsveld
There is much to celebrate in the post-pandemic world: travel has opened up across Africa, and the AG tribe is making up for lost time by embarking on safari adventures. But the devastating socio-economic impacts of COVID-19 linger in communities dependent on tourism. In Zimbabwe, 1 in 3 people employed in the tourism industry lost their jobs due to the pandemic. Dianne Tipping-Wood travelled to Zim to meet some of the men and women who are picking up the pieces in the post-COVID reality. See our first story below.
This week, we shine a light on one of the leading gorilla trekking destinations in Africa: Volcanoes National Park. Visitors to this piece of paradise will also be blown away by the breathtaking scenery and astonishing biodiversity of this volcanic landscape.
In the past few weeks, we’ve also been looking into the science surrounding the hunting of large-tusked elephant bulls. Our in-depth look into the science of elephant population genetics is now available on our public website for easy access – see below.
Instead of linking you to some of our safari packages, today we show you how to find them on our app.
It’s easy: Login to our app, tap/click the ‘Travel with us’ tab, select ‘Packages’ and off you go. You can filter the packages by place and experience and even select only non-malaria packages. Once decided you can add that package to your wishlist.
Or, to plan your own safari, select ‘Lodges’ from the same tab and follow the same logic.
Both options enable you to see the prices in a variety of currencies. This is a new app feature, so we are still busy loading up our packages.
Safari njema!
Our Kenyan safari with AG
App subscriber Richard Rolfe says:
“My wife Anne and I go away every January to soak up some sun. As January 2022 approached, prospects looked doubtful as COVID restrictions were slow to lift. I sent a query to AG in November. I got a reply the next day, from Christian – who had led a trip I’d been on to Cameroon in 2010. During the booking process, we were fortunate (thanks to Christian pushing us to make decisions) to be in a position to hit the “Go” button & make firm bookings ahead of many others.
Having studied AG’s article on Samburu, we decided this should be part of the trip, along with other Kenya highlights like the Maasai Mara.. With wild dogs being a key objective, Christian suggested Laikipia Wilderness Camp. We added beach time in Watamu, nearby Arabuko Sokoke Forest for endemic birds, then three days at Satao Camp in Tsavo East. Samburu had the best overall wildlife viewing and some unusual bushveld birds. All in all it was an exceptional safari!”
WATCH: Camera trap footage from Côte d’Ivoire’s Comoé National Park reveals chimpanzees making “tools” out of sticks, to capture water from trees during the dry season. The findings support research that suggests chimp behaviour is influenced by their direct environment. As these primates face a rapidly shrinking habitat, this research can contribute toward essential conservation efforts (02:04). Click here to watch
Rose Tshuma is fishing from the eastern bank of the Zambezi River, just in front of the Sidinda Fishing Camp in Zimbabwe, where she works as a housekeeper. “Look across at that crocodile. We’re all hungry,” she says as her eyes follow the stealthy hunter patrolling the opposite shore. The 52-year-old has a wry sense of humour and a keen awareness of the realities of rural life in this part of Zimbabwe. She knows from experience that hunger is no joke.
About eighty kilometres upstream, the mighty Zambezi River plunges more than one hundred meters down the famous Mosi-Oa-Tunya (The Smoke that Thunders), the Lozi name for Victoria Falls, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It pushes on through constricting gorges offering some of the world’s best white-water rafting to this calmer stretch of river: prime game fishing territory for species like feisty tigerfish and vundu, the largest freshwater species in southern Africa. The river then winds its way towards Kariba Dam, Mozambique, and the Indian Ocean.
When tourism suffers
Tourism has always been vital to Zimbabwe’s economy, and in 2019, it contributed a total of 5.8% to the country’s GDP and 8.6% of the total employment. The town of Victoria Falls is an international tourism hub surrounded by national parks and game management areas, including Zambezi National Park and the vast Hwange National Park.
But as Tshuma notes, even here, things are hard. So, working with local partners, the African Nature-Based Tourism Platform gathered data on the effects of the pandemic on tourism businesses in 11 African countries, including Zimbabwe, to identify the hardest-hit communities and enterprises and their most pressing needs. The platform was launched in April 2021 with $1.9 million from the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and is working with local partners in 11 countries, including Zimbabwe, to mobilise at least US$15 million to benefit the most vulnerable.
The eighty enterprises surveyed in Zimbabwe indicated almost 1 in 3 people employed in the tourism value chain had lost their job due to the pandemic. Tshuma’s colleague, tracker Sylvester Ndlovu, has been out of work for nearly two years, while others are on reduced pay as tourism businesses in the area haven’t been able to pay their employees a full salary, given the lack of bookings. Ndlovu sold some of his goats for about US$30 each and used the remaining herd for meat and milk. Others have sold hard-earned vehicles and assets to put food on the table.
Rose Tshuma with a chessa she caught; portrait of Rose; Rose fishing from the eastern bank of the Zambezi River near Sidinda Fishing Camp
As in Zimbabwe, tourism workers all around southern Africa are facing similar challenges, as COVID-19-related bans have strangled international travel, leaving tourism-reliant communities searching for new opportunities. And without the salaries, service fees, tips, and gratuities that supplement rural tourism-dependent livelihoods, the hardest hit people are harvesting wild fruits or snaring animals to survive.
As one of few still employed in the sector, Tshuma will get a modest salary and rations like maize meal, rice, oil, and salt at the end of the month, plus the fish she catches. “I know what it’s like to live off wild fruits,” she says, pointing to the hard, fibrous ilala palm nuts that grow close to the river. “I have eaten those in drought years.” She anticipates challenging months ahead, as many villages in Zimbabwe’s Hwange District already rely on food aid from The World Food Programme.
In 2020 The Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee (ZimVAC) estimated that 7.7 million Zimbabweans (5.5 million in rural areas) would experience food insecurity at the peak of the lean season, exacerbated by drought, economic uncertainty, and the COVID-19 pandemic. 2022 doesn’t look much better. A prolonged dry spell followed the early rains, and showers in March and April have come too late for the wilting crops in nearby fields.
Sharing space and resources
The storms have also turned the river brown overnight, and Tshuma isn’t optimistic about her chances today, as the local fish she likes to catch to eat – bream and chessa – favour clear water. When a herd of buffalo comes down to drink late afternoon, she reels in one last time. There are no guests in camp, but she still has chores. The property needs to be maintained for when travel resumes. “I am optimistic people will come back. We must survive until then,” she says.
Tracker Sylvester Ndlovu has had little work for nearly two years as the Zimbabwe tourism industry was hard hit; Chessa are a popular river fish that can be eaten fresh or dried
Without tourism-related jobs, income, and meat from hunting, conservation isn’t an easy sell to villagers living in this important wildlife corridor in the Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area.
The web of interdependence between people and wildlife can be as muddy as the river after the rain. Years of drought, overgrazing, livestock diseases, and human-wildlife conflict have put pressure on natural resources in an area that includes Hwange National Park, Zambezi National Park, Victoria Falls National Park, and dozens of lesser-known but ecologically important areas where people and animals live together.
Sharing space and resources like freshwater often leads to conflict between people, crocodiles, elephants, baboons, leopards and hyenas, which raid fields and kill livestock. Safari hunting, fishing, and photographic tourism are an integral part of the economic model for these areas. These income streams make losses of crops and livestock easier for communities to bear.
“These communities find themselves very desperate,” says Charles Jonga, CEO of the Community Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE), Zimbabwe’s community-based natural resource management forum administered through Zimbabwe’s rural district councils. They are the African Nature-Based Tourism Platform’s country partner for Zimbabwe. Designed to create an economic value from wildlife resources for people living with wildlife “and suffering the associated opportunity costs,” the organisation has had its ups and downs. Navigating the vagaries of Zimbabwe’s land reform process and associated political uncertainties since its inception in the 1980s, people report mixed feelings about its impact in recent years. And without tourism revenues, the last two years have been some of its most challenging, says Jonga.
