Another year largely defined by the COVID-19 pandemic bombarded us with negative stories. For the world’s tallest mammal, however, 2021 will end on a relatively positive note. Giraffe are still in trouble and they need our urgent help – but numbers are showing a positive upward trend. The Giraffe Conservation Foundation’s (GCF) latest estimate, based on numbers collated from all over Africa, stands at just over 117,000 individuals in the wild.
While this is still a precariously low number – particularly when compared with African elephant (there is only one giraffe for every three to four elephant) – we can see encouraging signs.
In 2016, giraffe, as a single species, were categorised as ‘Vulnerable’ by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) Red List. Now, with the new taxonomic classification of four distinct species, we can better define the conservation status of each species and understand the diverse challenges they face in Africa.
The good news is that overall giraffe numbers are on the rise. The conservation efforts of GCF and many partners appear to be showing success. Estimated at a total of 97,562 individuals in 2015, our 2020 review shows a 20% growth to 117,173 individuals in the wild today. Most importantly, these numbers are increasing across all of the recently defined four species. This is the first time that such trends have been reported in recent history. The following is a brief overview of GCF’s findings.
Northern giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis)
Consisting of three subspecies – Kordofan (G. camelopardalis antiquorum), Nubian (G. c. camelopardalis) and West African (G. c. peralta) giraffe – northern giraffe remain distributed in small, fragmented populations across East, Central and West Africa. It is important to note that the formerly recognised Rothschild’s is genetically indistinguishable from the Nubian variety, and has, therefore, been subsumed into this subspecies. While numbers remain precariously low, their increasing population is positive, particularly in Chad, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Niger.
Native: Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Niger, South Sudan, Uganda
Northern giraffe
Masai giraffe (Giraffa tippelskirchi)
Masai giraffe are now the second most populous taxon with a widespread distribution throughout East Africa, including large parts of southern Kenya and central and northern Tanzania. A small, possibly extra-limital (introduced and therefore out of the historical range) population also exists in the Akagera National Park, Rwanda. Note that the Luangwa variety(G. t. thornicrofti) is a subspecies of the Masai species, and as such this species’ range extends throughout parts of the Luangwa Valley in north-eastern Zambia. The increasing number of Masai giraffe is a very positive trend, which can be attributed to a combination of improved and targeted surveys, and localised successful conservation interventions.
2015: 31,611
2020: 45,402 (increased by 44%)
Proposed conservation status: Vulnerable
Country occurrence:
Native: Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia
(Re-)Introduced: Rwanda
Masai giraffe
Reticulated giraffe (Giraffa reticulata)
Historically, it is likely that reticulated giraffe had a relatively limited distribution in northern Kenya, southern Somalia, and southern Ethiopia. Today, their numbers and range in Ethiopia and Somalia remain essentially unknown. Kenya, especially outside of formerly protected areas in the northern Kenyan rangelands and the Laikipia Plateau, remains their stronghold. In 2015, the first-ever IUCN Red List assessment for reticulated giraffe underestimated their total number, which was subsequently amended. As such, the large increase can be attributed to more accurate survey data rather than substantial population growth. Additional targeted surveys are required to better assess the status of the reticulated species in the wild.
2015: 8,661
2020: 15,985 (increased by 85%)
Proposed conservation status: Endangered
Country occurrence:
Native: Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia
Reticulated giraffe
Southern giraffe (Giraffa giraffa)
Consisting of two subspecies – Angolan (G. g. angolensis) and South African (G. g. giraffa) – the southern species is now the most abundant. They are distributed throughout most parts of Southern Africa and more widely through extra-limital introductions. During the early 20th-century, southern populations were decimated, but over the past few decades, they have recovered. Increasing habitat in protected areas and swathes of private and communal land combined with intensive management and translocations may not only have helped to increase their numbers but have also potentially resulted in hybridisation of the two subspecies. This may threaten their genetic distinctness (biodiversity). Targeted conservation science is needed to better understand the impact of the hybridisation.
This reduction in numbers is based on a combination of better counting, a better understanding of hybridisation and natural predation. Most major and important Southern giraffe populations are stable or increasing – except for Zimbabwe but that is a very complicated case that we are trying to understand better. It is linked to a significant increase in the lion population which has a devastating impact on giraffe.
Extra-limital: Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria, Senegal
Southern giraffe
About the Giraffe Conservation Foundation
The GCF is the only organisation in the world that concentrates solely on the conservation and management of giraffe in the wild. GCF currently implements and/or supports conservation efforts in 16 African countries. Their work has an impact on over 400,000 km2 (100 million acres) of habitat.
Resources
To donate or support the GCF’s work, visit their club page in the Africa Geographic app
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Early morning, and first light is barely breaching the heavy mist that hangs over us like a cold, wet blanket and mutes the first attempts at an avian dawn chorus. This is the Mountains of the Moon, where DRC & Uganda meet and legends are born. I sip my mug of heavily-gingered milk tea and quietly discuss our plans for the day with my trusted friend and fixer Benson Bamatura (sadly now deceased). Our objective is simple – find and photograph a bird that has never before been photographed in the wild (aside from a few fortuitously netted during biodiversity research). Shelley’s crimsonwing Cryptospiza shelleyi – a rare endemic to the dense highland forests of the Albertine Rift – mountain gorilla territory.
We never found the stunning forest finch, despite six visits to parts of its mountainous paradise and operating a two-year netting programme in collaboration with the Ugandan authorities. Subsequent attempts to plan another personal sojourn into southern DRC to find this feathered jewel were stymied by unrest and then Corona. Unfinished business.
I mention this because right now, we all need to hang on to our dreams and trust that this crisis shall pass. Keep believing, dreaming and planning. See you in Africa – soon.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Scientific Editor
I have a particular fondness for the meaning and etymology of scientific names, something that the eagle-eyed among you may have picked up as a common theme in many of my articles.
I love that some convey a wealth of information or provide a snapshot of history. Others are either unintentionally funny or a sly wink (or wonderfully childish humour) from the scientist describing the species. Our fact of the week is one of my favourites -the memory of a somewhat ridiculous misconception of nightjar feeding habits now forever branded into ecological history.
I am always on the lookout for fascinating or humorous additions to my list of scientific name gems, so feel free to send some suggestions by joining the club and commenting below!
From our Editor-in-Chief
This will be my final ramble in the editor’s chair at Africa Geographic. It is time for me to detach myself from my desk and (hopefully) head back out into the wilderness. Obviously, this is a privilege many of us wish for in the year to come – along with wisdom from our so-called leaders. Thankfully I live in a country blessed with an astounding natural and cultural diversity so even if crossing borders is difficult, I can find solace in South Africa’s mountains, oceans and wild lands. Smiles will come from her resilient, beautiful people.
Next week, South Africa’s major inland centres will disgorge large proportions of their residents to the Western and Eastern Cape provinces. Cars full of dazed adults, their over-sugared offspring and mounds of paraphernalia they’ll never use, will travel the major arteries. Most will head for sleepy coastal villages but others will explore the wildlife in these gorgeous provinces. As our first story below explains, a Cape safari is a brilliant, malaria-free alternative to the more traditional Southern African safari destinations.
In our second story below, we explore yet more of the fascinating social goings-on in a hyena clan. This time researchers have discovered that young hyenas inherit their mothers’ social networks in much the same way as humans (and other primates) inherit the social networks their families fit into.
That’s it from me. It has been a privilege to talk to you every week over the last 11 months. With any luck, you’ll be able to read stories from me in the AG club in the not-too-distant future. Perhaps we’ll meet again over a tipple as the last embers of the day fade at some magical spot in the African wild. Until then, stay safe and please come to Africa as soon as you are able – she needs you and your soul needs her!
• Covid update: Analysts at JPMorgan have asserted that early data points to a more contagious but less severe Omicron – which would crowd out other severe variants and speed up the end of the pandemic
• United Airlines has resumed its 3 x weekly non-stop flights between its New York/Newark hub and Cape Town
Any reference to South Africa’s Cape region is almost guaranteed to bring to mind the famous mountains, glorious coastlines, and spectacular seaside scenery (also wine for the oenophiles). Yet inland from the sandy beaches and coastal forests lies a mosaic of fascinating habitats and protected spaces offering unique wildlife viewing. While South Africa’s safari circuit is dominated mainly by reserves in the northern and eastern parts of the country, the Cape safari experience is fundamentally different but equally enthralling.
The Cape nature experience – the Western and Eastern Cape
In the previous stories of our Cape series, we focussed in greater detail on the wonders of Cape Town and the Garden Route, including the natural marvels in and around these areas. This third instalment zooms in on the various wilderness areas in the greater Cape region – specifically within the Western and Eastern Cape. These two adjacent provinces make up the south-western corner of South Africa. Together they encompass the entire Cape Floristic biome and most of the Karoo ecosystems right up to the transition with the grasslands of the Lesotho Highlands. Away from the lush greenery fed by temperate ocean climates and sheltered by a network of mountains, the landscape becomes progressively more arid and sparse, giving way to the almost Martian scenery of the Great Karoo.
It is important to note at the outset that while this story focuses on the more “traditional” safari experience complete with iconic, large wildlife, the entire inland Cape region is a paradise for the enthusiastic naturalist. From ancient fossils to rock art and dramatic landscapes to intriguing critters in unusual settings, the variety of habitats and animals on offer are guaranteed to captivate and delight.
For the most part, the Cape safari experience is an exclusive one, based around vast swathes of privately-owned wilderness areas peppered with a combination of basic and high-end lodges. For those more accustomed to the conventional savanna setting, there is something vaguely incongruous about the sight of an elephant against the austere backdrop of mountains and sparse karoo vegetation or the Indian Ocean in the background. Yet, there was a time when the ‘Big 5’ (and many other species) roamed throughout the entire Cape region. Over centuries, they have been driven to the verge of extinction by human encroachment, unsustainable hunting practices and human-wildlife conflict. Fortunately, many of the private reserves of the Cape now boast an impressive conservation record and have served a pivotal role in restoring the magnificent creatures of the Cape to their rightful home. As a malaria-free destination, this is also one of the best safari options for families travelling with children.
Eastern Cape – the greater Addo ecosystem
A view towards the Indian Ocean over the Eastern Cape valley bushveld
Addo Elephant National Park
As South Africa’s third-largest national park, Addo Elephant National Park covers 1,640km² (164,000 hectares) of Eastern Cape bushveld not far from Gqeberha (Port Elizabeth). Recent years have seen the park expanding to include the Woody Cape Nature Reserve, the Alexandria dune field and a marine portion extending to St. Croix Island and Bird Island. This expansion made Addo the only place in Africa where visitors can see the ‘Big 7’ – the ‘Big 5’ plus dolphins and whales.
As the name suggests, Addo is famous for its elephants. By the early 20th century, nearly every elephant in the Southern Cape had been slaughtered. Addo was established to safeguard the remaining few, then numbering fewer than thirty. Today, Addo is home to well over 600 elephants. Interestingly, nearly all females are tuskless, and bulls have been brought in from other areas to improve the population’s genetic diversity.
Elephants aside, Addo covers five of the country’s eight vegetation zones (Albany thicket, fynbos, Nama karoo, forest, and Indian Ocean Coastal Belt), and the biodiversity is staggering. Not only do the remaining ‘Big 5’ find sanctuary here, but a host of other creatures too. This list includes a flightless dung beetle that is of particular interest to those with an eye for the smaller, fascinating creatures of the region.
With its exceptional variety and fantastic elephant sightings, Addo is an essential stop for any Cape safari.
An elephant bull in Addo Elephant National Park
Amakhala Game Reserve
The 85km² (8,500 hectares) Amakhala Game Reserve features all of the scenic beauty and wildlife magnificence of Addo, with the added advantage that access is exclusively granted to guests of the various lodges. With awe-inspiring views, relaxed wildlife and a variety of accommodation options to suit most budgets, Amakhala epitomises the appeal of the Eastern Cape safari adventure.
Accommodation and activities at Amakhala Game Reserve
Kariega Game Reserve
Another major destination on the Eastern Cape safari circuit, Kariega Game Reserve is a family-owned and operated 115km² (11,500 hectares) reserve. It is ideally positioned between the Bushman’s and Kariega Rivers, not far from the Sunshine Coast, and boasts a diverse range of habitats and glorious vistas.
The lush rolling hills are home to the ‘Big 5’, antelopes and myriad bird species. Visitors can opt to complement the traditional game drives with boat cruises and walking trails. Of particular interest to many of Kariega’s guests is Thandi – a white rhino cow that survived a brutal poaching attempt in 2012. Despite horrific injuries, Thandi went on to make a full recovery and, to date, has given birth to four calves (and has one grand calf).
One of the Kariega Private Game Reserve lodges on the banks of the Bushman’s River
Lalibela Game Reserve
Recently rejuvenated, Lalibela Game Reserve offers an exclusive bush experience not far from Addo Elephant National Park. The reserve is 100km2 (10,000 hectares), and access is exclusive to guests of the lodges. Lalibela shares a similar setting with Addo, with the added advantage that there are substantial areas of open savanna grassland where herds of zebra, red hartebeest, wildebeest and blesbok congregate.
As is the case for many of the reserves in the area, Lalibela is a vital habitat for South Africa’s national bird, the striking and endangered blue crane.
Intimate, luxury nature experiences at Lalibela
Kwandwe Private Game Reserve
A private reserve with a proud record of rehabilitation from farmland to restored wilderness, Kwandwe Private Game Reserve straddles the Great Fish River and covers a total area of 300km² (30,000 hectares). This region of the Eastern Cape is topographically dramatic and picturesque and boasts high levels of biodiversity.