Progress postponed
The lodge Tshuma works for is in a conservancy formed in 2018 through CAMPFIRE, with the help of a local safari operator, supported by the Global Environment Facility and the World Bank, and coordinated by WWF Zimbabwe. They had aimed to help address food security issues in the area, but “the pandemic has halted everything,” says conservancy manager Lindon Stanton. Projects, including solar-powered irrigation and livestock breeding programs, were postponed due to a lack of tourism-related income.
The business plan developed with CAMPFIRE and the community showed how the villagers would benefit from future live animal sales and meat production from legal wildlife harvesting; the conservancy would employ game scouts and support various small enterprises. Instead, they are barely covering costs and are likely to have to procure feed for their recently established population of buffalo [previously illegally hunted out of the area], as the expansion of the conservancy to 20,000 hectares is on hold until more funding comes through. Still, Stanton suggests, they’re doing their best with the resources they have to protect the wildlife that they hope will one day revitalise rural economies.
“We clear dozens of illegal snares [from the conservancy] and fishing nets from the river,” says conservancy game scout Emmanuel Mapeta. He believes people are mainly poaching small game because they are “trying to survive.”
Game scout Emmanuel Mapeta with snares collected around the Sidinda Conservancy.
There is still hope that promised jobs and projects will materialise, as “the only way to take the pressure off natural resources is to create the food security and job opportunities for people,” says Stanton. But he also repeats the refrain from everyone in the tourism supply chain: “if the last two years have taught us anything, it’s that we can’t rely on one thing. We must all do something else.”
In rural areas, though, there aren’t many options. “2020 introduced a far worse scenario [than we have faced before] when balancing the needs for conservation and the expectations of communities,” said Jonga. Speaking of CAMPFIRE’s aims, he says, “we’re looking at initiatives within this and other communities that have the potential to create incomes linked to markets. This hasn’t been sufficiently pursued because we need extra resources to get these projects going. Given the lack of tourism, the gestation period for these projects becomes too long. They cannot evolve independently from the very minimal income currently being generated.”
Hunger looming
In Zimbabwe, nearly every survey respondent reiterated the dire need for financial assistance for staff salaries, anti-poaching units, and infrastructure rehabilitation for enterprises and communities. The most urgently requested support was equipment, from uniforms for game scouts to solar boreholes and irrigation infrastructure to improve water access. This information has been captured in a summary report, shared publicly via the platform. The African Nature Based Tourism platform’s next step is to match resilience-building activities with funding options. In some cases, funders may want to use the platform’s data; in other cases, the platform team might work from beginning to end with beneficiaries to develop proposals and get them funded.
In Sidinda, with hunger looming, people focus on surviving the dry season, meaning irrigation schemes for crops are top of mind for many. According to the United Nations, agricultural activities provide food and income for 60-70% of the population of Zimbabwe (UN, 2021), making it ideal as a business that complements tourism. However, most African Nature-Based Tourism Platform surveyed enterprises are found in Zimbabwe’s arid and semi-arid regions and need irrigation to grow crops successfully. Despite one of Africa’s mightiest rivers running through its heart, the Sidinda area is dry for months of the year, even when the rains are good.
A few kilometres from the conservancy gate, the Shoko family lives adjacent to a shared field. A borehole sunk by the conservancy with a solar-powered pump briefly changed their lives. Villagers were able to grow vegetables like butternut, tomatoes, and onions. Some produce was sold to a business in Victoria Falls that processed sun-dried tomatoes, some were sold in the community to supplement diets, some were sold to the fishing lodge to feed guests, and some were consumed directly by the growers.
The pump broke, though, and the community is desperate to fix it, but neither they nor the conservancy has the money. Meanwhile, the field is overgrown, and the crops wilted. “We’ve failed to grow anything this season because there is no water. We are worried about food,” says Jeremiah Shoko, the 73-year-old pump keeper. He has some goats and a few chickens, which he can sell, but “we’re looking for projects to help us get money to feed our babies.”
Unlike the Shokos, farming cousins Mungala Ncube (49) and Makani Tshuma (57) have had a good growing season. They planted early and swapped drought-sensitive maize for more resilient sorghum and millet. Their husbands worked in the Zimbabwe tourism industry, and their crops represented crucial income for the last two years, but elephants have just raided one of their fields.
Game scout Emmanuel Mapeta with his colleagues; farmer Jeremiah Shoko with a cob of maize from his field; Jeremiah Shoko; Jeremiah Shoko stands at the broken borehole pump
They are philosophical about the incident – “it could have been worse” – but believe that training and employing wildlife scouts from and in the community would help mitigate human-wildlife conflict and create much-needed jobs. “Next, we need money to grind what we have harvested,” said Ncube, adding that she hopes they will have enough to feed themselves and their families, plus a small surplus of nine or ten buckets to sell for school fees. They get US$5 for a twenty kilograms bucket of millet or sorghum. School fees cost US$45 per year per child.
“We need to promote rural development to make communities self-dependent,” says Hwange Rural District Council CEO Phindile Ncube. He says having strategies that provide some resilience, like nature-compatible activities that can be sustainably managed locally, is critical to people’s wellbeing. And while currently, COVID-19 is a huge stressor on an already stressed system, calamities can come in the guise of climate change, another pandemic, or political instability.
Building from the ground up
Small projects can have a significant impact in areas like this one in Zimbabwe, which is why the African Nature-Based Tourism Platform is looking for funding to help communities and small and medium enterprises recover from the pandemic and become more resilient to future shocks and stressors, says WWF’s Nikhil Advani, the project manager. The idea is not to replace tourism in Zimbabwe but to complement it because despite the hardships so many are facing, people are still optimistic about its potential.
Farmers Mungala Ncube and Makani Tshuma show game scouts where the elephants raided their fields; Mungala Ncube in her field; Mungala and Makani harvested their sorghum and millet earlier than other farmers
“There have been some new investments in tourism, even during the pandemic, especially in and around Victoria Falls,” notes Jonga. Just upstream from the Victoria Falls, in the Zambezi National Park, one such new development, Mpala Jena Zambezi River Camp, opened in December 2021. Head guide Blessed Mpofu is from Chisuma, fifteen kilometres below the falls, on the road to Sidinda. Camp Manager at Mpala Jena Rabbon Nyoni was raised in Victoria Falls, where many of his childhood role models worked in the safari industry. They explained how the money they earn at the lodge filters through to the villages where they grew up.
During the worst months of the pandemic, Mpofu was on half-pay and had to sell his Landcruiser to meet his financial obligations to his family. “From a rural boy, I had gotten somewhere in my life, so this was a huge step back. My dream has always been to start a guide school, and I’ve had to put that on hold. But I used the money from the sale of my Landcruiser to drill a borehole in Chisuma and start doing some farming,” he explains. He’s also gone ahead with a business plan and getting permission from the Hwange Rural District Council for his guide school. Like Tshuma, he has faith in better days to come. Until then, their cash flow is as vital a lifeline as the river itself.
This is a true story – that always earns me a few wry smiles in the telling. Years ago I was with a group of American safari clients on game drive, and one of them asked me where I am from. “I am African,” I replied. “No,” she said, “where are you originally from?” “I am African, born and bred,” I repeated, and they looked confused. So I asked them a question: “If I was to move to America and become a citizen, would you refer to me as African-American?” There was a thoughtful silence before the smiles broke out.
What’s this got to do with safari & conservation? Everything, because if we are to keep Africa’s biodiversity safe from abusive exploitation we need to step away from the social constructs that divide us and embrace our differences. teamAFRICA!
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor – Taryn van Jaarsveld
Does the hunting of large-tusked elephant bulls lead to the decline of tuskers, and what is the impact on elephant population genetics? Since we released the news that two of Africa’s largest elephants were trophy hunted in Botswana, the debate over the hunting of Africa’s tuskers has been flowing in the stories section of our app (check out the comments on the original story, and the debate on our retrospective of the matter). In our first story below we take a deep look into the science surrounding the matter, and the effects of hunting older elephant bulls. This story is available exclusively on our app for the next few days. Get the app to view – it’s free.
On a brighter and lighter note: who needs 5 stars when you can have a gazillion? Could you imagine anything better than spending a night under the African sky, stargazing while tucked into a warm and luxurious bed? We’ve put our heads together to find the continent’s best destinations for sleeping out under the stars. You can find unbeatable prices on these destinations and more by checking out our collection of lodges. See our second story below.