Sunset over Kwandwe Private Game Reserve
Shamwari Private Game Reserve
Shamwari Private Game Reserve is probably one of the best-known private reserves in the Cape region and one of the most upmarket on this list. Offering the quintessential safari experience (and checklist), this 250km² (25,000 hectares) award-winning reserve has an impressive conservation record. Situated just 75km from Gqeberha, it shares many habitat similarities with Addo Elephant National Park. It is also home to the ‘Big 5’ and cheetah, with the added bonus of regular and reliable leopard sightings.
The reserve is also home to a wildlife rehabilitation centre, which is open for tourists to visit for an educational experience. No interaction with the animals is permitted, and the end goal is to release the animals back into the wild whenever possible.
Shamwari – clockwise from top left: A cape white-eye; on a photographic safari; on game drive; luxury
Eastern Cape – Karoo safaris
The vast plains of the Eastern Cape Karoo
Camdeboo National Park
Wrapped around the quaint town of Graaff-Reinet is the 194km² (19,400 hectares) Camdeboo National Park in the heart of the Karoo. The gorgeous scenery, with ancient dolerite columns looking out over the Valley of Desolation, is the main attraction here. Don’t be fooled by the name because arid though the area may be, it still teems with life. Shy buffalo are the only representatives of the ‘Big 5’, and antelope and zebra abound, as do endlessly entertaining meerkats that call the park home.
However, the Camdeboo experience is mainly about escaping into nature and revelling in the scenery on display, as the shifting clouds and setting sun transforms the rocks through myriad shades of red.
Desolation Valley, Camdeboo National Park
Samara Karoo Reserve
After a couple of days spent enjoying the surroundings of Camdeboo, visitors with a hankering for a safari experience can travel to nearby Samara Karoo Reserve. Gradually assembled from a total of 11 farms, Samara is restoring a patch of wilderness and bringing wildlife back. The reserve now covers 283km² (28,300 hectares) in the Great Karoo, treating visitors to fantastic wildlife sightings and glorious views.
Even at its busiest, Samara only allows for a limited number of guests, making the experience extremely exclusive. Guests can expect sightings of white and black rhinos, elephants, lions, and herds of springbok, but tracking cheetah on foot is one of the reserve’s particular highlights.
Habituated young cheetah cubs; evening falls at Samara
Mountain Zebra National Park
Situated further inland near the town of Cradock, Mountain Zebra National Park was initially established to save the Cape mountain zebra – a subspecies of mountain zebra that was threatened with extinction during the early 20th century. It straddles the transition between Nama Karoo, Albany thicket and the grassland habitats of the central plateau. The park now extends over 284km² (28,400 hectares) and is a population stronghold for the still vulnerable Cape mountain zebras, which at last count numbered around 700. Small herds are regularly relocated to other reserves to restore this zebra to its former range.
In addition to the park’s namesake animal, further introductions have seen the arrival of black rhinos, cheetahs, brown hyenas and lions that now roam the craggy hills of the park. Away from the scrublands of the Karoo, Mountain Zebra is primarily grassland and open savanna, offering unimpeded views of the wildlife, including herds of springbok, black wildebeest, and gemsbok. In the long term, there are plans to link Mountain Zebra with Camdeboo, creating a massive conservation area.
Clockwise from top left: Blesbok; the plains of Mountain Zebra National Park; a Cape mountain zebra; the mountains of the park
Western Cape Safaris
The almost incongruous yet stunning view of safari destinations in the Western Cape
Gondwana Game Reserve
Situated along Garden Route not far from Mossel Bay, the 110km² (11,000 hectares) Gondwana Game Reserve was the first of its kind in the southern Cape region and is a fully free-roaming ‘Big 5’ region in the Western Cape. Once used for livestock farming, the land is being restored, and today wildlife abounds. Crucially, Gondwana boasts large areas of fynbos, many species of which are either endangered or critically endangered. In addition to the Big 5, cheetahs stalk through the fynbos and the reserve is also populated by herds of eland, bontebok, giraffe, and zebra.
Against the backdrop of the Langeberg and Outeniqua Mountains, visitors can explore on a game drive, mountain bike or hike on foot with a guide. The particularly adventurous can set off on a three-night trek through the reserve with overnight stays at fly camps along the route.
Comfort, wildlife and fun at Gondwana Game Reserve
Karoo National Park
The state-run Karoo National Park covers 750km² (75,000 hectares) of arid and inhospitable-looking Great Karoo terrain. A portion of South Africa’s Great Escarpment (a prominent topographical massif that runs almost the entire width of the country) divides the park into lower and upper sections.
Originally known simply as a convenient stopover for people travelling to or from Cape Town, Karoo National Park has evolved to become the perfect escape for those looking to detox from city life without having to pay ultra-luxury prices. Harsh though the environment may seem, the park has gone from conservation strength to strength. It is now home to black rhinos and lions and an assortment of other rare and critically endangered creatures like the Cape mountain zebra and the riverine rabbit (one of the most endangered mammals in the world). Verreaux’s eagles nest on the dramatic cliff faces, and a small herd of Rau Quagga (a form of plains zebra back-bred to resemble the extinct quagga) was recently introduced to the reserve.
The stark majesty of the Karoo National Park
Sanbona Wildlife Reserve
In the heart of the Klein Karoo, at the base of the Warmwaterberg Mountains, lies the 580km² (58,000 hectares) Sanbona Wildlife Reserve – one of South Africa’s largest privately-owned reserves. Like the rest of the Karoo, ancient and more recent history is everywhere, including San rock art over 3,500 years old beneath rocky overhangs overlooking breath-taking views. Like many of the other reserves in the Cape area, Sanbona was once farmland, but intensive rehabilitation has restored the land to its former glory, as evidenced by the flourishing wildlife.
The’ Big 5′ are all present, as are cheetahs and brown hyenas, and sightings are made more impressive by the backdrop of magnificent scenery. From guided walks to boat safaris and stargazing to curated children’s programmes, Sanbona has something to offer everyone.
Safari experience in the Klein Karoo at Sanbona in the Western Cape
Conclusion
Want to go on a Cape safari? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
The Cape safari experience offers adventures that are refreshingly different to the more renowned safari destinations elsewhere in Africa. The weather is generally good throughout the year (though the reserves can get very cold during winter), and the scenery is alluring and presents the perfect backdrop for diverse wildlife sightings. The wilderness areas are easily accessible and malaria-free, and the entire safari can be easily combined with a tour of the Garden Route, Winelands or Cape Town.
The intricate social lives of the spotted hyena have fascinated researchers for decades, and scientists have recently added another piece of valuable information to our understanding of their lives. New research shows that not only do high ranking hyena cubs inherit their rank from their mothers, but they also inherit a social network of allies that may persist throughout their lives. And, like any individual born into privilege, it serves them well.
Spotted hyenas have one of the most intricate social structures of any apex predator. They live in social units called clans of anything from a handful of individuals to over a hundred – consisting of related and unrelated females and their offspring (matrilineal lines), as well as immigrant males. The clans function within a strict matrilineal hierarchy where high rank correlates to increased life expectancy and reproductive success.
Friend or foe?
Previous research has shown that, for the most part, spotted hyenas inherit their rank from their mothers. Cubs born to high-ranking mothers (including males) will assume a high ranked position in the hierarchy and those born to low ranked mothers will assume a lower rank. The cubs learn their place at an early age, mimicking their mothers’ dominant or submissive behaviours around the den site. Dominance in spotted hyenas is not related to strength or size – a young cub will readily dominate and even bully an adult of lower rank. Naturally, this confers a massive advantage in terms of access to resources. But while the agonistic realities of hierarchy life are now relatively well understood, researchers wanted to know how affiliative relationships are established and persist. In other words, how do hyenas make and keep “friends”?
Two of the authors – Professor Erol Akçay and Dr Amiyaal Ilany – had previously developed a sophisticated theoretical modelling technique based around social evolution to develop some general principles of hyena social networks. To test their model out under natural conditions, they relied on observational data gathered by field biologists at the Michigan State University Mara Hyena Project, established by renowned hyena-expert Professor Kay Holekamp.
They painstakingly analysed the social interactions between clan mates, examining the proximity, duration, and regularity of interactions between individuals. Using complex statistical analysis, they were able to quantify social networks and compare those of mothers and offspring. The results show that even once young hyenas reach independence, their social networks remain very similar to those of their mothers. This similarity remains high even after the mother has died, persisting for over six or more years in some instances.
Furthermore, this pattern was most clearly seen in high-ranked individuals, and, importantly, these mothers and offspring with shared social networks lived longer. Several different factors likely contribute to why this pattern is not as clearly demonstrated in lower-ranked individuals. Firstly, low-ranking hyenas appear to associate with a greater variety of individuals – possibly attempting to compensate for their disadvantageous position through increased socialising. Another possible explanation (or contributing factor) is that low ranked mothers tend to spend more time on their own to avoid agonistic interactions. As a result, their cubs have fewer learning opportunities.
This all points to the conclusion that this socialising behaviour, as with rank, is learned at a very early stage in a young cub’s life. The behaviours established at this formative time will go on to have a profound impact on their lives for years to come, ultimately influencing their chances of survival and future reproductive success. On a larger scale, this social inheritance likely plays a pivotal role in clan stability.
The authors ultimately conclude that this research supports “Ilany and Akçay’s hypothesis that in species with stable social groups, the inheritance of social connections from parents is the cornerstone of social structure”. This applies not just to spotted hyenas but potentially to many other species as well, including both primates and elephants. The authors suggest that this emerging body of evidence suggests that social inheritance may be central to the development of social structures in social species.
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I’m back. Miss me?
The gormless idiots (James refers to the same type below) that make big decisions have once again punched South Africa (and our neighbours) in the mouth for doing the right thing – sounding the alarm on Omicron – by immediately imposing harsh travel bans. What an excellent strategy to silence future alarms bells. Side note, make of it what you will: Absent from the banned list is the Netherlands, where the new strain was found (but strangely went unnoticed) before the warning from my government. Xenophobia, much?
Of course, every decision can be justified if you dig deep enough. For example, Germany has an ageing population heading into deep winter, and its hospitals are already stretched to the limit. To avoid the systemic collapse of their health services, their priority is probably to flatten the curve by reacting early. A total ban on all travel would surely be more effective – but that would piss off powerful allies and damage their own economies. That these gestures to selectively ban only a few African countries have floored Africa’s wildlife and tourism industries will be of little concern in the battle for votes and approval in the corridors of power. The inconvenient truth is that these icons of health and wellness have infection rates that far exceed those of the African countries they are fingering.
Here’s the thing: These ridiculous knee-jerk reactions by the buffoons will keep coming – for the foreseeable future. This is what happens when we routinely elect clowns, celebrities and weak-kneed bureaucrats into positions of power. Get used to it. Plan your safaris with care, be agile and flexible about timing, and help this wonderful African safari industry get back on its feet. Africa Geographic is here for the long run – ours is a 100-year plan. We will be here for advice and epic safari plans when you decide to visit.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Scientific Editor
Human beings are good at shaping animals. We have created dairy cows capable of producing over 60 litres of milk in one day, piglets that pack on more than ten kilograms of lean muscle every week and brachycephalic dogs that fall over when they get too excited because their noses have all but disappeared into their skulls. And in Gorongosa, nearly twenty years after the Mozambican Civil War and poaching crisis, elephants without tusks still make up half of the population. The process seems simple: we decide which individuals get to reproduce – we create selection pressures to drive “evolution” at hyper speed. It’s just good (or terrible) breeding.
Of course, nothing is ever that simple where genetics are concerned. Why are the vast majority of tuskless elephants female? Could the situation ever be rectified? Read our third story to learn more about what scientists have discovered about the “tuskless” genes.
Don’t forget to keep checking our club forum for some fascinating discussions and updates on conservation and travel from our AG community. Our friends at the World Parrot Trust recently posted an update on their work in keeping African grey parrots out of the illegal pet trade. Join the club to help support the endeavours of the World Parrot Trust and other phenomenal conservation initiatives.
From our Editor-in-Chief
Human beings are good at breaking records. We once thought that no man would ever run a mile in under four minutes. Now that’s been achieved by more than 1400 athletes. Every time the 100 m record is broken, we think no one could possibly go faster. And then they do. So it is with our capacity for moronic behaviour. Just when you think the human species has reached the apogee of gormless idiocy, we manage to confound expectation and reach greater heights of stupid. This time, we can thank the weapons-grade half-wits running Shell.
These icons of depravity have, with the connivance of the bottomless well of vacuous humanity that is the South African government, decided to search for new sources of fossil fuel off South Africa’s precious Wild Coast. Yes, fossil fuels less than a month after the end of COP26. They are going to do this by blasting shock waves through the ocean floor.
There are two major issues with this. Firstly, no matter what some overpaid spin doctor (aka bald-faced liar) tells you, it is simply psychotic to be seeking more fossil fuel deposits. The planet is cooking thanks to our relentless use of precisely the chemicals Shell wants to extract.
Secondly, the science on whether or not these seismic blasts will affect marine life is lacking. Surely it is up to Shell to prove that they will do no harm rather than on activists needing to prove the opposite? The damage could be irreparable, and that’s before Shell starts drilling, spilling, extracting and generally fouling a once magnificent piece of the world’s natural heritage.
Undaunted, Shell says they have met all legal obligations. In the manner of so many corporate earth pirates, Shell has equated legality with morality. Great. Well, it used to be legal to trade slaves – doesn’t make it right.
It is time that the cretins at Shell and their equally nitwitted counterparts in the SA government moved with the times. It is time to move away from fossil fuel extraction for short term gain. Only a record-breaking imbecile would argue otherwise.
Phew, let’s now be more cheerful. In our first story below, take a tranquil trek through the forests of Gombe Stream and Mahale Mountains National Parks in search of Tanzania’s wild chimpanzees
In our second story below, Daniel Nelson, a young photojournalist and conservationist takes us down the Tana River, Kenya, on a fascinating quest to photograph two of Africa’s rarest monkeys.
With many safaris on temporary hold, while world leaders mismanage the Covid crisis, we all need to ponder and celebrate what makes Africa so awesome!
• If this drool-worthy video from Duba Plains in Botswana does not get you dreaming about your next safari, then nothing will! Watch out for the conservation message near the end . Club members get the best available prices at these and other superb camps and lodges.
• And this, an inspirational collection of clips celebrating four years in the extraordinarily diverse Gorongosa National Park in Mozambique, is pure heaven.
Most safari enthusiasts associate Tanzania rolling savannas, herds of wildebeest mowing extensive grasslands and a plethora of iconic predators. It does not, however, immediately conjure images of chimpanzees swinging through forest canopies. Yet, there are two national parks where visitors can combine the safari experience with chimpanzee trekking: Gombe Stream National Park and Mahale Mountains National Park. For those in the know, these two remote sections of one of the wildest parts of Africa are something of a primate mecca – where a pilgrimage to meet our forest kin takes place in the verdant forests along the shore of one of the continent’s Great Lakes.
The shores of Lake Tanganyika
For 600km on the western edge of Tanzania, the long strip of Lake Tanganyika marks the country’s boundary with the Democratic Republic of Congo to the west. Both Gombe Stream National Park (Gombe) and Mahale Mountains National Park (Mahale) are positioned on the lake’s eastern shores, with tiny Gombe the northernmost of the two, not far from the town of Kigoma. Further south, situated midway along the lake’s length, is the much larger (and even more remote) Mahale. Both parks are accessible only by boat, and there are no roads within the parks – exploration can only be undertaken on foot.
Though most visitors are drawn here to view the chimpanzees, this is a remarkably biodiverse part of Tanzania, situated at the gradual transition between Central Africa’s rainforests and the savannas of East Africa. Lake Tanganyika has played an enormous role in shaping this ecosystem, and its long white beaches and crystal-clear waters (and cichlid populations) are attractions in their own right. As part of the Albertine Rift of the East African Rift Valley, it is the second oldest and longest freshwater lake in the world. The wildlife of the surrounding forests regularly descends from the mountainous surroundings to drink at its shores. The sight of a troop of chimpanzees or perhaps a slinking leopard on Lake Tanganyika’s beaches is not readily forgotten.
The mountains of Gombe, sloping down to Lake Tanganyika, blanketed in forest.
A word on chimpanzees – our forest kin
Anyone who has spent time with one of the planet’s great ape species will be able to attest to the fact that it is world’s apart from, say, an elephant or lion sighting. This could be partly due to the rewarding process of finding them – after long treks along muddy forest and mountain paths, through biting nettles and motivated by anticipation. However, there is something undeniably spiritual about their company and the intelligence, much closer in kind to our own, in their eyes.
This is especially true of chimpanzees which are, of course, our closest primate relatives. Unlike the relatively congenial gorillas with their vegetarian diets, chimpanzees are social, intelligent predators. They have their own social complexities, dramas, and escapades. Their body language and facial expressions seem to convey a wide range of emotions we so typically associate with humanity: melancholy, envy, shame, disdain, savagery … chimpanzees use tools and wage coordinated wars. As a result, many aspects of their wild lives can be viewed through the lens of our evolutionary history.
The chimpanzees in Tanzania are Eastern chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) – the most common subspecies of chimpanzee found throughout the Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Rwanda and Uganda. In Tanzania, they are found only in Gombe and Mahale. Like any safari experience, there is always an element of luck involved, but the viewing in either location can be extraordinary. A caveat to this is that if the chimps decide not to hang out near the beaches, the search through the forests can be physically demanding, and a certain level of fitness is essential.
Chimpanzee mum and baby in Gombe Stream National Park
Mahale Mountains National Park
The enormous Mahale Mountains National Park extends over 1,650km² (165,000 hectares) of craggy mountains and rolling hills. It encompasses (and is named for) the forested Mahale Mountains, where the highest points of Mount Nkungwe reach elevations of over 2,400 metres. The verdant forests along the western slopes are home to a substantial population of chimpanzees (over 1,000 individuals). The chimps of Mahale are part of an ongoing, 50-year-old study. The other side of the mountain range opens up into savannas – home to lions, elephants, zebras, giraffes, and roan and sable antelope. Keen birders can also keep their eyes peeled for the park’s many bird species (over 230 species recorded so far, but the number is likely substantially higher), with specials like the palm-nut vulture and Livingstone’s turaco.
Of course, the vast area and dramatic scenery can make for a challenging search for chimpanzees, should they decide to move away from the more accessible beach areas. Crawling through dense vegetation on hands and knees is not out of the question, but the more intense the search, the more rewarding a chimpanzee sighting will be. While searching for chimps, visitors will find themselves enthralled by some of the other forest creatures, including yellow baboons, vervet, red-tailed, and colobus monkeys (both the red and Angolan black-and-white colobus species). Really fortunate visitors may even witness (or hear) the chimpanzees hunting their smaller cousins, particularly the red colobus monkeys. This is a once-in-a-lifetime experience, though potentially a curiously chilling one.
Despite being about 1,000km away from the nearest ocean, there is a definite tropical, paradise island feel about the shores of Lake Tanganyika in Mahale. The turquoise waters stretch as far as the eye can see and warm waves lap gently onto the shores of unspoilt sandy coves. The park’s lodges are situated on the beach, and guests can opt to rinse away the chimp-trek sweat with a dip in the lake (content in the knowledge that crocodiles only rarely visit).
The forests of Mahale Mountains National Park
Gombe Stream National Park
In contrast to the massive Mahale, Gombe is one of Tanzania’s smallest national parks, a fragile and precious patch of chimpanzee habitat of just 56km² (5,600 hectares), 16km north of the city of Kigoma. Despite its small area, this intimate park sports excellent biodiversity and, in the world of primate research, is celebrated as the home of chimpanzee study. It was here that Jane Goodall first set up her now-famous research centre during the 1960s. Arriving without any “formal” training, Dame Goodall was free from the scientific dogma of the times, which allowed for very little insight into the workings of the minds of wild animals.
Left: a yellow baboon enjoying the beaches of Lake Tanganyika; top right: great white pelican; bottom right: a red-tailed monkey calling to companions
Having named her subjects, Goodall set about observing them in earnest. Here, she first observed chimpanzees using tools to “fish” for termites and learnt to reconcile the more affectionate aspects and behaviours with the darker sides of their lives. These included systematic primate hunting techniques and extraordinary potential for intraspecific violence and conflict. Today, the 60-year study is the longest-running field study of an animal species in its natural surroundings. It has supplied us with a vast amount of what we now know about chimpanzee behaviour. The famous chimpanzees have been the subjects of many a thesis, film, and documentary series.
As in Mahale, Gombe is open to day-visitors in possession of a 24-hour pass and guide. However, the park is best experienced over a couple of days spent at one of the lodges. There are many other species to be appreciated, including over 200 birds and a similar variety of primate species to Mahale. One particularly habituated troop of yellow baboons spends its time close to the shoreline and is a constant source of enjoyment and entertainment for guests.
The gorgeous beaches and forests of Lake Tanganyika in Gombe Stream National Park
Explore & Stay
Want to go on safari to Gombe and Mahale? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
The savanna habit on the eastern side of Mahale stretches to Katavi National Park – one of Tanzania’s best-kept safari secrets. The upshot of this is that chimpanzee treks in Gombe or Mahale can be easily combined with a more “traditional” safari in either Katavi or Ruaha National Park.
Away from the tourist centres and the northern/southern safari circuits, self-travel through western Tanzania is suitable only for the more adventurous, experienced, and patient traveller. It is very rural, with few roads and little in the way of infrastructure. Travel to Mahale and Gombe can be a little arduous but interesting. Long flights and scenic boat voyages offer scenes of Crusoe-like bandas and thatch on paradise beaches. Ultimately, this remoteness and simplicity is a significant ingredient in the magic of a stay in Tanzania’s chimpanzee forests. The fact that it can be enjoyed in one of the high-end lodges with every need provided for is an added bonus.
Trekking for birds and primates in the forests of Gombe and Mahale
The best time to visit falls between May and October, which corresponds to the dry season in this part of Tanzania. The high rainfall levels from November until April can make the paths extremely slippery and challenging, with the added disadvantage that the chimpanzees prefer to spend less time on the ground and more in the canopy. As is the case with any primate trekking safari in Africa, a good pair of boots (preferably two) is essential, and waterproofing for all photographic equipment and belongings is always a good idea!
If God were to grab a wilderness reserve, pull it on both ends, and stretch it into a thin line – it would be the forest of Tana River. This riverine forest winds deep into the drylands of east Kenya, near the border of Somalia. You can walk across it in ten minutes – that is how narrow this forest is. Yet, it is over three hundred kilometres long. Scrunched into this linear forest are elephants, hyenas, bushbucks, waterbucks, kudus, lions, giraffes, and more. I have never seen such a uniquely laid-out piece of nature.
The Tana River flowing through the Tana River National Primate Reserve (TRNPR) Kenya.
Endangered primates
I am a young photojournalist and I had a specific goal for this project. I wanted to create a high-quality photo story of the Tana River’s two critically endangered primate species – the Tana River red colobus and the Tana River mangabey. Both are endemic to the forests on the banks of the Tana River. The colobuses are folivorous (feeding on leaves), consuming up to three kilograms of leaves per day, in small groups high up the forest canopy. The mangabeys are semi-terrestrial monkeys, rummaging across the forest floor in large troops for seeds, fruits, and insects. Both primates are dependent on this narrow band of forest which is a remnant of a continuous forest that stretched from Central to East Africa 25,000–30,000 years ago. They remained under-photographed for so long because their home range was inaccessible for many years due to Al-Shabaab related insecurities in the region. Luckily, that has changed.
My camp is dappled in afternoon sunlight. Two bungalows, two containers, and an outdoor kitchen – simple, but comfortable. Two researchers welcome me with open arms. They are glad to finally have a visitor. Above us are scores of trees including beautiful doum palms and a massive sycamore fig. Both honeypots for primates. At night, the local wildlife moves along the riverbanks. To them, this band of forest is a highway. A highway with no exits, given that there are parched drylands on both sides. For safety reasons, I am not allowed to leave camp after dark – I hear the sniffles and stumbles of elephants and hyenas crossing through forest camp at night.
A Tana River mangabey rummaging through the TRNPR on 01 October 2021
Success and failure
I spot both my primates on day one. The colobuses are curious about me, but stay high in the tree canopy. The mangabeys are bolder, and march past me like I do not exist. I successfully photograph both species – a personal milestone. With the pressure gone, my guide takes me downstream. He has something to show me. I am expecting more beauty, more of this green forest highway. But alas, my guide, a local man called Said Rova, takes me to a series of farmlands. It appears that the line of forest below our camp breaks into fields – barren and sunbaked. The forest highway is thus interrupted. ‘Such clearings occur everywhere along the river’, Said confesses. I ask how this came to be.
He explains, ‘The Pokomo people use these riverbank forests for agriculture. The human population is growing fast, and in the past twenty years some 50% of forests have been razed’. Imagine a dusty plain, endlessly vast, and curving through it, a band of greenery. Moving up and down this line are animals. But then humans come and clear parts of that line for agriculture. The continuous band of forest now becomes a dashed line, broken and patchy. The monkeys cannot cross these barren gaps, they are marooned on the loose cuts of greenery – unable to migrate, unable to reproduce. That is why the primates are critically endangered.
A Tana River red colobus in the canopy of the TRNPR, Kenya, on 02 October 2021.
Surely these forests are protected? During the course of the following days, Said takes me to the Tana River National Primate Reserve and the Ndera Community Conservancy. These are two stretches of the forest set aside for protection. We boat down the river, slaloming through an obstacle course of hippos and crocodiles. I spot storks, rollers, and pelicans on the shores. We also pass riverside villages and farms. At the conservancies, I discover how this protected land is heavily underfunded. Just a dozen rangers are tasked to protect over 100km² of wilderness. The locals in the area seem not to condone their efforts.
Said explains the predicament,
‘The Pokomo people are in a human-wildlife conflict with the primates’, he tells me. ‘If we only protect the monkeys, the villagers are ousted into the drylands. If we prioritize human development, then forests get razed. This is a delicate dance.’
I ask whether people and wildlife could live harmoniously? ‘Yes they can’, Said believes. But sustainable agriculture and good infrastructure need to be implemented. But who will fund this? If you half-raze the forest and protect the other half, you get half the profit and half the food. Try explaining that to villagers living on under a dollar a day. They need compensation to comply.
A group of Tana River red colobuses in the canopy of the TRNPR, Kenya, on 30 September 2021.
Solutions
One local activist has found a solution. His name is Omar Bahatisha Dhadho and I meet him in a village on our way back from the conservancies. A kind, smiling man, Omar had arranged that the small amounts of aid money destined for conservation would skip the wildlife and go directly into the community for irrigation, housing, fencing. This seemed illogical to me. But in return for this human-first approach, the community promises to leave the forests and its animals alone, dousing the human-wildlife conflict. So far, this strategy has worked, but it could be better.
Clockwise from left: Tallboy star chestnut (Sterculia appendiculata); rangers of the Ndera Conservancy; The village of Amani showing how deforestation comes with human settlement at the TRNPR, Kenya
‘Tourism would be a true lifesaver’, Said exclaims. Imagine visitors at the Mchelelo Camp (where I stayed) sitting in an armchair, seeing all kinds of wildlife pass through the camp. Elephants, buffalo, hyenas, and more; plus of course, two rare primate species not found anywhere else in the world. Who would not come to this wonderful oasis? The visitors’ money would go directly to the well-being of the animals. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), only $78,000 is needed to revive the local conservancies. I agree with Said, but visitation has been scarce. So, the next day back at camp, Said comes up with an idea. Tell your people to visit our wildlife refuge. Have them raise awareness and donate. Write an article about our forest. I sit in that armchair – half-photographing the colobuses foraging above my head – and start to write.