Happy indulging in Africa to you all!
From our Scientific Editor – Jamie Paterson
The vast majority of those reading this are right-handed because that describes approximately 90% of the human population. There is an astonishing amount of research into human “handedness” and its relationship with everything from sports to health.
But did you know that elephants also favour their left or right side? In their case, however, it’s called “tuskedness“. Almost all elephants (>95%) favour one or the other tusk, with an almost even split between right and left tuskedness. The dominant tusk is used more frequently and thus wears down more than its subordinate. There is also evidence that they have a preference for rightward or leftward use of their trunks, though it is still not yet known how this relates to tusk use.
Behavioural lateralisation (the asymmetrical expression of cognitive functions) is observed across multiple animal families and makes for fascinating reading for those looking to fall down a rabbit hole. (After reading our stories, of course.)
App subscriber Angela Key travelled to Uganda with AG. ? Navigating Mabamba Swamp with expert bird guide Harriet Kemigisha, Angela got up close with a shoebill, and was finally able to photograph the dinosaur bird in person. Check out Nkima Forest Lodge, within walking distance of Mabamba Swamp for excellent rates – and you could soon be in Angela’s shoes ?
WATCH: Why is this spot in the Congo Basin attracting so much attention? Scientists have discovered a massive peatland in the area – the most extensive tropical peatland on earth, holding 20 times as much carbon as the USA releases from burning fossil fuels in a year. See why conservationists are seeking protection for this area (06:34). Click here to watch
Trophy hunting is a controversial and multifaceted subject. One aspect of this debate concerns the targeting of elephant bulls with large tusks in hunting, and whether or not this is an acceptable loss to elephant population genetics. With large-tusked elephants in decline, what does the science say on the subject?
Proponents of the trophy hunting of these elephant bulls generally either argue that the individuals selected are at an age where they have already had time to contribute to the gene pool or are no longer reproducing. Those against the practice argue that hunting these “genetically gifted” elephants amounts to the “surgical removal of Africa’s remaining large-tusked elephants”.
Summary
Populations across Africa may differ in terms of the effect of ageing on reproductive potential. Extrapolations from one area may not apply with absolute certainty to another.
Bull elephants exhibit indeterminate growth, and their tusk growth rate increases exponentially throughout their lifetime.
Bulls can and do sire offspring from around 25 years of age, but their reproductive success increases until they reach a peak roughly between 45 and 49 years of age.
On average, their reproductive success decreases slightly from the age of 50 to 54 and more significantly from 55 to 61 years of age.
Individuals have been recorded in musth (suggesting they can reproduce) at the age of 63.
Senescence may result in breeding cessation when a bull can no longer maintain the necessary physical condition to compete and mate – the age when this occurs is likely to be highly variable.
Factors other than age play a role in reproductive success, including the timing of musth cycles.
Given the difficulty of accurately ageing an elephant by sight and their capacity for reproduction into old age, the margin for error is relatively narrow.
We do not fully understand the genetic mechanisms of tusk size, which impact its heritability. This will play a role in determining whether a large-tusked elephant can be considered to have contributed “sufficiently” to elephant genetics before his death.
This article focuses on summarising the available science on growth, tusk size and breeding as a function of age in adult male African savannah elephants. However, at the outset, it is essential to clarify that there will always be individual physiological differences within any population. The ageing process (and its effects on reproductive potential) will never be the same for two individual male elephants. This is also true of populations of elephants living in different parts of the continent, exposed to various environmental factors and, most importantly, consuming slightly different diets.
How do elephants age?
Elephants feed almost constantly throughout the day to meet the metabolic requirements needed to sustain their massive frames. Elephants are equipped with four enormous molars (two on the top jaw and two on the bottom) that wear down due to continuous chewing. These molars are replaced five times during their lifetime (equating to six sets of teeth). When the final set wears down entirely, the elephant can no longer chew properly and will eventually die of malnutrition or related complications.
Bull elephants have a maximum life expectancy of around 60-65 years, and they continue to grow throughout their lives (indiscriminate growth). However, experts estimate that only around half of all male elephants survive to peak competitive age, and relatively few (approximately 10%) live longer than around 50 years old (Moss 2001, Poole et al. 2013).
Tusk growth in African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana) is sexually dimorphic, with the tusks of the males growing thicker and longer than those of the females. Research suggests that not only do these tusks grow throughout the elephant’s life, but the growth pattern appears to be exponential rather than linear. In other words, their tusks grow at an accelerating rate as they get older – particularly in terms of increasing mass and circumference (Spinage 1994, White and Hall-Martin 2014).
Longevity, indeterminate growth, and increasing tusk size point towards sexual competition favouring larger and older male elephants. As dominance between bulls is determined by body size (Poole 1989b), the natural conclusion is that older elephants will have increased mating success, borne out by the available research.
Musth and the reproductive lifespan of a bull elephant
Bulls reach sexual maturity (are physically capable of mating and producing offspring) at around the age of 15, but under natural conditions, it may be several years before they can secure the opportunity to mate. Around the age of 25 to 30 years, male elephants start entering into musth cycles characterised by a substantial increase in testosterone concentrations and several behavioural, physiological and physical changes.
The importance of musth in elephants cannot be understated. Males in musth are more aggressive towards competitors, engage in mate guarding and reduce foraging time to prioritise the search for oestrus females (Rasmussen et al. 2008, Taylor et al. 2019). Females receptive to mating (in oestrus) also show a preference for musth bulls (Poole 1989). However, this does not mean that elephant bulls not in musth do not sire offspring. Opportunistic mating does occur, and non-musth bulls are responsible for a constant, low percentage of the paternity of calves (Hollister-Smith 2007, Rasmussen 2008). However, musth bulls will dominate mating opportunities, even those smaller than non-musth competitors and most conceptions will result from a bull in musth (Hollister-Smith 2007, Poole et al. 2013). When two musth bulls compete for access to females, body size generally determines dominance – tusk size does not seem to play a role (Poole 1989b). This suggests that large-tusked elephants are no more likely to be successful in sexual competition than a counterpart of similar age.
Thus, elephant bulls over the age of 30 rely on musth as their primary reproductive strategy. Older bulls with longer musth cycles will inevitably have more mating opportunities than younger individuals. Research indicates that the “median duration of musth increases from two days for males aged 16–25 years, to 13 days for males aged 26–35 years, to 52 days for males aged 36–40 years, to 69 days for males aged 41–45, to 81 days for males aged 46–50 years, and then declines again to 54 days for males aged 51–60 years of age” (Rasmussen 2008, Poole et al. 2013). Males over the age of 35 are generally only in musth once a year (Poole 2013). Elephant bulls up to 63 years old have been observed exhibiting musth, suggesting that for some individuals, at least, almost lifelong reproduction is possible.
To summarise: “The longer a male survives and the older he becomes, the more ‘successful’ he has the opportunity to be. Thus, a strong relationship exists between the number of years that a male has been seen to be in musth and the total number of conceptions that occurred during his musth periods” (Poole 2013).
An elephant bull in musth. Bulls over the age of 30 rely on musth as their primary reproductive strategy
Peaks, declines, and the contribution of younger males
In keeping with the above conclusion, research from Amboseli shows increasing reproductive success with increasing age (Hollister-Smith 2007). Genetic samples were taken from 89 adult male elephants and 279 calves and their mothers. Their analysis shows a gradual increase in reproductive success (measured by calves sired) from around 30 to a peak from 45 and 53 and then decline to around the same level of a male in his early 40s. The oldest elephant that sired a calf was 59 years old, and four males sired 14 calves between them in their 50s. The three oldest males (aged 48, 53 and 58) were responsible for 30% of the paternity in question.
In the study, males in their mid-20s sired calves, but this was an uncommon occurrence. However, males under the age of 35 fathered 29% of the calves. So, while males do produce more offspring in their later years, they have likely contributed to the genetics of a population before that. However, whether this contribution is sufficient to ensure the continuity of the large-tusked phenotype is scientifically uncertain and depends at least in part on the heredity of the trait (more on this below).