Resources
For more about adeventuring on the Tana River see here
About Daniël Nelson
Daniël Nelson (22) was launched into the spotlight in 2017, after winning the Young Wildlife Photographer of the Year Award from the London Natural History Museum. During the following years he worked freelance for the African Parks, the Peace Parks Foundation, and the World Wildlife Fund. Then, Daniël moved to London to read for a B.A in Photojournalism at the University of Arts. The pandemic struck during Daniël’s first year, leaving his degree covidized. Frustrated to know that the global environmental crisis lingered on with the world waiting, he repacked his rucksack and hit the road. His new goal:
Photograph critically endangered species before extinction.
There are 3,553 critically endangered animals in the world. Apart from the more iconic species such as leopards and rhinos, the majority of these are described as plain scientific texts in databases. Turning these texts into aesthetic, visual reports – for both awareness and conservation – is what Daniël’s mission is about. Connect with Daniel on Instagram and his blog
Research has confirmed what many experts have been suggesting for decades: ivory poaching selectively drives the evolution of tuskless elephants. The new study, published in Science, methodically demonstrates the devastating effects of poaching on the elephants in Gorongosa National Park in Mozambique. In essence, the article confirms that elephants had been “genetically engineered” to be born without tusks.
During the Mozambican Civil War from 1977 to 1992, the elephants of Gorongosa National Park and the rest of the country were indiscriminately poached. Ivory sales were used to fund weapons for armed forces on both sides, and the wholesale slaughter resulted in the loss of around 90% of the region’s elephants. Tuskless individuals (of no interest to ivory poachers) were more likely to survive and began to pass their genes on to their offspring as the park stabilised.
Intensive poaching in Africa has long been associated with increasing numbers of tuskless elephants. However, prior to this paper, no research had quantified the phenomenon, and the exact mechanisms behind the tuskless characteristic had not been investigated.
Researchers compared historical video footage and contemporary records to demonstrate that the frequency of tuskless females in Gorongosa increased nearly threefold from 18.5% to 50.9% over 28 years. To test whether or not this was due to a chance event and a population bottleneck, they used a simulation based on the assumption that tusked and tuskless females were equally likely to survive. The outcome of the simulation concluded that this was extremely unlikely to have occurred due to chance. Instead, the authors calculated that the survival chances of tuskless females were five times those of tusked females during the war.
Tuskless elephant cows are common in Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa
Tuskless elephants are found in most (if not all) savanna elephant populations, always in small proportions under natural conditions and, importantly, almost always in females. So, the next step for the researchers was to examine the genetic basis of the trait and the effect of selection on future generations. The proportion of tuskless elephants in Gorongosa (a total population of around 700) has remained significantly elevated long after the war. This shows that the trait is clearly heritable and an evolutionary response to poaching-induced selection.
Further investigation revealed that the gene for tuskless elephants is likely dominant, sex-linked (on the X chromosome) and male-lethal. Simply translated, this means that the mother will pass the gene to some, if not all, of her daughters, and it will be expressed in their phenotype (physical appearance). The fact that it is male-lethal means that male zygotes that inherit an X-chromosome with the gene will not be viable and will not develop to term. Consequently, the long-term prevalence of the tuskless gene could potentially skew the sex ratio of an elephant population.
The genetics are complicated slightly because some of the females express a mid-way phenotype, with only one tusk. It would be overly simple to expect that a complex trait like tusk growth to be controlled only by the complete dominance of one gene. It is highly likely that genes on other chromosomes also have an effect. The researchers believe that they have identified at least one X-linked gene (AMELX) and one autosomal gene (MEP1a) behind the genetic selection in Gorongosa, but further research is needed. They also point out that there are some anecdotal reports of tuskless male savanna elephants. While this is likely due to injury or observer error, they cannot rule out alternative genetic mechanisms that may play a role.
Every organism alive today has at least partly evolved due to “standing genetic variation”, where some individuals in a population possess a different type of gene that confers a distinct physical trait. Under certain environmental conditions, this characteristic may be disadvantageous (as in the case of tuskless elephants in protected areas), but a change in circumstances may come to favour the alternative form. In this case, rampant poaching has driven the selection of the tuskless genotype in the space of a generation.
The authors conclude that their research “shows how a sudden pulse of civil unrest can cause abrupt and persistent evolutionary shifts in long-lived animals even amid extreme population decline”. Though tuskless elephants can survive and thrive without them, tusks are multipurpose tools used in ways that shape the environment around them. A massive increase in the number of tuskless elephants could have substantial and unforeseen impacts on local ecosystems. Fortunately, the researchers believe that if Gorongosa National Park continues its phenomenal recovery, this process will abate.
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From our Editor-in-Chief
Late one August afternoon, I was watching a leopard draped over a marula limb. Around me in the clearing, the remaining grass turned a mixture of gold and red as the sun nestled behind the Drakensberg. It was warm and peaceful. Then, faintly on the north-west breeze, came a sound not normally associated with safaris in beautiful game reserves – cowbells. ‘Tink tink tink,’ they went in the distance as the herd of cattle belonging to someone in Dixie village outside the Sabi-Sands Game Reserve, drove his livestock home. Many might be aggrieved by this human invasion into the atmosphere of the wilderness. Personally, I found the gentle tinkling to be a calming herald of another day’s closing in rural Africa.
Cattle and other livestock are culturally and economically crucial to many rural Africans. Yet many people see livestock as anathema to wildlife conservation and healthy rangelands. Is there a balance? All around the African continent, conservationists are working to ease the tensions where protected areas and rural people meet.
I would urge you to read our second story below to learn how some brilliant people are integrating traditional livestock husbandry with conservation objectives for the benefit of people, livestock and wildlife. Herding 4 Health is a profoundly important Peace Parks Foundation initiative.
In our first story below, we travel to the Lewa Wildlife Conservancy and surrounds in Kenya. Here is an exclusive wilderness playground in the shadow of Mount Kenya. It was once a cattle farm, then a rhino sanctuary, and now it is one of East Africa’s premier safari destinations.
As we head into the hottest part of the year, it’s only appropriate that we consider the effects of heat on our fellow creatures – especially as we, seemingly inexorably, make things warmer for them. Our third story below discusses how a sunbird’s dazzling colours make life tricky under the African sun.
From our Scientific Editor
One of my favourite things about this time of year is the return of the woodland kingfishers, (usually) marking the return of the rains and the rejuvenation of the bushveld. I sat and watched a pair trilling to each other on the tree outside my bedroom and marvelled at the way their feathers changed colour in the dappled sunlight.
Bird feathers are one of nature’s captivating works of art. Whether the subtle, earthy tones of a ground-dwelling francolin or the flash of red of a turaco streaking through the forest, these intricate structures are marvels of engineering. This is especially true of iridescent feathers, which use light refraction to transform a drab-looking feather into a shimmering masterpiece. Even a homely city-dwelling pigeon can find itself with a flashy collar in the right light. And the tiny sunbirds that zip from aloe to aloe? They become little glimmering gems.
However, new science suggests that this extravagant display may well come at a cost for sunbirds—one which will be become even more pronounced as our planet warms. Read our third story to find out more.
• Here we go again, as UK bans flights from 6 African countries. The United Kingdom has temporarily suspended flights from South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Lesotho and Eswatini due to the emergence of a new Covid-19 variant. Anyone who has been in these countries in the previous ten days has been banned from entering the UK. UK and Irish nationals who can make it back to the UK will have to quarantine in hotels from Monday. Read more here.
‘Herding 4 Health is a community development activity that promotes conservation outcomes while supporting people living in rural areas to find their way out of extreme poverty. It does this by teaching community members to make use of what they already have – cattle and other livestock.’ Peace Parks Foundation.
Livestock herding and wildlife conservation are often seen as anathema to each other. A combined Peace Parks and Conservation International initiative called Herding 4 Health (H4H) is changing these perceptions while improving livestock health and wealth for local people living on the fringes of protected areas. The programme is also restoring rangelands and increasing biodiversity.
Cattle at dawn on the borders of the Greater Kruger
Livestock and protected areas
Rural village landscapes are multifunctional and play a critical role in providing essential ecosystem services such as food production, grazing, rainwater absorption and carbon cycles.
In many parts of Africa, livestock animals are massively important to rural people. They provide milk, meat and a form of banking for people living on the borders of protected areas. Yet increasing numbers of livestock, grazing without coordination close to villages has caused extensive rangeland degradation which, in turn, has resulted in poor livestock health, decreased food security, and increased poverty.
Another problem community livestock owners face is access to markets for those who want to sell their animals. Livestock is generally in poor condition and live animals cannot be sold across veterinary cordons. Foot and Mouth disease is a major problem around many Southern African protected areas. The disease is carried by free-ranging buffalo, and cloven-hooved livestock are extremely susceptible to it.
Many of the problems can be put down to herds not being managed optimally. Historically, herds would have been looked after all day – drop and go herding did not happen. These days, kids go to school and modern life makes it very difficult for herds to be monitored full time, especially in areas that are not fenced (a situation that brings its own set of problems). As Mike Grover, Project Manager of the H4H programme in the Mnisi Tribal Authority (Mnisi TA) on the borders of the greater Kruger National Park says, ‘Livestock are not a problem. Unmanaged livestock are a problem.’
A predator-proof boma in the bushveld
An innovative solution
Jacques van Rooyen, Director of the Herding 4 Health Programme who developed the H4H model grew up on a cattle farm where he developed a love for nature. He went on to study animal science, rangeland science and then wildlife management before helping to plan and set up game reserves in various parts of Southern Africa. His experience and work in veterinary science drew him into the people and protected areas interface where he felt there were a lot of specialists doing good work in human-wildlife conflict, rangelands, animal health and production, ecology and tourism. Few, however, were taking an integrated, systems view of the complicated situation.
Van Rooyen realised the problems on the borders of protected areas were based on rangelands, community politics, land use clashes (conservation versus farmers), development, disease control and market access. In other words, he realised the need for a delicate balance between ecological and social priorities. He also saw, however, that these complex problems needed a simple, community-driven solution that could be modified for local conditions and priorities.
Herding 4 Health uses skills already in the communities – herding and kraaling predominantly – and the introduction of new technology. It enables regenerative livestock production and enhances social equity through training and enterprise development.
The model facilitates and integrates four pillars:
healthy rangelands;
healthy animals;
thriving livelihoods; and
good governance and the development of policies that incentivise the adoption of sustainable, climate-smart and wildlife-friendly livestock management practices.
Eco-rangers
One of the key features of the Herding 4 Health solution is the eco-rangers. These are people selected by their communities to be the custodians of the H4H programme at the local level. The eco-rangers are taught professionalised herding techniques. They learn planned grazing, animal production, primary animal care, tracking, security and various applicable administrative skills. This is facilitated by the SA College for Tourism’s Herding Academy in Graaff-Reinet and the Southern African Wildlife College. The eco-rangers are streamed according to their strengths – e.g. digital reporting, communication, vegetation surveys etc.
H4H eco-rangers are not just cattle herders – they are communicators, record keepers, trackers, cattle health assessors and vegetation surveyors. After four or five years, a herder can become an eco-trainer.
A good example is Cliff Nkuna of the Mnisi Tribal Authority near the Kruger National Park. Cliff wanted to be a field guide because that was how he saw himself making the best living. Now, however, with the training and experience he has from H4H, he is on a career path that allows him to stay in his village, make a living, and contribute to the long-term well-being of his community. He is an eco-trainer.
Through the eco-rangers, community livestock owners have a sustainable, traceable supply of animals to the grass-fed red meat market. This is hugely important as farmers in communal areas currently only supply 5% of the South African red meat market despite owning 47% of the livestock.
Clockwise from top left: working in the predator-proof boma; a herder tending his livestock in the bushveld; a collective herd grazing close to the home village; a herd leaves the predator-proof boma to go grazing
Case study – Limpopo National Park, Mozambique
Limpopo National Park (LNP) is part of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area (GLTFCA). The Herding 4 Health programme in LNP, consists of six communities with 12,000 cattle in an area of 150,000ha. Two of the communities are in the park and the other four in the buffer zone. Before H4H arrived, the cattle were moving 20 km from the village before they reached the first grass – every day! The herders were also losing up to 20 animals a month to predators. Since the advent of H4H in the area, the cattle do not return to the villages during the summer months and not one animal has been lost to predators.
For rangelands, the ecological plan is based on science and best practice, where community livestock are grazed together in large herds in a coordinated manner such that their effects on the rangeland are positive and restorative.
In essence, this is how the programme works.
The community brings their livestock together into large herds.
Grazing is planned around available water sources
In summer, when water is relatively abundant, the herds do not return home every night.
In the evening, the herders erect predator-proof bomas. Each one takes about an hour to set up and can house 600 cattle. The herders carry the bomas with them and stay with their respective herds for around a week at a time.
Over this summer period, land close to the villages rests and regenerates.
In winter, when the crop fields are fallow and the grass close to the village has recovered, the herds move closer to home, taking advantage of the summer forage growth that has accumulated. The animals drink from more permanent water sources.
Bomas are placed in degraded areas so that the dung and urine of the 600 snoozing, ruminating cattle can fertilise the land and help it recover.
Hooves break the surface, urine and dung fertilise the soil, denuded areas are left to rest and recover. This is very similar to the natural movement of wild ungulates such as the wildebeest of the Great Migration.
The first eco-rangers in this area were trained in January 2020 and the community mobilised another 100 volunteers. H4H provided rations for all. The government is supportive of the programme because it makes their job easier. Extension officers don’t have to work nearly as hard to have cattle treated for disease or dipped because the animals arrive for treatment in collective herds. Diseases are more easily contained and treated.