How old is that elephant?
Outside of known and extensively studied individuals, the most accurate way to age an elephant is to examine the condition of its molars. Naturally, this is difficult in the field and ageing an elephant by sight (particularly on foot) is inherently challenging. Experts rely on several physical features, including body condition (very old elephants have a gaunt appearance), posture and head shape.
A recent study from Kenya (Taylor et al. 2019) emphasised the importance of the effects of musth on elephant energy expenditure. Elephants in musth were found to walk faster and further than those not in an active reproductive state. This results in decreased feeding time, and in older bulls that maintain these musth cycles for months, the increased energy expenditure manifests as a significant loss of body condition (Poole 1989). As a result, when hunting an elephant, hunters could mistake a bull in musth for an older individual during a hunt.
Ageing an elephant by looking at the tusk size is also considered by experts to be problematic due to the considerable variation within individuals (Whyte and Hall-Martin 2014). While it is safe to assume that an elephant sporting large tusks is likely to be an older individual, whether or not they are within the “prime breeding” age bracket of between 45-49 is difficult to determine. Individual subjects of long-term studies whose ages are known, such as well-known tuskers Tim, Tolstoy and Satao (from Kenya) and Isilo (from South Africa), had substantial tusks well before their 50s. Given that tusk growth increases as the elephant ages, hunting young elephants before they exhibit signs of being a “tusker” may also result in the loss of large-tusk genetics.
A 100-pounder elephant bull felled by hunting in the CH8 concession in Botswana in July 2021
Heritability – the next big question?
It is apparent that tusk size is a heritable trait, but the extent of this heritability and its genetic basis are still not understood and likely to be complex. Recent genetic research on the elephants of Gorongosa identified some of the genes involved in tusk growth, including one linked to the X chromosome and one autosomal chromosome (Campbell-Staton et al., 2021). This research was based on exploring the phenomenon of tuskless elephants, and tusk size is probably determined by the effects of additional genes (and likely environmental factors). The dominant or recessive nature of the alleles (a variant form of a gene) will also affect physical manifestation of this trait.
The significance of this goes to the heart of the argument about whether or not large-tusked elephants killed over the age of fifty have contributed “sufficiently” to the genetics of a herd to preserve the large-tusk phenotype. Simply put, the more genes involved in producing large tusks, the smaller the chances of passing them along during one breeding event. Conversely, the more mating opportunities, the higher the chances of securing the future of large-tusk genetics in one or more offspring. (Of course, a corollary to this is that bulls with small tusks could still carry some alleles related to large tusk growth.)
Final thoughts
The vast majority of the available research on the reproductive lives of male savannah elephants comes from long-term research conducted in Kenya, in the greater Amboseli ecosystem in particular. Exactly how this applies to elephant populations in other ecosystems is a matter for further study.
However, it is clear from existing research that claims of elephants over the age of 50 being “past their prime” are demonstrably false. These animals are still capable of mating and producing calves with greater success than when they were in their 20s and 30s. Furthermore, hunting a bull elephant between the ages of 45 and 49 under the mistaken impression that he was older will result in the loss of his most reproductively successful years. The margin for error here is a narrow one and emphasises the need for caution in aging prospective trophy bulls.
The significance of an elephant’s prior contribution to the tusk sizes of future elephant generations depends at least in part on the genetic basis of tusk size – a factor that has not yet been scientifically clarified. Without this knowledge, it is difficult to know with any certainty whether or not a trophy hunted bull has been given “sufficient” opportunity to pass on his large-tusked legacy before he is killed. Statistically, the more conceptions he contributes to, the greater the chance of genetic perpetuation. Thus the ethical question at hand becomes one of risk – are we willing to take that chance with large-tusked elephants?
Further reading
Researchers say the large-tusked elephant is in decline, and should be protected from trophy hunting. Read more here.
Poole J. H., Mate guarding, reproductive success and female choice in African elephants, Animal Behaviour, 37 (1989b), 842-849
Poole J. H., Lee, P. C. & Moss, C. (2013) Longevity, competition and musth: a long-term perspective on male reproduction. Amboseli Elephants: a Long-term Perspective on a Long-lived Mammal (Ed. by C. Moss & H. Croze). Chicago: University of Chicago Press
There is little in the world that can match the atmosphere of the African wilderness at night. As the dark comes alive with the sound of nocturnal stirrings and the blaze of the Milky Way burns its way across the sky, there is nothing quite like spending a night in the open, stargazing. Of course, for some, the stony ground and clinging sleeping bag are part of the experience, but, for the rest, luxury sleepout options abound.
These days, most lodges are equipped with every modern convenience. This is not a bad thing, but it can undermine the allure of an escape into the wild. A night under the stars is the perfect remedy: a way to reset, unplug and connect with Africa in the most authentic way possible.
So, lie back, put your feet up and immerse yourself in the magic of the African night with our top 13 sleepout spots.
There is no better way to soak up the wildness of the African night, than with a night spent stargazing in the open, sounds of nocturnal activity echoing close by.
Skybeds,Khwai Private Reserve, Botswana: Northern Botswana is one of Africa’s most prolifically productive safari destinations, so a night spent in Skybeds overlooking the only permanent water source for miles around is guaranteed to be an adventure. Fall asleep to the sound of rumbling elephants, whooping hyenas and roaring lions, awakening to the savannah dawn’s crisp beauty.
Kanana Deck,Okavango Delta, Botswana: In the heart of the Okavango Delta, the Kanana Deck is what dreams are made of – quite literally. Unadorned yet comfortable, the Kanana Deck offers a safe way to experience the electrifying nightlife in one of the wildest spots in Africa.
Elephant Hide Star Bed at Kaingo Camp, Shenton Safaris, South Luangwa National Park, Zambia: The Luangwa River is the core of the entire Luangwa Valley ecosystem. The Elephant Hide Star Bed nestled in a jackalberry tree on its banks is perfectly positioned to take advantage of the action. With nothing separating you from the African night but the thin gauze of a mosquito net, the experience is vividly wild and soul-refreshing.
Skybeds in Khwai Private Reserve, the Elephant Hide Star Bed at Kaingo Camp in South Luangwa National Park, and the Kanana Deck in the Okavango Delta all make for a wild night in the open
For the purest desert stargazing experience
Southern African stargazing is legendary, and there is nowhere better to experience it than in a desert, where the night sky is bright, clear, and unobscured by city lights or tall trees.
Namib Dune Star Camp, Namib-Naukluft National Park, Namibia: Some of the best star bathing can be done in the austere Namib Desert. Namib Dune, an adventure camp, is perched on the top of ancient ochre dunes overlooking the majesty of the desert. Enjoy a sundowner on the deck and take in the view before wheeling the bed out onto the deck and snuggling into its warmth. Although the desert nights may be chilly, the cold only makes the blanket of stars more spectacular.
The Malori, Tswalu Kalahari Reserve, South Africa: Arrive as the setting sun begins to paint the Kalahari sands in shades of red, and choose your Nepenthe nectar of choice to drink in the arrival of the darkness. Then retire to sink into soft linens and drift off to sleep serenaded by barking geckos.
Namib Dune Star Camp in the Namib Desert, and The Malori in Tswalu Kalahari Reserve offer the best of desert nights
For extreme solitude and respite
Far from the madding crowd in the quiet of night is where pure peace can be found. For soaking up the vastness of space and the universe beyond, uncomplicated elegance and seclusion are best.
Meno a Kwena,Makgadikgadi Pans, Botswana: A comfy mattress, a lamp, and the vast expanse of the Makgadikgadi Pans stretching out in every direction without another soul for miles around? This is a sleepout at its purest – a no-frills embrace of the essence of this extraordinary piece of wilderness.
Uninterrupted contemplation awaits at Meno a Kwena in Makgadikgadi Pans
Africa on Foot Treehouse, Klaserie Private Nature Reserve, South Africa: How better to celebrate an already adventurous day on foot amongst the continent’s most iconic animals than with a well-earned night spent stargazing in the open air of the bushveld? Africa on Foot is removed from the crowds, and offers tranquillity and comfort to counterpoint days out exploring.
Meno a Kwena in Makgadikgadi Pans and Africa on Foot’s Treehouse in Klaserie Private Game Reserve are ideal destinations for solitude and seclusion under the night sky
For open-air luxury
Sleeping roofless does not mean compromising on quality and opulence. Comfort and leisure can still take priority when spending a night out in the open.
Tuludi Sky Suite, Khwai Private Reserve, Botswana: Simple, elegant, and tasteful, the Tuludi Sky Suite provides its visitors with every luxury while blending perfectly into its wild environment. Enjoy sitting next to the cosy fire as the creatures of the Okavango night come alive and embrace the dawn the following day with a refreshing open-air shower.
Starbed Treehouse at Victoria Falls River Lodge, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe: Rising on stilts above the mighty Zambezi River and nestled in the treeline of Kandahar Island, the Starbed Treehouses offer expansive views of magnificent surroundings. The double story treehouse provides all the comfort of a five-star luxury lodge, complete with a plunge pool, but it is the king-sized bed on the open upper deck that makes this stargazing experience truly extraordinary.
Starbed Treehouse at Victoria Falls River Lodge and the Tuludi Sky Suite in Khwai Private Reserve are luxurious alternatives for open-air sleeping.
For waking up to incredible views
Nothing beats the satisfaction of waking up to the first rays of the sun stretching out across the plains below, straight onto your duvet. Breathtaking night skies and even better morning views make for overwhelming magic.
Star bed, Samara Karoo Reserve, Karoo, South Africa: Samara’s star bed, perched on the Milk River, will take your breath away. From the comfort of your bed, you can watch as wildlife descends to the water to drink. Soak up views over the mountainous landscape, free of light and noise pollution, while marvelling at the Milky Way. Drift off to sleep in the warm bed, and wake up to the birdsong of the Karoo.
Samara’s star bed offers views over the spectacular Karoo
Loisaba Star Beds, Loisaba Conservancy, Laikipia, Kenya: Generally, the Milky Way steals the show on most African sleepouts, but, at Loisaba, it is the sunrise that is the showstopper. Even the latest habitual sleeper will be inspired to rise before dawn breaks to sip on a hot beverage and watch the sun slowly drench the rolling plains below in gold.
Star Bed, Busanga Plains Camp, Kafue National Park, Zambia: Not many can say they have spent the night in the open amidst the wetlands of Kafue National Park, where palm groves, papyrus-choked reed beds and lily-covered lagoons support an abundance of life. The jewel of Kafue, Busanga Plains hosts a lush mosaic of grassy seasonal floodplains stretching to the horizon. The Star Bed at Busanga Plains Camp is on a four-meter platform amidst the palms, overlooking the floodplains below. Wake up to a cacophony of magical sounds in this birding and wildlife paradise.
Ol Donyo Lodge, Chyulu Hills, Kenya: Hewn into the ancient lava rock that dominates the dramatically beautiful Chyulu Hills, the Ol Donyo Lodge is every bit at one with nature as it appears. Here, sleeping under the stars is simply viewed as an essential part of the safari experience, and every suite is equipped with a starbed on the upper level so that its visitors can use it at will. Unsurprisingly, many visitors spend every night of their visit embracing this stargazing opportunity.
Wake up to overwhelming views at Loisaba Star Beds in Loisaba Conservancy, Ol Donyo Lodge in Chyulu Hills and Busanga Plains Camp Star Bed in Kafue National Park
Want to plan your safari? Get in touch with our travel team to start the discussion.
Kruger is known to many as ‘the greatest place on earth’, and I’m delighted I’ll be getting my own fix in the north of the park in just two weeks’ time. (And you can too – check out our discounted rates on some epic Kruger lodges here).
As one of the most robust conservation areas in South Africa, the land encompassing Kruger National Park and Greater Kruger is home to South Africa’s greatest wildlife populations. The APNR, a collection of reserves in Greater Kruger, provides an essential tract of land for Kruger’s animals to roam. Monitoring these populations helps preserve the integrity of this important ecosystem. We delve into the latest APNR census results to highlight the fascinating ebb and flow of nature – see our first story below.
This week we also celebrate the most hardy and entertaining of animals: the magnificent hippopotamus. Jamie shares some personal encounters with the powerful and speedy beasts, and some intriguing facts shedding light on these mysterious semi-aquatic creatures. These pics and insights are guaranteed to bring lightness to your being. Check out our second story.
Happy indulging in Africa to you all!
Taryn van Jaarsveld — Editor
From our Scientific Editor – Jamie Paterson
The phrase “illegal wildlife trade” immediately brings to mind things like rhino horn, ivory, pangolin scales and lion bones. But did you know that parrots are one of the most trafficked animal families in the world? Their popularity in the pet trade (along with extensive habitat loss) has meant that 60% of Earth’s Psittaciformes (parrot) species are in decline.
Take the African grey parrot, for example. They are currently listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List and, prior to their inclusion on Appendix I of CITES in 2017, were trapped in their thousands to supply the pet trade. Fortunately, there are those dedicated to protecting remaining wild populations. Dr Rowan Martin has shared updates on the work of the World Parrot Trust on our forum. To check out the post, download our app (details below). You can also seamlessly donate to the project to support their significant contribution to parrot conservation!
Desert & delta This iconic and ever-popular 11-day safari is about water – or the lack thereof. We visit Victoria Falls, Okavango Delta, Chobe and the desolate Botswana salt pans in our quest to understand how water defines southern Africa’s wild places. Options for all budgets. And we can tailor the duration to suit you – drop this, add that …
And now for something completely different
Look away if your ideal safari is in the comfort zone because this is not your average vanilla-flavoured outing! Search for lowland gorillas, bongos, dwarf crocodiles, forest elephants and flocks of grey parrots in the dense forests of Congo in this one-of-a-kind, life-changing adventure.
“Thanks to a donation received from AG’s app subscribers, Project Luangwa was able to provide 15 new desks to Yosefe Secondary School in Zambia, helping to provide a proper workspace for Grade 1 pupils who had up until recently been sitting on the floor in class. As class sizes continue to rise, we can often see 4 or 5 students crammed onto one small desk. Rural schools in the country face many challenges.”
WATCH: Anatolian shepherd dogs play an important role in alleviating human-wildlife conflict between livestock farmers and predators in Namibia. Meet Captain, a guard dog who dutifully watches over and protects his herds morning, noon and night (03:15). Click here to watch
It was just before the arrival of the rains in the South African Lowveld, when the heat seems relentless. We had come across a solitary bull hippopotamus, squeezed into a tiny patch of remaining mud, the skin on his back cracked and dry. I parked the safari vehicle at a comfortable distance, observing his body language for any signs of upset, as hippos are understandably grumpy at the height of the dry season. But he could have been dead for all the movement he showed – only the slight twitches of his ears gave him away as he snoozed.
We sat for a while, contemplating the harshness of nature before I did something unfortunate. It was blazing hot, and there was not a single patch of shade. And so, I pulled out a spray-on sunscreen. Without thinking, I depressed the nozzle, and all hell broke loose…
With a sound akin to the unblocking of the world’s largest toilet, the bull extracted himself from the mud wallow and launched himself at us, mouth agape and enormous tusks front and centre. In the time it took me to start the car and throw it into reverse, he had covered the significant distance between us and was almost level with my door. I had a brief but unfortunate view of the back of his throat before I hurtled backwards up a steep slope. The bull pulled up short and shot me a rightfully affronted look. I suspect, had he been able to talk, he would have muttered some very unflattering words. To say I was decidedly rattled, deeply regretful and suitably chastened would be an understatement.
That night, the heat broke, the heavens opened, and summer rolled in on thick cumulus clouds. The bull hippo was gone the next day.
Quick introduction
I have had many other hippopotamus sightings, which have been more interesting or even more dangerous than the sunscreen incident (we were, after all, in a car and able to move away). Yet that moment still stands out in my mind as the most spectacular display of power from a hippopotamus I have witnessed – for the sheer speed with which the two-tonne bull went from dozing to full-on gallop.