Clockwise from top left: Cattle in a communal dip; veterinary intervention; helping community farmers with access to market; checking fences; a communal herd moving into a dip
Case study – Mnisi Tribal Authority
We spoke to Mike Grover, Conservation South Africa Landscape Director of the Herding 4 Health programme in the Mnisi Tribal Authority (Mnisi TA) on the borders of the greater Kruger National Park. In this area of South Africa, the same conditions that prevail in the LNP of Mozambique, do not exist. The H4H model, however, is designed to be flexible and work with local knowledge and local conditions.
Of the national cattle herd – i.e. all the cattle in South Africa, only about five per cent are available to the formal meat and dairy markets. The reasons for this include veterinary cordons and poor animal condition (because of poor grazing and untreated diseases). In the Mnisi region, the major issues are:
Cattle raiding crop fields
A lack of collective herding
Animals left unmonitored for lengthy periods because
Fences have reduced predation.
Children who used to herd the cattle go to school.
Water provision is such that owners of cattle can simply leave their animals in the communal grazing lands for the day without having to lead them to and from water.
Few cattle owners are actively involved in looking after their animals. For example, there are some people who own more than 150 cattle but are employed and not involved in community agricultural structures.
At the moment there is an underlying structure for governance and organisation, but it is very challenging to capacitate and there are few active farmers involved.
The lack of continuous herding results in poor disease reporting and monitoring, which in turn means that overall herd health is reduced.
Another significant challenge is building trust. H4H has been working with the Mnisi TA for eight years now. The programme began with the construction of an IT centre and a bush thinning initiative – relatively easy interventions. The processes involved in the H4H programme are natural but complicated and it takes a great deal of input to change people’s perceptions around managing livestock.
The local solution
As mentioned, the problems, and therefore the solutions that apply to the LNP do not apply to the Mnisi TA. In the LNP, the major objectives are improved rangeland, intensive herding and the reduction of human-wildlife conflict. In the Mnisi TA, the high-density herding practised in LNP would be almost impossible to achieve because of the fencing already in place.
Herding 4 Health is not a cookie-cutter system and it is not just about herding. It is about optimising agricultural practices for the area in question to the benefit of rural farmers, their animals and communal rangelands. The programme aims to create resilience through adaptability, collective bargaining and saving money.
H4H in the Mnisi area, therefore, aims to bolster and capacitate agricultural structures so that cattle owners are better able to keep records on their animals and maintain good herd health. H4H also hopes to improve access to market for beef cattle owners.
The Mnisi area is not as remote as some H4H target zones and it is intensively researched by tertiary organisations. It is therefore a great testing ground for H4H concepts. One of these is the mobile abattoir – which is an abattoir that travels through rural areas negating the need for cattle owners to transport their animals to slaughter. It conforms to all health and safety standards required by law for the commercial sale of meat.
The aim is to supply local markets – tourism operations, small scale retailers and businesses with grass-fed, ethically raised meat (cattle, goat and game). The meat will be largely for niche markets, promoting the idea that consumers should know what they are eating and where it comes from.
After eight years in the Mnisi area, the first H4H eco-rangers are now becoming community leaders, pushing the H4H values, with years of local, applied knowledge. Perhaps one of the greatest testaments to the success of the H4H programme was that during the COVID lockdowns, people stuck to the H4H stewardship agreements because they have begun to see the benefits. The community and the programme just carried on with minimal, virtual support. This was a pivotal moment in the history of H4H in the Mnisi TA.
Now, with the experienced eco-trainers on the ground, mentorship can take place over the internet which means the programme can be expanded elsewhere because there is a critical mass of trained and passionate people on the ground in the Mnisi TA. As mentioned above, Cliff Nkuna and the Dixie community have a great story to tell.
The future
Herding 4 Health is expanding and its current project sites include:
Mnisi Community (South Africa) – Great Limpopo TFCA
Limpopo National Park and surrounds (Mozambique) – Great Limpopo TFCA
Greater Lebombo Conservancy (Mozambique) – Great Limpopo TFCA
Succulent Karoo (Namaqualand) (South Africa) – /Ai/Ais-Richtersveld TP
Mzimvubu Catchment (South Africa) – Maloti-Drakensberg TFCA
Maputo Special Reserve (Mozambique) – Lubombo TFCA
Simalaha Community Conservancy (Zambia) – Kavango Zambezi TFCA
The programme is expanding in Botswana with a multi-million dollar programme underway that will see Botswana funding and deploying 6000 eco-rangers. Over 20,000 unclaimed cattle have been found in parts of Botswana, some wandering several hundred kilometres from their owners – a direct result of ad hoc herding.
H4H allows the government to control the masses of rural cattle. They can mitigate disease and it is hoped that controlling disease will become much easier and with this, access to markets.
A number of major safari operators in Botswana have indicated a willingness to buy local, grass-fed beef as long as it can be shown that herders adhere to the H4H principles. Successful implementation of the programme may also see herds allowed onto wildlife concessions in tough times or for ecological reasons (simulating the grazing effects of large wild animal herds).
Conclusion
One of the greatest challenges facing wildlife conservation in Africa is the nexus between people and protected areas. Herding 4 Health is proving a viable way to improve the livelihoods of people living in rural areas near conservation reserves. It is making a significant difference to the reduction of human-wildlife conflict. Through effective herding methods, predators have far less impact on livelihoods which in turn reduces revenge killing and a general resentment for wild predators. At the same time, improved rangelands are increasing the number of cattle that land can support while improving rangeland health. This is a hugely important project and it will be fascinating to see it rolled out further, hopefully with increased support from local people, NGOs and government.
Resources
For more about the H4H programme and the Peace Parks Foundation see here
There exists a wilderness in the highlands of Kenya where love, labour and a little luck created a conservation model so successful that it has shaped the fortunes of the land and communities around it. Today, Lewa Wildlife Conservancy is a haven for the rare and wonderful wildlife of the region while simultaneously offering one of the most exclusive and individualised safari experiences in East Africa.
Lewa Wildlife Conservancy and surrounds
The Lewa Wildlife Conservancy covers 250km² (25,000 hectares) in the corner of Kenya’s Meru County, bordering Laikipia and Isilio counties to the west and north, respectively. Though technically situated in a separate county, Lewa is a part of the wider Laikipia landscape. Most of the conservancy lies on the Laikipia Plateau at altitudes of over 1,500 metres. Just 40 km to the south, the jagged figure of Mount Kenya looms on the horizon, its rolling foothills imparting a dramatic topography to Lewa.
This spectacular visual contrast between the lush montane forests at the base of Kenya’s tallest mountain and the arid grasslands and sparse woodlands of Lewa is a significant ingredient in the conservancy’s wild magic. Another is, of course, the abundant wildlife. Unusual for this part of the world, Lewa is fenced but with tactical gaps left open based on animal movements. This allows the animals to move between the various surrounding ecosystems, including the vast Laikipia conservancy network and the Samburu ecosystem to the north. Lewa is also open to the neighbouring Borana Conservancy to the west.
Visitors to Lewa’s lodges are granted exclusive access to this wilderness playground. They are afforded opportunities that go far beyond the average game drive (though these are, of course, still an exciting aspect of any visit, given the wildlife on display). Despite the conservancy’s burgeoning success in conservation and tourism, the atmosphere remains down-to-earth – a perfect blend of homely warmth and world-class luxury guest experience.
Endangered Grevy’s zebra
The story
Lewa’s conservation journey is an integral part of the guest experience because it adds to the depth of understanding of the land, as well as her people and animals. The story is deeply rooted in Kenyan conservation history. It was once an operational cattle ranch owned by the Craig family who partnered with philanthropist Anna Merz to create a rhino sanctuary during the height of the poaching crisis in the early 1980s. Rhino numbers had been decimated, and their future was hanging very much in the balance. The remaining rhinos in northern Kenya were quickly gathered and sequestered safely away in the fenced and guarded Ngare Sergoi Rhino Sanctuary. As the numbers grew, the sanctuary was expanded to include the rest of the ranch. Thus Lewa started its journey to becoming one of Kenya’s premier safari destinations and conservation pioneers.
Cognisant that the future of any conservation mission depends on the fortunes of the surrounding communities, the Lewa approach has always been one of inclusivity and tangible contribution to rural livelihoods. With the support and encouragement of Lewa CEO Ian Craig, community-owned and managed conservancies began to spring up around Laikipia and Isilio. So successful was the multi-pronged approach to land management, security and tourism that Lewa Wildlife Conservancy was constantly called upon to support and guide the surrounding protected areas.
The result was the formation of the Northern Rangelands Trust (as a separate entity from Lewa), which now oversees over 30 different conservancies and community lands. Its mission: to develop resilient community conservancies to “transform people’s lives, secure peace and conserve natural resources” through providing funds, advice, training, and support.
A tribute to the success of Lewa’s conservation efforts came in 2013 when UNESCO declared both Lewa Wildlife Conservancy and neighbouring Ngare Ndare Forest Reserve an extension of the Mount Kenya World Heritage Site.
A Lewa leopard waking from an afternoon nap
Ngare Ndare Forest Reserve
Just south of Lewa is the Ngare Ndare Forest Reserve, part of the Mount Kenya forest ecosystem. This fairytale forest is one of Kenya’s hidden gems – frequented mostly by locals and Lewa guests. Thick ferns line the lush forest trails, and the trees are draped in thick vines to the point that one might be forgiven for expecting to see a yodelling Tarzan swinging in the canopy overhead. Though the forest lacks any large primates (apart from the visitors), there are plenty of elephants and black-and-white colobus monkeys hidden in and among the trees!
There are two main attractions in Ngare Ndare: the waterfall tumbling into an azure pool and the canopy walk. The first of these can be found in a spectacular rocky grotto, where swimming is permitted for those able to brave the cold of the mountain spring water. The canopy walk consists of a hanging walkway ten metres above the forest floor. This is the perfect place to take in the beauty of the forest, particularly at sunset when the trees are burnished in shades of gold and green.
The elephants went in two by two (Hurrah!)
One of the primary justifications for expanding the Mount Kenya World Heritage Site to include Lewa and Ngare Ndare was the 14km wildlife corridor linking the Mount Kenya National Park to Ngare Ndare. The narrow strip of fenced land runs between farmlands and has proved to be of immense value to the elephants of central and northern Kenya (as well as the surrounding farmers and their fields). From a conservation perspective, this elephant migration corridor is one of the greater Lewa landscape’s most fascinating features.
We know from recent research that elephants are now restricted to just 17% of their historical range, forced to navigate human-dominated landscapes and no longer able to follow traditional migration routes. The elephants of this ecosystem would have moved between the forests on the slopes of Mount Kenya (and, of course, the readily available streams fed by glacial runoff) and the more arid regions of the north (Samburu and the Matthews Range) depending on the seasons and rainfall. This migration corridor, created in 2010, allows the elephants to continue to do so, connecting the habitats while reducing conflict with the rural communities occupying the space between them. The underpass beneath the main highway was the first of its kind in East Africa and allows the safe passage of elephants and an assortment of other animals. Astonishingly, it took the first elephant just 12 hours to discover the completed underpass.
A young male lion contemplates his future
Wild Lewa
Lewa’s deep conservation roots have ensured a thriving wildlife population, including the Big 5 (though leopard sightings are still relatively unusual), rarities like the Grevy’s zebra. Naturally, both black and white rhinos are one of the main drawcards, and Lewa is one of the best places to view the two African rhino species. Not much compares to the sight of a critically endangered black rhino out in the open on Lewa’s grasslands, with the singular outline of Mount Kenya in the background.
The northern “specials” are all present, including the reticulated giraffe, common beisa oryx, gerenuk and Somali ostrich. The conservancy is a population stronghold of the endangered Grevy’s zebra, and the growing numbers have been translocated to bolster populations in surrounding conservancies. Lions and cheetahs abound, and packs of African painted wolves occasionally make a fleeting appearance.
To protect and to conserve
Have you ever wondered about what goes on behind the scenes in keeping a reserve operational and safe? Lewa’s phenomenal guest experience offers a transparent insight into the day-to-day realities of reserve management and even allows guests to join its various conservation initiatives where appropriate. This includes everything from visits to the local community schools and clinics to anti-poaching demonstrations and a chance to meet the tracker dogs. Rather than presenting a sanitised safari disconnected from reality, the Lewa approach is one of absolute authenticity.
Hospitality and accommodation in Lewa
Explore & Stay
This freedom of experience is a trademark of the central and north Kenyan tourism mantra, and the wealth of activities on offer makes the Lewa safari unlike any other. Game drives form the backbone of sedate exploration, but guests can opt to join the guides tracking the wildlife on foot or even rock their way across the landscape on the back of a camel. The conservancy is home to several exceptionally well-trained horses and offers rides for both beginners and more advanced riders. The joy of viewing wildlife from horseback is that the wild animals respond differently to the horses than they might to people on foot. The result is a safe and close encounter with wildlife that does not affect natural behaviour. Guests wanting an even more immersive experience can request a night out under the stars, and the lodges will set up a fly camp. From bush breakfasts to sundowners, nothing is ever too much trouble in Lewa…
This region of Kenya experiences two rainy seasons, which fall over April/May and November. At the height of the rains, the treacherous black cotton soils make navigation almost impossible and the lodges close operations in April and November. The dry season between June and September offers the best wildlife sightings. This does fall over the high tourist season, and the lodges are busier than normal. However, it is worth bearing in mind that this is by conservancy standards, and the experience remains exclusive.
There are several different lodges scattered throughout the conservancy, ranging from high-end to ultra-luxurious. Those wishing for more budget options can stay in the Mount Kenya National Park or the neighbouring Il Ngwesi Community Conservancy. However, as previously mentioned, only guests staying in Lewa will be granted access to the conservancy.
Want to go on safari to Lewa Wildlife Conservancy? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
A recipe for success
Protecting Africa’s remaining wild spaces in today’s world is no easy task and requires juggling security, conservation, community relationships and local livelihoods in a competitive tourism environment. There is no such thing as a perfect recipe for securing the future of Africa’s protected landscapes but the Lewa Wildlife Conservancy stands out as one of Kenya’s most illustrious success stories.
The iridescent feathers of birds are one of nature’s greatest marvels. The dazzling, shimmering colours on certain birds play an essential role in visual communication between individuals, including the sunbird species. New research on these tiny birds demonstrates that this beauty comes at its own cost, in the form of increased heat absorption.
There are essentially two different types of bird colouration: pigment colours and structural colours. Black, brown and grey colours are created by melanin, produced by the bird. The warm colours like yellows and pinks come from a family of chemical compounds known as carotenoids, found in the bird’s diet. Bright reds and green both come from specialised pigments unique to certain bird families. The turacos, for example, have both a vibrant red pigment called turacin and a rich green pigment known as turacoverdin. Parrots also have a particular group of pigments: psittacofulvin pigments.
On the opposite side of the spectrum, so to speak, blue colours and iridescence are structural colours created by light refraction caused by microstructures in the feathers. Keratin protein and specialised organelles called melanosomes in the feathers. They act as a kind of prism, scattering light into different wavelengths and producing an array of colours. The colours observed depend on the angle of the light and the position of the observer. Whether as a result of pigments or structural design, these colours communicate the physical fitness of the individual – a brightly coloured bird is likely healthy and strong and, therefore, a suitable potential mate.
Sunbirds are tiny nectar-feeding birds found across Africa, Asia and Australia. Their feathers are decorated in a bright array of different colours that use both pigments and iridescence. The males of all sunbird species are always more brightly coloured than their female counterparts, many of which are drab in comparison.
Researchers wanted to test how this iridescence affects the thermoregulation of the birds. In order to accomplish this, they exposed 15 different sunbird specimens to a lamp that mimics sunlight. They then measured the temperatures of the feathers and the underlying skin. The results showed that iridescent feathers heated up over 10˚C more than those with yellow/red pigments, while the skin underlying the iridescent feathers was 5-8˚C warmer than that beneath pigmented feathers. Scientists attribute this to a combination of melanin pigments and the arrangement and shape of the melanosomes that store these pigments. Thus, iridescent feathers likely heat up even more than black feathers.
Male sunbirds use their iridescence during courtship displays, which suggests a trade-off between sexual selection and thermoregulation. However, a significant limitation of this study is that it was not conducted on living birds in realistic situations and thus cannot account for active thermoregulation measures. From a simple behavioural point of view, sunbirds spend little time in one place in direct sunlight. Instead, they flit from flower to flower, often in dense vegetation. Birds can also pant to lose heat. Given that iridescence has evolved independently in multiple different species, the cost of this increased heating is unlikely too high.
Why then is this research necessary? It provides another important facet in evaluating the foreseeable effects of rising temperatures due to climate change. Although often underreported, birds are already severely affected by climate change, and extreme temperature events have resulted in several mass die-offs across the globe. The hotter it gets, the more energy sunbirds will have to invest in thermoregulation. This could reduce feeding times on hot days and, in turn, increase competition with each other and other bird species during the cooler hours.
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From our Editor-in-Chief
It’s around this time of year that my body starts to anticipate the holiday season. This has nothing to do with cretinous businesses that insist on erecting Christmas decorations sometime in late August. Rather it has to do with nature’s glorious cycle. I am in the lowveld of South Africa currently, absorbing the wonders of the Greater Kruger. The impala ewes have dropped their lambs, the tiny, spring-loaded antelope cavort around on the new carpet of green forging out of the dry season dust. The afternoon skies are pregnant with storms, the cicadas are singing (if you can call it that) and the cuckoos are in full cry. The smell, sounds and sights of new life are a balm to the human soul, as is the sense of comfort that comes with nature’s endless cycle.
Speaking of that holiday feeling, the Garden Route of the southern Cape in South Africa offers some of the country’s most picturesque and exciting destinations. Have a look at our first story below to find out more and contact our Travel Team to book your adventure.
Despised by some stock farmers and adored by nature lovers, the caracal is an enigmatic, mysterious and stunning cat somewhere between a tabby and a lion. Our second story below celebrates this resilient and legendary felid.
Back to that holiday feeling – Our travel team is offering a brilliant Kenyan safari special. It’s a 7-day safari in Kenya’s most spectacular wildlife areas – Maasai Mara & Samburu. From US$3,640 per person sharing. Note that the cheapest options are for our club members. Have you joined?
From our Scientific Editor
Many years ago, when I was but a callow teenager embarking on the beginnings of my career in the bush, I met a “tame” caracal. She had been rescued as a kitten after her mother was killed by a passing car (sadly, an all too common occurrence). The caracal was initially raised by a well-meaning farmer but was given the wrong nutritive balance in her first few weeks. This resulted in growth deformities and she was moved to the care of more experienced guardians to live a half-wild, half-domestic existence in the heart of the Green Kalahari.
She was utterly entrancing – for all the world like a giant house cat that curled up on the couch, purred and looked out upon the world with Cleopatra eyes. Until one day she stole the steak off my plate. When I went to grab it (I’ve never been a fussy eater), she turned upon me a look so utterly wild and feline cold that I stopped dead in my tracks, the hairs on the back of my neck standing on end. I backed off, she ate the steak.
Medium-sized cats like caracals and servals are becoming increasingly popular as exotic pets, usually with disastrous consequences for them and their ill-prepared owners. Fortunately, this has not yet had a major impact on wild populations (as it has with cheetahs) but I still feel it is grossly unfair to take an animal with wild instincts and force it into a cage of domesticity. The fact that it is undeniably ego-driven makes it all the more repugnant to me, however popular these exotic pets may be on social media. Let’s leave rehabilitation to the experts and wild animals where they belong.
If the whole world is indeed a garden, as Frances Hodgson Burnett once wrote, then the Garden Route of South Africa was cultivated by a maverick horticulturist. In truth, the name is somewhat misleading because the Garden Route is about as far from the average garden as could conceivably be imagined. Here, myriad landscapes culminate in a dramatic meeting of mountains, gorges, forest and the Indian Ocean, interspersed by quaint towns and bustling beach cities. Not for nothing is this glorious stretch of coastline one of South Africa’s most popular tourism hotspots – it is a region best explored at leisure, taking every moment to appreciate nature in her wildest glory.
In truth, neither “garden” nor “route” are particularly accurate descriptors, though the moniker has proved such an effective marketing tool that nearby towns clamour for (or simply claim) inclusion. Although the exact boundaries differ depending on the source, the Garden Route generally refers to an area that extends from Mossel Bay in the Western Cape, east to the town of Stormsrivier in the Eastern Cape – a straight-line distance of around 200km. Inland it encompasses the town of Oudtshoorn right up to the Swartberg Mountain Range. This magnificent region includes rugged patches of coastline, pristine sandy beaches, forests, mountains, gorges, lakes and rivers, all easily and quickly accessible. At the right time of year (August/September), many sections are covered in a glorious carpet of flowers, only adding to the beauty of the surroundings.
Visitors can select a base from Olde Worlde towns and explore the extraordinary scenery day by day before rewarding themselves with an evening of fine dining or perhaps an afternoon at a picturesque wine farm. With the added advantage of several malaria-free nature reserves and national parks in the vicinity to tack on a safari adventure, a trip to the Garden Route can be individually tailored to every need – from families with small children and sedate couples to intrepid solo travellers and adventure seekers.
The Storms River gorge
Mossel Bay
Mossel Bay is a town steeped in history and marks the spot where the very first European set foot in South Africa. Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias stopped here in 1488, searching for fresh water to replenish his ship’s supplies. As he was to discover, the land was already occupied. In a sad portent of this region’s future race relations, one of Dias’ men shot a Khoikhoi herder with a crossbow. Unsurprisingly, the locals reacted with anger and sent the mariner and his scurvy-riddled sailors scuttling back to their ship in a hail of stones. Human history in the area goes back considerably further than Dias’ misadventure. The caves below Pinnacle Point contain some of the earliest artefacts of modern man – believed to be about 164,000 years old. These Middle Stone Age people could not have chosen a more picturesque home; the caves look out on the turquoise of the Indian Ocean below.
These days, visitors to Mossel Bay visit the cave networks and admire the view before visiting the museum complex to explore the full-sized replica of Dias’ ship. Though the coastline is relatively rocky here, a couple of stunning beaches and sheltered coves are perfect for swimming in the warm sea. The quaint St Blaize Lighthouse is a popular attraction and serves as a landmark for some of the region’s popular hiking routes. There is also a Seal Island (smaller than the one close to Cape Town) where Cape fur seals gather in enormous numbers.
Clockwise from top left: Wilderness beach; view of the Swartberg mountains near Oudtshoorn; Mossel Bay in the evening
George
One of South Africa’s oldest towns and once a historic timber hub, George is nestled in the sublime Outeniqua Mountains, just eight kilometres from the ocean. As one of the Garden Route’s largest towns, it is sometimes nicknamed the “Gateway to the Garden Route” and sports a curious mixture of big city vibrance and small-town atmosphere. There are several historical landmarks to appreciate, including an ancient English Oak tree called The Slave Tree, the King Edward VII Library, the Outeniqua Transport Museum and several old churches. The Garden Route Botanical Gardens, which exclusively showcases the unique vegetation of the southern Cape fynbos, are also situated in George.
The various scenic drives around the town, including Montagu Pass, will reveal unexpected antique shops, art galleries and craft stalls, while golf enthusiasts can enjoy a round at some of South Africa’s premier courses.
Clockwise from top left: Tsitsikamma; Groot Brak beach; the bridge at Bloukrans; a view of the Outeniqua Mountains from George
Oudtshoorn
To the north and inland from George, the town of Oudtshoorn marks the northern boundary of the Garden Route region. Here the vegetation has changed from the iconic fynbos of the Cape coastlines to the sparse Klein Karoo, at the meeting point of the Swartberg and Outeniqua Mountain ranges.
Offering the usual rural town charm so characteristic of the Garden Route’s urban areas, Oudtshoorn is also home to the largest farmed ostrich population in the world. This tradition goes back to the days of the Ostrich Feather Booms of the late 19th century/early 20th century, which saw the rise of “feather barons” and dynasties that built the mansions lining the Grobbelaars River. Before World War 1, ostrich feathers were South Africa’s fourth-largest export and worth almost their weight in diamonds. Today, ostriches are farmed for their meat and feathers and continue to be a major tourist attraction.
Just outside Oudtshoorn are the Cango Caves, enormous limestone caves with massive stalagmite formations, some of which date back 4,5 billion years!
Tremendous fun to be had on the Garden Route. Clockwise from top left: Cango Caves; paragliding; a steam train experience; some of the most beautiful golf courses in the world
Wilderness and Wilderness National Park
In keeping with Garden Route naming tradition, Wilderness is less “wilderness” and a more tranquil seaside town, situated on the banks of the Touw River Lagoon. It is, however, surrounded by true wilderness in the form of the nearby Wilderness National Park, which protects over 2,500 hectares and encompasses forests, five rivers, five lakes, two estuaries and a stretch of coastline. Though usually still referred to as Wilderness National Park, since 2008, it is technically the Wilderness section of the Garden Route National Park which also includes the Knysna Pools and Tsitsikamma sections (see below).
Wilderness National Park is a paradise for campers, hikers, kayakers, mountain bikers, paragliders, abseilers and kloofing enthusiasts. The magical forest paths wind their way to various waterfalls. They are filled with the calls (and occasional glimpses) of kingfishers and the colourful Knysna turacos (or ‘loerie’ if chatting to a local). The coastline section comes to a head at Dolphin Point, which, like much of the Garden Route, is a great place to look for southern right whales during their annual migration (from July until early November).
Not far from Wilderness, en route to Knysna, is the seaside village of Sedgefield – an excellent spot for families looking for a quieter seaside holiday – and the Goukamma Nature Reserve, which protects an extensive vegetated dune field.
The stunning Knysna Forest
Knysna
The original route between George and Knysna is the historic Seven Passes Road which crosses over ten rivers and seven gorges and provides a taster of the exquisite scenery awaiting keen explorers. As beautiful Southern African towns go, Knysna is near the top of a very long and competitive list. Situated on the banks of a picturesque lagoon that is part of a protected marine reserve and surrounded by lush indigenous forests, Knysna is renowned for its dynamic charm and genial hospitality. The Knysna River feeds the warm water estuary. It passes between two prominent headlands –The Heads – creating an occasionally treacherous narrow strip for boats to pass through as they head for the open sea.
The town is surrounded by temperate forests that hide what ecologists believe to be the last remaining elephant of the Knysna/Tsitsikamma region. The cow is thought to be around 45 years old and is the sole survivor of the effectively extinct southernmost population of elephants in Africa. Centuries of persecution have genetically programmed her to be understandably wary of humans, and actual sightings of her are few and far between. Most of what we know about her movements come from tracks, dung and camera traps as she haunts the ancient trails of the fairy-tale forests and surrounding farms – a lonely and poignant figure.
Clockwise from top left: Knysna turaco; Knysna woodpecker; an ostrich trying to stay cool near Oudtshoorn; southern right whale; humpback whale; cape fur seal with cephalopod meal
Garden Route National Park and the Tsitsikamma Forests
Her ancestors, which experts estimate probably numbered around 3,000 individuals in the 18th century, would have wandered far and wide through the dark and mysterious forests and surrounding habitats. Though the elephants are long gone, parts of their historic range are protected by the Garden Route National Park: a disconnected amalgamation of the existing Tsitsikamma and Wilderness National Parks, the Knysna National Lake Area, and various other protected tracts of state land.