As one of the largest land mammals in the world and distributed across most of sub-Saharan Africa’s waterways, the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) probably needs little in the way of introduction. These semiaquatic behemoths prefer to spend the vast majority of their days (sometimes 16 hours or more) in the water, emerging at night or on cloudy days to graze. Despite this hydrophilic existence, hippos are surprisingly poor swimmers. They prefer to wallow in the shallows where they can stand on the river floor and move through the water by trotting or leaping along the bottom. Their dense bones confer a high specific gravity which allows them to counteract the buoyancy of the water – but this also means they cannot float.
Their specially designed skulls align the ears, eyes and nostrils on the top of the head, so these sensory organs can protrude above the surface while the hippo remains otherwise submerged. When submerged entirely, the muscles around the ears and nostrils constrict and fold to seal off to keep the water out. A hippo can hold its breath for around five minutes due to a slowed metabolism but must regularly emerge to replenish its oxygen supplies.
Though this aquatic existence confers several advantages, there is one significant trade-off: a hippo’s skin is extremely sensitive to the sun. Most people by now are familiar with the hippo’s “blood sweat” – a pinkish substance secreted onto the skin that is not blood at all but rather a specialised sunscreen. The two pigments – hipposudoric acid and norhipposudoric acid – also have antimicrobial properties to help guard the skin against infection.
Hippos’ specially designed skulls allow for sensory organs to protrude above the surface; hippos spend time grazing in the evenings or in overcast weather; male territoriality does not extend to foraging beyond the water; their dense bones allow them to counteract the buoyancy of the water; hippopotamus’s skin is extremely sensitive to the sun
Quick facts
Mass:
Males: average 1, 500kg (up to over 3,000kg)
Females: average 1,300kg
Shoulder height:
1.30 – 1. 65m
Social structure:
Territorial males and pods of females and offspring
Gestation:
243 days (eight months)
Life expectancy:
Up to 40 years
Conservation status:
Vulnerable
Like a fish to water
The hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibious) is one of two living members of the Hippopotamidae family. The second member is the endangered pygmy hippopotamus (Choeropsis liberiensis), native to the forests and swamps of West Africa. Several extinct members of the Hippopotamidae, some almost identical to the present-day species, once dominated the river systems across Europe and Asia (including the River Thames!). There were also at least three species of Malagasy hippos, one of which only went extinct roughly 1,000 years ago, which coincides with the arrival of humans on the island.
Endangered pygmy hippos are native to West Africa
The hippopotamids’ closest relatives are the cetaceans – whales and dolphins. The two groups likely split from the other artiodactyls (like ruminants) around 60 million years ago and then diverged from a common semiaquatic ancestor some six million years later. The cetaceans eventually evolved to become fully aquatic, while the hippopotamids remained dependent on access to land.
Two (or more) hippos in a pod
Compared to other large land-dwelling mammals in Africa, the social interactions between hippos are challenging to study – even distinguishing young males from females is impossible when only their heads are visible. As a result, it is highly likely that there are nuances to their behaviours and social structures yet to be unravelled.
What we do know is that when water and space are plentiful, hippos form small associations of up to 15 or more individuals, known as schools, pods or, somewhat facetiously, bloats. These family groups typically consist of a territorial bull, cows, and their offspring, and mother-daughter bonds are deep-seated and may persist over a lifetime. Young males may be tolerated around the dominant bull, provided they behave submissively around him. They will often gather in small bachelor groups before eventually striking out on their own to claim a territory when they are around seven to eight years old.
Hippos do not adopt a social approach for nocturnal feeding forays, and most prefer a night of solitary snacking (where they may consume over 50kgs of grass in an evening). Interestingly, the territoriality of the bulls does not seem to extend to their land-based life, and researchers now believe that the middens are not territorial as previously thought. Male territoriality revolves around mating rights, so the region he defends in the water and along the riverbank may vary and does not extend to foraging beyond the river.
When space is at a premium (such as during the dry season when available water is limited), hippos may pack together in their hundreds. Still, they do so with seemingly great reluctance, and fights are a regular occurrence.
Frolicking hippos
Hippos may breed throughout the year, though there is usually a peak in calving during the wet season. Mating usually takes place in the water, and the female is forced to snatch quick gasps of air before the male dunks her back under the surface. Conception is followed by an eight-month gestation and the birth of a calf that may weigh up to 50kg. (It is worth considering how short this gestation period is compared to other mammals. In terms of size comparison, both rhino species give birth to calves of a similar size but their gestation period is almost double that of a hippopotamus. Even humans have a longer gestation.)
Social interactions between hippos are challenging to study; as the calf grows, it becomes more confident and playful; hippo mothers are highly protective of their young; hippos in their hundreds crowd into the last remaining waters during the dry season in Katavi National Park, Tanzania; hippos form small associations of up to 15 or more individuals. For more images from Danielle Carstens, follow @dcwildlifephotography
The hippo mother gives birth on her own in a quiet pool of water, and the calf instinctively strikes out for the surface immediately. The pair remain isolated until the enchanting little calf is old enough to be introduced to the rest of the pod at around a month old. As the calf grows, it becomes more confident and playful, often engaging in wrestling matches with other calves of a similar age.
Hippopotamus mothers are highly protective of their young, and hippo calves have few natural predators – generally, only lions and large spotted hyena clans attempt to hunt them. Even the massive crocodiles that share the rivers and pools are reluctant to attract maternal ire. However, one aspect of hippo behaviour that often shocks witnesses is the rare instances of infanticide. This is typically committed by the dominant bull during a territorial disruption or in times of stress, and the mother is seldom able to prevent it.
Speaking hippo
Naturally, visual communication between individuals is inevitably reasonably limited in the murky underwater environment. As a result, much hippo communication is vocal, with a laugh-like grunt being perhaps the most well-known of their vocal repertoire. However, few people realise that aside from the above surface grunts, roars, bellows and shrieks, hippos also communicate underwater. Studies show that up to 80% of hippo vocalisations are made below the surface. Some of these sub-aquatic songs are very similar to the high-pitched calls produced by whales.
A hippo can open its mouth to almost 180 degrees
Visually, the famously wide yawn is perhaps the hippo’s most notorious body language cue. The joint of the jaw is situated far back in the skull, and the orbicularis oris (the muscle we all have around our mouths) is folded in such a way in the hippo that, at full stretch, it can open its mouth almost 180 degrees. This serves to reveal an intimidating set of tusks, particularly in adult males, and should usually be interpreted as a threat display. The lower canine tusks curve upwards and can grow over 50cm in length, while the lower incisors present a forward-facing barrier of spears. The tusks are used as offensive weapons, predominantly when two bulls fight.
Fights between territorial males become more common when available water starts to shrink during the dry season. These clashes can be ferocious and fatal if one party does not back down. The vanished bull is sent packing, which, when water is scarce, can be a death sentence in the hot sun due to their sensitive skins.
The most dangerous animal in Africa?
These fearsome tusks are feared by all who encounter them, including people. The hippo is often touted as “Africa’s most dangerous animal” and the one that “kills the most people on the continent”. Both of these statements are distinctly unfair and demonstrably false. For a start (though admittedly somewhat pedantically), malaria-spreading Anopheles mosquitoes are also animals and indirectly kill up to half a million people every year. Furthermore, crocodiles likely kill just as many, if not more, people as hippos, but the bodies are frequently not found, and the victim disappears without a trace.
That said, hippos do earn their dangerous reputation. They can be aggressive and are massive, well-armed animals capable of doing significant harm. And unless you happen to be Usain Bolt, they can outrun you. Yet even this needs to be considered in context. Hippos are aquatic animals, and humans are dependent (and more populous) around water. Hippos feel safest in the water and are unlikely to bother people when fully submerged. It is when people come between them and their place of safety (or a calf) or, like my bull, during the dry season when space is at a premium, that they are most likely to attack. Staying out of their way is the best course of action. However, unfortunately, this is simply not possible for many people dependent on the river systems and living without running water.