The Garden Route National Park covers patches of the south coast between George and Port Elizabeth. Its magnificent forests are characterised by giant Outeniqua yellowwoods, stinkwoods, and Cape chestnuts, blooming upwards from thick ferns on the forest floor. From west to east, the topography becomes increasingly dramatic, culminating in the plunging cliffs and steep gorges of Tsitsikamma and Storms River, which marks the “end” of the Garden Route.
Here visitors can test their head for heights by crossing the bridge over the Bloukrans River. Adrenaline junkies can get their thrill fix by leaping from the bridge at one of the highest bungee jumps in the world – an astonishing 216 metres (roughly 70 stories) above the base of the gorge. The suspension bridge over the Storms River mouth further east offers a more sedate and less vertiginous approach to taking in the spectacular scenery.
Plettenberg Bay
Plettenberg Bay
The town of “Plett” is known for its expanses of white sandy beaches and glorious cerulean sea, making it one of the best choices as a base to explore the rest of the Garden Route. Nature lovers will find themselves enthralled by a circuit of the Robberg peninsula at the Robberg Nature Reserve or watching the Cape fur seals navigating the surf. Southern right (July to November), Bryde’s, humpback (May/June and from November to January), killer and sei whales are regular visitors, and dolphins are permanent residents.
Country living on the Garden Route – from backpackers to ultimate luxury
Explore and stay
Want to head to the Garden Route? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
The weather along the Garden Route is temperate and idyllic, with temperatures seldom dropping below 10˚C or rising too far above 29 ˚C on the coast. Unusually for South Africa, there is no set rainy season, and rain can fall all year round (and it does – the Garden Route receives some of the highest rainfall levels in South Africa, hence the verdant foliage). There is a slight peak in rainfall during the winter months from June until August, which coincides with the arrival of migrating whales. The flowers celebrate the arrival of spring in September.
As already discussed, this is not a “route” but rather an exploration and visitors can make the best of their stay by choosing one or two places to stay and travelling to the various attractions from there. Careful planning and research will ensure the best out of a trip, and even when time is limited, it is better to make the most of specific areas rather than cramming in every attraction.
It’s hard to encapsulate the magic of the Garden Route – there are many beautiful coastlines in the world. Yet, this special patch of Africa stands out as a truly extraordinary destination. Perhaps it has to do with the fact that the Garden Route offers everything from dramatic scenery, hiking and wilderness adventures to beach holidays, scuba diving and wine farms, all in the same vicinity. The eclectic collection of local artists, writers, musicians, retirees, and big-city escapees who have chosen to live there adds to the vibrant atmosphere. Whatever it may be, it is undeniable that the Garden Route casts a kind of spell over those fortunate enough to explore its many wonders.
All felids are beautiful. It is a shared trait made even more appealing by the uncanny impression that they are fully aware of their own allure. However, with its luminous eyes, bold facial markings and dramatic ear tufts, the caracal is arguably Africa’s most exquisite cat. Our appreciation of the caracal’s beauty goes back thousands of years, and historians believe that caracals were of considerable religious significance in ancient Egyptian culture, with sculptures guarding the tombs of pharaohs.
Introduction
The caracal (Caracal caracal) is a medium-sized wild cat found throughout Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia. They are slightly stockier than their serval cousin, and their robust bodies are covered in a uniform coat of burnished red. Their bottle-green eyes are lined by the kind of natural eyeliner that would make Elizabeth Taylor jealous, with thick black lines running down the sides of their noses, emphasising the elegant jawline. The name “caracal” was inspired by their most distinctive feature, with the Turkish word “Karrah-ulak/coulac” roughly translating as “cat with black ears”. The outlandish ears combine with the caracal’s overall aesthetic to emphasise the impression of a proud and no-nonsense cat.
The tufted ears have led to the obvious comparison with the various lynx species, and the caracal is sometimes called the desert lynx. Phylogenetically, however, caracals are only distantly related to lynxes. Their closest relatives are the African golden cat (Caracal aurata) which inhabit the rainforests of Central Africa. Together with the serval (Leptailurus serval), these cats are all descended from the caracal lineage. Though not yet fully recognised on the IUCN’s Red List, the IUCN Cat Specialist Group suggest a tentative division into three subspecies: C. c. caracal of Southern and East Africa, C. c. nubicus of North and West Africa and C. c. schmitzi of Asia. Like the subspecies divisions proposed for the serval in the same report, these distinctions are based on a trend observed within other widespread mammal species. They could easily change with future genetic evidence.
The solitary and secretive caracal is found in a wide variety of habitats but shows a preference for more arid areas with suitable cover. In wetter areas, it is primarily outcompeted by the serval, while golden cats hold dominion over the central forested parts of the continent. Like servals, the caracal is usually classified as nocturnal, but in reality, they can be active at any time of the day, especially when the weather is cool.
The caracal’s distinctive ear tufts, bold facial markings and red coat make it unmistakable
Quick Facts
Shoulder height:
40-50cm
Mass:
7-19kg
Length (not including the tail):
71-100cm
Social structure:
solitary apart from mothers with kittens
Gestation:
62-81 days
Life expectancy:
around 10 in the wild, up to 20 in captivity
Caracal coats blend beautifully into the arid vegetation they prefer to inhabit
Setting the cat among the pigeons
Like all members of the cat family, caracals are efficient and deadly predators. They typically prey on small mammals and birds but can take down animals an astonishing two to three times their mass. Small they may be but beneath the sleek red coats are muscles of steel, capable of launching these agile cats more than three metres into the air. This prodigious pouncing power is shared with the serval but, while servals generally use these leaps to catch ground-dwelling rodents by surprise, caracals are experts at snatching up birds in flight. This is accomplished by a combination of exceptional depth-perception, an ability to twist and turn in the air, and proportionately enormous paws which spread open to expose needle-sharp claws.
The expression “to put the cat among the pigeons” may well be attributable to the caracal’s bird-hunting prowess. Until the 20th century, they were kept and trained by the Indian elite to hunt small game. In keeping with the human competitive streak, this inevitably resulted in a desire to test whose caracal was the better hunter. Caracals were set in arenas filled with pigeons, and bets would be placed on which caracals would kill the most. Unfortunately, like most wild animals caracals have been hunted for sport – even today.
Caracals continue to be hunted for sport and as livestock farming pests
Not just pigeons
Caracals are extremely versatile and adapt their hunting style to the habitat and type of prey. While the ambush approach typifies most hunts, they are adept climbers and exceptional runners. In fact, the caracal is probably one of, if not the, fastest member of the smaller cat species. They have been clocked at 80km/h, and while they are not endurance runners, their stamina is usually more than sufficient to chase down the prey of choice.
Small birds and rodents are dispatched by long canines and consumed immediately in their entirety. Larger birds and prey are killed by a bite to the throat and then carefully plucked. Caracals may stash exceptionally large kills for later consumption. They can extract most of their moisture needs from their food and are relatively water independent, though they will readily drink if water is available.
Caracals are largely independent of water but will drink when it is available
Catcalls
Though caracals’ social and sexual lives are still relatively understudied, they are known to be solitary and territorial. There is a considerable degree of overlap between territories, the boundaries of which are marked with urine and claw scratching. Like leopards, it seems that the territories of males are far more extensive than those of the females and encompass the territories of several different females. Territory size and caracal density are dependent on the resources available to them. When the habitat is suitable, and prey is abundant, the territories will be smaller, and the population density higher.
The bold facial markings and ear tufts are believed to play an essential role in visual communication within the species, but caracals also display a wide variety of vocalisations. These include a kind of twittering meow as well as growls, hissing and purring. Adult males and females only associate when the female is in oestrus, which the female advertises through frequent urination.
Caracal kittens
Caracals breed throughout the year, but most litters coincide with the arrival of the rainy season when prey is most abundant. The litters consist of anywhere between one and six kittens. The female will seek out an appropriate den site in dense vegetation or abandoned porcupine or aardvark burrows. Though born blind and helpless, the kittens rapidly transform into adorably fierce, tiny predators and start attempting to hunt around the den as early as three to four weeks old.
They are fully weaned by six months and reach sexual maturity early – between seven and ten months. However, they will likely only breed successfully after leaving their mothers at around 12 months.
Persecuted felines
The IUCN’s Red List currently classifies the caracal’s overall conservation status as “Least Concern”, but this is highly variable. Habitat loss and human expansion threaten most Middle Eastern and Asian populations, and caracals are thought to be close to extinction in North Africa. They are frequent victims of vehicle collisions and regularly come into conflict with livestock farmers.
Caracals are considered mesocarnivores/mesopredators – a loose grouping of medium-sized predators that include species such as foxes and jackals. These animals often prove to be highly adaptable to and tolerant of human encroachment. With the removal of competition from the bigger predators (who, by virtue of their size, are less resilient to human presence), such midrange carnivores seem to flourish. Unfortunately, this places them at a much higher risk of conflict with farmers. Caracals can and do kill livestock, though research shows that they prefer natural prey and that livestock is only utilised as a supplement.
As a result, in many parts of Southern Africa, particularly South Africa and Namibia, caracals are considered “problem animals” and are persecuted extensively in certain areas. As caracals are exceedingly challenging to count, the effects of this conflict are not fully calculated or understood. The Cape Leopard Trust currently has several research programmes to understand the extent of the problem and find solutions to mitigate it. Interestingly and almost counterintuitively, some farmers in parts of South Africa have been introducing caracals to their farms in the hopes of reducing stock losses. This is because caracals and black-backed jackals (also responsible for livestock loss) operate in direct competition, so the presence of one controls the numbers of the other – balancing out the system, essentially. The effectiveness of this approach has not yet been thoroughly evaluated.
Caracals are NOT good pets
Pet Caracals
Caracals are beautiful, they tame easily and are naturally expressive, which has led to surging popularity in the pet trade. Keeping pet caracals is a tradition that goes back hundreds of years in many parts of Asia, but today exotic pet breeders are flourishing. It should go without saying that caracals do not make good pets. Without thousands of years of domestication, the instincts of any wild animal remain close to the surface, and most end up in a rescue centre when the owner realises just how difficult to manage they genuinely are.
Where to find one in the wild?
Though they are widespread throughout Africa, the best places to see caracals are the more arid parts of Southern Africa. Here they are the dominant mesocarnivore, and sightings are far more common due to reduced vegetation cover. The Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park and Central Kalahari Game Reserve boast excellent sightings, as do many of the parks in Namibia.
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The adventurous amongst you will already know this. The latest update to our club app for computers and mobile phones is that you can now search for the best lodges and prices on both a list and map view. The map view is our latest update – you all know how I love maps! AND you can now select from a range of currencies, and voila, all lodge prices update to your currency of choice! Stand by for more in the months to come – as we build THE platform for the best-priced safaris that make a difference. Thanks for the enquiries already flowing through from the club – this is the fuel that drives our mission. And please keep the donations coming – we hand those over unblemished to the beneficiary projects.
As you read this I will be loving the first day of a 3-day mountain bike stage race that spans the mountainous vineyards and coastline near Cape Town – the ‘Wines2Whales’. And then I will be out of action for two weeks, hiding out on a farm in the gorgeous Garden Route – my first break since Covid descended on us all. I leave you in the capable hands of my STELLAR team. See you in a few weeks.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Scientific Editor
While most of South Africa has been up in arms over Stage 4 load shedding (rolling blackouts resulting in over six hours a day without electricity), I’ve been celebrating the return of power to my flat after a five-day outage.
The long hours in the dark (without phone signal, as there is none here) gave me plenty of time to think about how desperately reliant on electricity and technology I am. Most of us like-minded souls love to escape to the wild somewhere to detox from the modern world, but, truth be told, we also like to come home to our modern conveniences. More than that – we need electricity to prosper.
As the 2021 Climate Change Conference draws to a close, the disparity between the “First World” and developing nations could not be more apparent. The average person in Ghana or Tanzania consumes less electricity than a US family’s fridge. Studies show that Africa has contributed the least to the current climate crisis but is likely to bear a disproportionate burden as climates shift. With the fastest growing population in the world, Africa needs the same opportunities to grow and develop infrastructure – which will take power and contribute to emissions. So, where is the balance, and who gets to judge?
From our Editor-in-Chief
COP 26 draws to a close today. It is difficult not to look at the expositions of concern and commitments from the great and the good without eye-rolling cynicism. My prediction? We will make almost no progress towards changing our inexorable march to self-annihilation, and the annihilation of countless other species, if we rely on politicians or the CEOs of multinational industries. In the first, we have (and yes, this is a generalisation) a breed of a human being (or vacuous parasite) whose raison d’etre is predicated on staying in power and, therefore, on pleasing whichever lobby will keep them there. In the second, we have a smooth-talking operator with strong opinions that say nothing, beholden to an invisible blob of unaccountability known as ‘shareholders’.
Very few of our so-called leaders demonstrate a deep-seated calling to navigate us away from our self-inflicted climate catastrophe with compassion, openness and honesty. So what to do? Well, it really is up to each and every one of us who care. Be more aware of your effect on our fragile planet – use less, give more, learn more, act more. Put the needs of our species above the needs of self or country. Hold the politicians and CEOs to account – they work for you, not the other way around.
After that, you might feel the need for a positive human tale. Our first story below will rekindle some faith in the human spirit to overcome against the odds. It is a story of one of the most profound 24 hours in South African history set in the majestic gorges and mountains of KwaZulu.
In our second story below, Dr Hayley Clemments describes an inspirational mission to quantify and enhance Africa’s biodiversity with local knowledge. (Club members only)
Lastly, we take a look at the least-known and most enigmatic of the four hyena species – the marvellous striped hyena.
• Wanna see the ‘elusive 5’ species of the Kalahari?This wonderful video by Tswalu Kalahari provides a brief peek into the lives of a few highly sought-after safari species. Did you know that club members get the best available prices at Tswalu Kalahari and other superb camps and lodges?
• The Government of Zambia has announced a 50% reduction in tourist visa fees from January 2022 in a move that is expected to boost the number of tourist arrivals and help boost the recovery of the tourism sector.