Their speed has earned them a reputation for danger
Caught up in the tide
Of course, as dangerous as hippos can be to people, mankind too has wrought destruction on their species, and they now occupy just a fraction of their historical range. At present, the IUCN estimates there are somewhere between 115,000 and 130,000 Hippopotamus amphibius in Africa and lists their conservation status as “Vulnerable”. Though the assessors have listed the overall population trend as stable rather than decreasing, there are still many parts of Africa where hippo numbers have declined precipitously. Their close relative, the pygmy hippopotamus, is listed as “Endangered”, and there are believed to be fewer than 2,500 remaining.
The main threats facing the hippopotamids are habitat loss (as is the case for all large African mammals) and poaching for their tusks, valued in the ivory trade. They are also frequently victims of bushmeat poaching.
Yet, like other large mammals such as elephants and rhinos, hippos are important ecosystem engineers. The copious amounts of dung flung into the water by their swishing tails (much to tourist delight) provides nutrients to the many aquatic species that inhabit the waterways of Africa. Furthermore, their movement through channels and along the riverbed helps prevent a build-up of silt and moribund material, improving the river’s flow.
The greatest of beasts
When watched from a safe and comfortable distance, hippos are fascinating and delightful animals. They are also powerful, speedy and deserving of absolute respect. From the charming little calves and placid cows to playful adolescents and awe-inspiring bulls, there is something profoundly intriguing about the knowledge that we still have so much to learn…
Buffalo seen from the air in Timbavati Private Nature Reserve
Recently, five private reserves that form the Associated Private Nature Reserves (APNR) in South Africa – a vital part of the Greater Kruger ecosystem – provided Africa Geographic with the data from their 2021 population censuses. We have sifted through this APNR census information to highlight the fascinating ebb and flow of nature and how reserve managers have to balance this against anthropogenic stressors to preserve the integrity of the ecosystem.
To do this, we start by looking at some of the key points from our analysis and provide important context for interpreting the results before breaking down the population trends for certain important species and families. [Editorial note: Due to security concerns, rhino trends and numbers have been omitted.]
INTERPRETING IN CONTEXT
Wildlife counts are invaluable for reserve management teams but cannot be viewed in isolation. CONTEXT IS EVERYTHING, and while each member of the APNR conducts their own census every year (resources allowing), it is a connected ecosystem. Ideally, these population censuses should be interpreted in combination with those of the Kruger National Park because they share an unfenced ecosystem. This is particularly true for animals with massive home ranges like elephants, buffalo, and wild dogs.
The counts have the potential to be meaningless without context and informed interpretation. Once the numbers are known, the real work begins for ecologists and managers – sorting through what is or isn’t important or relevant (or even natural) and finding explanations for anomalies.
Interpretation involves consideration of many different aspects, including climate (rainfall in particular), increased land area (the addition of Thornybush Game Reserve to the APNR in 2018, for example) and the impact of other species.
It is important to note specific correlations as the overabundance or scarcity of key species can significantly impact both the environment and other species.
No count is ever 100% accurate and only provides a snapshot in time, so analysing trends is essential.
This is not to say that individual results are insignificant. Local precipitous declines or overpopulations can indicate a serious problem that may not always have a natural or apparent cause.
THE ASSOCIATED PRIVATE NATURE RESERVES (APNR) – BACKGROUND
The 197,885 ha APNR is an association of privately owned reserves on the western edge of the Kruger National Park. Initially, the APNR consisted of just three reserves: Timbavati Private Nature Reserve (53,395 ha), Klaserie Private Nature Reserve (60,080 ha), and Umbabat Private Nature Reserve (17,910 ha). These three reserves removed their fences bordering the Kruger National Park in 1993. Balule Private Nature Reserve (55,000 ha) joined the association just over a decade later, and the fences between Balule and Klaserie dropped in 2005. Thornybush Game Reserve (13,866 ha) became the fifth reserve to join when the fences between Thornybush, Klaserie and Timbavati were removed in 2018.
The combined APNR comprises nearly two-thirds of the entire Greater Kruger – 344,000 hectares (860,000 acres) of protected land to the west of Kruger National Park that provides a more substantial area for wildlife to roam freely. Other members of the Greater Kruger include the Sabi Sand Reserve, Manyeleti Game Reserve, Letaba Ranch Game Reserve, and Makuya Nature Reserve. Land use varies from private leisure to photographic tourism and trophy hunting on some properties. For those reserves that conduct hunting, wildlife censuses are necessary to set appropriate quotas each year.
A WORD ON COUNTING
Counting wild animals is an enormous and costly exercise that requires that adaptive techniques for each species be balanced against the economic and logistical realities of each reserve. The APNR alone is roughly the size of Mauritius. The vast majority of the counts are conducted by air, with counters, spotters and data recorders spending days hanging out of a helicopter or plane. These are highly skilled individuals capable of not only spotting the animals but also often able to provide a breakdown of the demographics (males, females, and juveniles) of every animal seen. The counts are conducted towards the end of the dry season when vegetation cover is minimal, and the animals are more visible.
Larger animals like elephants and buffalo are generally easier to count (and fewer in number than, say, impala), so population estimates tend to be more accurate. Large herds (like breeding herds of buffalo) can be photographed, and these high-resolution images can then be used to count individuals. Though all animals spotted from the air are recorded in each census, common sense plays a role in interpretation. For example, a sighting of only one lion in Thornybush’s 2021 aerial count does not mean that there is only one lion on the reserve.
Furthermore, though predators are often spotted from the air, aerial counts do not provide accurate population estimates, particularly for cryptic animals like leopards and some smaller carnivore species. As a result, some reserves use camera traps and sightings information and conduct call-ups for their predator census. A call-up count involves placing bait and playing the sound of a prey species in distress over a speaker. The sound generally attracts the lions, spotted hyenas, and the occasional leopard and smaller carnivore. Wild dogs (painted wolves) and cheetahs are less likely to respond, even during the day and alternative methods have to be implemented if a population estimate is required. These predators also have large home ranges and regularly move in and out of reserves.
Predator populations are fluid and dynamic, fluctuating depending upon a variety of circumstances, including both inter- and intraspecific competition.
The majority of census counts are conducted by air, with counters, spotters and data recorders spending days in helicopters or planes
TRENDS AND THE 2016 DROUGHT IN GREATER KRUGER
The idea of a “stable” population is somewhat misleading, as there is no such thing in nature and, in reality, long-term wildlife populations fluctuate, ideally within a sustainable range. This range is determined by the carrying capacity of the reserve, dictated by geography, climate and flora of the landscape. Even when a once-off disaster (a disease outbreak or drought) causes a more dramatic decline in numbers, the species concerned often recover, provided their previous numbers were sufficiently robust.
The ebb and flow is evident throughout the data from all five reserves, especially concerning buffalo numbers during and after the 2015/2016 drought. Though the number of buffalo dropped substantially during the drought period, it is important to note that this is largely accounted for by the movement of buffalo herds to more favourable habitats to the east (in the Kruger National Park). Trends such as these emphasise the importance of large connected habitats. The 2016 drought was the first drought experienced since the removal of fences between the APNR and the Kruger National Park. This, in turn, allowed for greater ecological resilience in the face of extreme conditions.
Even as rainfall levels increased in later years, the return of the buffalo and the recovery of other ungulate numbers were by no means instantaneous, and lag effects were to be expected. What’s more, knock-on effects were experienced in other, less obvious ways. For example, deprived of buffalo, resident lions would have been forced to rely more heavily on other species for sustenance. There is also a seasonal change in prey species selection, with more wildebeest killed by lions during the wet season and weakened buffalo targeted during the dry season.
Entire APNR – Elephant numbers in the APNR have gradually increased since 2004, when the population stood at around 1,038. The population peaked in 2018 (3,297). In 2021, the total count from all five reserves was 3,144 elephants.
Balule – Balule has seen the most significant increase in elephants utilising the property over the past four years – 86%. 1,053 elephants were counted in 2021, representing the highest population (and density) of the five reserves. The demographics of the elephants entering Balule have also gradually changed since the reserve opened to the rest of the APNR in 2004. Initially, young males dominated, but today, breeding herds and calves are firmly in the majority.
Klaserie – 718 elephants were counted in 2021, increasing 62% since 2017.
Timbavati – 875 elephants were counted in 2021, compared to the 465 in 2017 (a nearly two-fold increase).
Thornybush – When Thornybush dropped its fences in 2018, the number of elephants in the reserve shot up from just over 50 individuals to 349. The population peaked at 770 before decreasing to 368 again in 2021. This increase and then decrease could be explained by the after-effects of the drought and the return of good rains in subsequent years. The dense, nutritious habitats that dominate much of Thornybush were more attractive to elephants until the flora in other regions recovered, resulting in some of the herds dispersing.
Umbabat – 130 elephants were counted in 2021. However, Umbabat elephant counts have varied considerably over the past four years, possibly explained by its relatively smaller size and close proximity to the Kruger National Park.
APNR’s elephant population peaked in 2018 at 3,297/ In 2021, the total count was 3,144 elephants
BUFFALO
Buffalo counts are highly variable due to the nature and movements of buffalo herds
Entire APNR – During (and almost exclusively due to) the 2015/2016 drought, the APNR buffalo population dropped from 7,291 to 2,251 in just two years. However, numbers have been slowly increasing with a couple of years’ worth of good rains, and the 2021 count stands at 3,725. Individual counts from the various APNR reserves are highly variable due to the nature of buffalo herds and the “snapshot” of the count. A breeding herd of over 500 may decide to leave the property the day before a count or arrive a day after. This is one area where an overall trend is more revealing.
With good rains over the past few years, buffalo numbers have been slowly increasing
PREDATORS
LION AND SPOTTED HYENA
Balule – Balule has experienced substantial growth in its lion population over the last decade. However, the verified numbers from the 2020 and 2021 censuses indicate a stabilisation and a minor decline, from 137 to 124 individuals. Curiously, Balule’s lion population has been nearly double that of neighbouring Klaserie and Timbavati in recent years. This could be partly explained by high prey biomass, but of particular interest is the high proportion of mature and young males in Balule compared to “normally” observed demographics. The managers theorise that may be due to the reserve’s geographical location. Young dispersal males may be pushed continually further west until they reach Balule, which marks the western boundary of this section of the Kruger ecosystem, where they can go no further without breaking out of the protection of the reserve. However, this leaves unanswered questions about Klaserie as the immediate neighbour to the east (see below).
Typically, high lion densities are associated with lower spotted hyena numbers, but this is not the case in Balule. 96 individual spotted hyenas were identified during the 2021 predator census, suggesting that spotted hyena densities in Balule are roughly on par with the surrounding reserves.
Klaserie – Klaserie’s call-up predator census in 2021 yielded a count of just 18 lions, compared to around 40 and 50 in 2020 and 2019, respectively. Naturally, this does not represent the reserve’s total lion population. However, this is a significant drop from previous years, and the call-up counts of 2021 were dominated by spotted hyena responses (80%). 141 spotted hyenas were counted in the 2021 census, compared to just under 80 the previous year. Lions and spotted hyenas are in direct competition, and a rise in hyena numbers could account for lower-than-expected lion populations.
Timbavati – According to the reserve ecologists, Timbavati has a population of between 55-60 lions which is in line with the long-term trend of the reserve.
Thornybush – The current resident lion population on Thornybush numbers 26 individuals. Reserve authorities estimate between 25 and 30 spotted hyenas.
Umbabat – The lion population was estimated at around 12 to 16 individuals, belonging to between two and three prides. The hyena numbers are believed to be approximately 50 to 60, and reports suggest that the population is growing.
Typically, high lion densities are associated with lower spotted hyena numbers, but the most recent census data in the private nature reserves around Kruger show surprising results
LEOPARDS
Entire APNR – Leopards are notoriously difficult animals to count, and those that do respond to call-ups are not representative of the total population. Klaserie and Umbabat anecdotally report healthy populations of leopards. The most robust data comes from Balule and Timbavati.
Balule – The Balule predator census combined call-up results with sightings data and camera trap images. The identification of individuals helped in this process, and Balule confidently estimates the number of leopards at around 76.
Timbavati – Timbavati has been conducting surveys of their leopard population since 2013 (except for 2020 due to COVID). In conjunction with the South African Leopard Monitoring Project (a cooperative effort between the NGO Panthera, SANBI and other partners), camera trap surveys have provided reliable long-term trends for the reserve. The reserve leopard monitoring reports note a significant drop in leopard densities in 2019. While the 2021 data records a slight increase, there has still been a concerning decline of 50% between 2018 to 2021. It is important to note that this decline refers to leopard densities, measured in the number of leopards per 100km2. Interestingly, the number of adult males and females has remained consistent between 2019 to 2021, but the number of young males appears to have decreased. The report offers a couple of suggested explanations for this, including lion movements, but emphasises the importance of long-term trend monitoring to inform management practices.
Leopards are difficult to count, and tallies are not necessarily representative of the total population
WILD DOGS
Entire APNR – Wild dogs utilise enormous home ranges except when packs are denning, before the pups can keep up. A pack counted on Balule one day could easily turn up on a neighbouring property the next day. As such, precision counting is next to impossible. Nevertheless, anecdotal evidence suggests that the APNR wild dog population is healthy and possibly even growing.
Balule – 22 wild dogs were recorded in Balule: three packs of five and one pack of seven individuals.
Klaserie – Reserve authorities report that wild dog populations have flourished in Klaserie in recent years, possibly due to water abundance, favouring impala population growth. The single largest pack size recorded on the reserve was 50 individuals!
Thornybush – At the time of writing, two packs regularly use Thornybush. One pack of six individuals is currently denning on the reserve.
Umbabat – Wild dog sightings are regularly reported in Umbabat, with pack sizes varying from eight to 30 individuals.
GIRAFFE
Entire APNR – Giraffe numbers in the APNR peaked at 1,127 in 2018 and have since remained stable when all five reserves are considered as a unit.
Giraffe numbers have remained stable
BLUE WILDEBEEST, KUDU, IMPALA, WATERBUCK AND WARTHOG
Entire APNR – Balule has recorded a significant decline in blue wildebeest (-57%), kudu (-44%), impala (-37%), waterbuck (-54%) and warthog (-63%) from 2018 until 2021. Population peaks and troughs have probably occurred naturally for millennia (especially before and after a drought). However, it is interesting that the same trend is not entirely mirrored in the counts from other APNR members. Where declines in the other reserves occurred over the same period, as was the case for impala, kudu and wildebeest numbers, the drop in populations was not nearly as substantial. The only comparable drop was seen in warthog numbers in Klaserie, which also decreased 61% (from 236 to 91) between 2018 and 2021. Waterbuck numbers increased in Klaserie and Thornybush, and kudu numbers nearly doubled in Umbabat.
Determining an exact explanation for this trend is just one example of the challenges that face those managing these wild spaces. Was it caused by increasing vegetation thickness making counting challenging? Could it be attributed to Balule’s comparatively high lion, hyena, and elephant densities? Is it just part of a natural cycle, or is there another, unseen explanation?
A summation of the entire APNR’s wildebeest, kudu, waterbuck and warthog numbers, and impala numbers
OTHER NOTEWORTHY POINTS
Balule’s census indicates a concerning drop in crocodiles counted, down from over 120 in some years to just 30 individuals. The authors of the census report suggest that this warrants further investigation. In addition, comparing counts in the Kruger National Park would be interesting, as the Olifants River flows west through Balule and into the Kruger. It may be a counting artefact but could also indicate a problem with the health of the river ecosystem.
FINAL THOUGHTS
Counting animals comes with challenges (and strained eyes), but analysing the data is a far more cerebral and long-term exercise. Wildlife counts are vital to understanding any wilderness and significantly impact management decisions. Accurate population estimates and trends aid short-term and long-term decisions (like waterholes or hunting quotes, for example) and identify potential problems while there is still a chance to remedy them. However, an overarching perspective is often invaluable in the case of connected ecosystems – be it the APNR, the Kruger ecosystem, conservancies in East Africa or Transfrontier conservation areas.
What do you think about the ebb and flow of various species numbers in the APNR? We’d love to hear your thoughts. Follow the instructions below to download our APP and share your comments – it’s free!
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