• Namibia has adopted the Trusted Travel System – an online digital platform for the verification and authentication of COVID-19 test results from a network of participating COVID-19 testing laboratories, port health authorities and transport industries.
About 14 kilometres southeast of the, to be polite, tumbledown settlement of Dundee, we turned east off the potholed tar road into the rough, hill country. We wound our way through farmland and rural Zulu settlements. The lowlands were blanketed in golden winter grass and pimpled with termite mounds. Copses of green and patches of shale fringed the drainage lines. The slopes were on fire with aloe flowers.
My enjoyment of the scenery was briefly interrupted by a homicidal farmer who had not the patience to deal with my slow appreciation of the landscape. He came haring up the hill in front of us, his giant pick-up hooting angrily. I took evasive action and ended teetering on the edge of a precipice in a cloud of dust. As the fine clay cleared from the air, the strange sphinx-like mountain of Isandlwana appeared in the distance.
We were travelling on a road that, historically, led to nowhere in particular – between Isandlwana and another mountain called Ishiyane. In the lee of the latter lies the mission station of Rorke’s Drift, where one of the most remarkable 24 hours in South African history took place.
It is a testament to the abominable teaching of history in South Africa that by the time I’d finished school, I’d learned incessantly about the Boers and their Great Trek, the Russian Revolution and something about Japan’s economic troubles in the wake of the 1865 rice shortage (I may have made that up). I had only vaguely heard of the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879. Yet it was a war, the origins and consequences of which still reverberate through South Africa with lessons, warnings and parallels.
Aloes in flower on the Fugitives’ Drift farm, Isandlwana in the background
Fugitives’ Drift
Just past Rorke’s Drift, we turned due east. Down a hill and halfway up the other side, we arrived at a gate, and a guard quickly materialised at my window. I greeted him in Zulu. He rolled his eyes slightly and asked for my name in English, and then smiled. He opened the gate. As we crested the hill, the sphinx mountain appeared again in the distance. Much closer, giraffe, blesbok, wildebeest and a few zebra dotted the woodland and grassy slopes leading to the precipitous gorge of the Buffalo River.
Fugitives’ Drift is owned and run by the Rattray family (not to be confused with the Rattrays of Mala Mala fame). Although the beautiful farm has been in the family for a few generations, the lodge was started by the late David Rattray and his wife, Nicky. Together, they pioneered history tourism in South Africa through a unique combination of Nicky’s natural hospitality, David’s mesmerising story-telling, and the lodge’s location midway between Isandlwana and Rorke’s Drift – the two sites of the famous battles on which the fantastical legend of this area is built.
Fugitives Drift’s 31-year history very nearly ended before it began.
But for brave history aficionados, visitors to this remote part of KwaZulu were few and far between in 1990. There were a few historical guides in ropey straw hats taking intrepid buffs to the battlefields. Some school busses filled with bored kids and more bored teachers passed by from time to time. The battlefields did not resemble a tourism hotspot.
Firm in self-belief and the captivating power of the stories leaping from a countryside littered with the bones of long ago, David and Nicky took a colossal, courageous gamble to build a little lodge in a place on the road to literally nowhere.
Clockwise from top left: A room at the main lodge; the deck at the main lodge; lunch on the deck of the Harford Library; the Buffalo River gorge
The experience
In the beginning, David took all the battlefield tours – Isandlwana in the morning, curry for lunch, 40 minutes on his back, Rorke’s Drift in the evening. He fixed the plumbing, and he cut the flagstones that make up the floor of what is now the gorgeous little museum. While he was doing this, Nicky was supervising miraculous meals, ingredients sourced from god-knows-where. She was checking in the guests, making bookings, doing the accounts.
The Rattrays were also raising three sons.
Fugitives’ Drift is set on an idyllic 2000 hectares of undulating bushveld, acacia woodland, and rocky viewpoints over 22 kilometres of Buffalo River frontage. To the east, over the rough country where the fugitives from the battle of Isandlwana fled, the sphinx mountain rises. To the northwest, the view is dominated by the Ishiyane mountain, behind which Rorke’s Drift nestles.
The farm takes its name from the third great story of the 22nd of January, 1879 – that of the Fugitives’ flight from the battle at Isandlwana. The river widens briefly not far from the lodge, and it is here that some of the fleeing British soldiers managed to cross the raging torrent. Two of these, Lieutenants Melville and Coghill, were to earn the first two posthumous Victoria Crosses in history. They died in a futile attempt to save the Queen’s Colour of their regiment and, with it, regimental honour. The graves of these two men are a gentle 15-minute walk from the lodge.
The wildlife of Fugitives’ Drift
Where to stay?
Want to go on safari to Fugitive’s Drift? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
There are three accommodation options- all of them excellent. For the more budget-conscious, there is Mzinyathi House, a lovely old stone and corrugated iron farmhouse. There’s a fireplace, three en suite bedrooms and a kitchen for self-catering. For those who do not wish to feed themselves, meals at the main lodge are easily arranged.
The Guest House is the site of an old general store. The original building has been altered into a stunning dining and lounge area where guests can sit around a fire in the winter or on the verandah of a summer’s evening, as they marvel at the day’s stories and listen to the faint whispers of history floating on the breeze. The en suite rooms boast views of the Buffalo River valley and Isandlwana rising in the east.
The five-star lodge is where the Rattrays built the original, humble Fugitives’ Drift Lodge. Now it is a gorgeous testament to the Rattray legacy and a tastefully luxurious way to soak up the history and natural beauty of the area. Each suite is individually decorated, opening onto views of the plains, often dotted with antelope, above the Buffalo River gorge. Scrumptious meals are served in the communal dining room or on the deck beneath a colossal fig tree where the birds hop about, squabbling over the fruit while cheeky monkeys watch to see what’s on the menu. You might have tea and while away an afternoon in the Harford Library or browse the artefacts in the museum – the floor stones of which I mentioned earlier.
Tearjerking historical stories. Clockwise from top left: Isandlwana; The church at Rorke’s Drift; the graves of Lts Melville and Coghill; the British memorial at Rorke’s Drift; Douglas Rattray in full flow.
Tear-jerking epics
While Nicky set about creating an atmosphere of homely luxury at the lodge, David (with his photographic memory, passion for history, and Zulu language skills) sallied forth into the countryside with his childhood friend, Satchmo Mpanza, to find the Zulu side of the Anglo-Zulu war story. He spoke to the children and grandchildren of the warriors who fought at the battles of Isandlwana and Rorke’s Drift.
Armed with this knowledge, a booming voice and a knack for theatre, David spawned an industry in historical storytelling. He took the initial, irregular trickle of guests onto the battlefields and told the jaw-dropping story of the Day of the Dead Moon. Those guests told their friends of the tears they’d shed on the bones of the brave, dead men of both sides. That trickle of travellers turned into a torrent.
The first battle took place in the eerie quarter-light of a solar eclipse on the slopes of Isandlwana. On the 22nd of January 1879, the Zulu army, inspired by their king Cetshwayo and led by their 70-year-old general Ntshingwayo, inflicted the heaviest defeat ever suffered by a colonial British army. They did so to repel a massive British invasion of Zululand and defend the old Zulu order.
Later on the same day, a small band of some 150 British soldiers, many injured and sick, defended Rorke’s Drift from 3,000 to 4,000 Zulu warriors. They fought through the night behind barricades of biscuit boxes and bags of maize, their Martini-Henry rifles turning red as they fired round after round into their attackers. More Victoria Crosses were awarded for valour at Rorke’s Drift than at any other battle in history.
The magnificent museum
David sadly died in 2007, but his legacy as the country’s premier historical storyteller lives on in the guiding team at Fugitives’, lead by his son Douglas. Indeed, there are any number of storytellers knocking about South Africa making a living from talking about our country’s rich and turbulent history. Just about all of them have borrowed inflexions and style from the master himself. (Do yourself a favour and listen to David tell the Anglo-Zulu war epic here).
I have had the privilege of hearing David and his sons, Andrew and Douglas, tell the stories of these battles. On this trip, Douglas delivered the Rorke’s Drift epic on-site at the little mission station. As the sun turned carmine in the dusty west, Douglas extolled the courage of the British soldiers and Zulu warriors. As the dusk closed around us, he removed his peaked hat, placed it on the end of his stick and finished with Laurence Binyon’s immortal words:
They shall grow not old, as we that are left grow old:
Age shall not weary them, nor the years condemn.
At the going down of the sun and in the morning
We will remember them.
I have heard Douglas deliver this talk twice. Both times, I have had to turn away as the tears rolled down my cheeks.
Fugitives’ Drift is a rejuvenating getaway for heart and soul, where the hills breathe history and ghosts whisper in the moonlit gorges. The lodge is a haven of family hospitality in a breathtaking natural setting.
Memorial to the Zulu fallen at Isandlwana
Resources
Fugitives’ Drift does a lot of work in the communities surrounding the farm, mainly in education and sustainability. To find out more, have a look at Khulu Education
How much biodiversity can we lose before it starts impacting our quality of life? We all depend on well-functioning ecosystems, whether we are aware of this or not. Yet measuring how much biodiversity we are losing across the African continent, and what that means for our well-being, is a difficult task. To address this challenge, we are mobilising hundreds of African biodiversity experts to produce a continental map of ‘biodiversity intactness’ that is credible and useful to African decision-makers.
Biodiversity and human well-being
Biodiversity is fundamental to human well-being. A recent assessment of the Intergovernmental Science Policy Panel on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) found that biodiversity and its contributions to people in Africa are ‘essential to providing for the continent’s food, water, energy, health and secure livelihoods’. The report highlights biodiversity as ‘a strategic asset for sustainable development and achievement of the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals’.
As the sun dips to the horizon, burnishing the plains of East Africa in shades of gold and orange, spotted hyena whoops and cackles fill the air. Burning with fierce intelligence, they band together in groups to hunt and patrol territories or set out on solitary foraging missions. As darkness descends over the rocky outcrops bordering the plains, another hyena watches – a silent and mysterious cousin. Seldom seen and poorly understood, the striped hyena lurks in the shadows, shy and elusive.
The basics
In Africa, the timid and retiring striped hyena is eclipsed almost entirely by its bolder and more conspicuous spotted and brown cousins. So much so that few people even realise that this hyena species occurs on the African continent . Even the aardwolf is more readily recognised. Unusual for a large carnivore, the exceptionally secretive habits of striped hyenas have resulted in piecemeal research, particularly in Africa. However, this air of mystery makes them decidedly intriguing, simply because we know so little about a species in one of the major carnivore families.
The little we know about striped hyena ethology stems largely from the populations found throughout Asia (the striped hyena is the only hyena species found outside of Africa). There are only a handful of published papers on the behavioural ecology of striped hyenas in Africa. Much of what is inferred comes from a handful of observations or second-hand anecdotal evidence.
Despite this dearth of information, the striped hyena is widely (but patchily) distributed across most of North and East Africa, the Horn of Africa, and sections of West Africa, albeit at low densities. They have a preference for semi-arid regions and avoid deserts or thick forests. In places where striped hyenas overlap with spotted hyena. spotted hyenas, they are outnumbered and largely outcompeted. Unlike their spotted counterparts, striped hyenas are almost exclusively scavengers, though they occasionally hunt small and manageable prey.
A striped hyena comes for an evening drink
Quick Facts
Social structure:
solitary or small family groups
Mass:
between 22-55kg (average 35kg)
Shoulder height:
60-80cm
Gestation period:
90 days
Litter size:
1-5 cubs
Life expectancy:
probably around 12 years in the wild but over 20 years in captivity
Family resemblance?
There are four extant species of hyena: the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), the brown hyena (Parahyaena brunnea), the striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) and the aardwolf (Proteles cristatus). Despite their dog-like appearance, all members of the hyena family (Hyaenidae) are more closely related to the genet (Viverridae) and mongoose (Herpestidae) families, as part of the Feliformia (cat-like) sub-order of Carnivora.
Though the striped fur and thick mane of the striped hyena most closely resemble the aardwolf, careful observation reveals a closer similarity with the brown hyena. Indeed, take away the fur, and one can see that the two share an almost identical body shape, though the brown’s skull is more robust. Unlike the rounded ears of the spotted, both the brown and striped sport more dog-like and expressive ears. Both are mainly scavengers with bone-crushing jaw strength and massive carnassial molars but lack the spotted’s head and neck power. Their short torsos and reduced hindlimbs emphasise the sloping posture so characteristic of the hyena family.
The physical similarities are reflected in the phylogenetic relationships within the Hyaenidae. The aardwolf (a specialised termite-eater) is only distantly related to the other three species; the spotted diverged over 10 million years ago, and the brown and striped evolved from a common Hyena ancestor. Like spotted hyenas, striped likely evolved in Africa before spreading north and east into Europe and Asia. However, unlike the spotted, which disappeared from these regions due to reduced habitat and competition with wolves and humans, the smaller striped hyena survived. The answer to why and how goes to the heart of survival strategies and, most likely, differences in social structure.
The face of the striped hyena is distinctly dog-like
Private lives and social tendencies
The evolution of social versus solitary approaches to survival is just as important as the anatomical features of a successful species. Though many factors determine the development of sociality, it is influenced by resource and spatial use, and competition with other predators. One of the aspects of the Hyaenidae that is a source of endless fascination for researchers is the diversity of social structures within the relatively small family. As a highly social apex predator, the spotted hyena is well known for its complex hierarchies and cooperative hunting. The (mostly) monogamous aardwolf lives in pairs but forages alone, while the brown hyena lives in small groups but usually hunts/forages alone (behaviourally solitary).
The striped hyena was long believed to be entirely solitary, apart from mothers and young offspring. However, in the last two decades, detailed fieldwork and camera traps have revealed that striped hyenas are somewhat more complicated than initially thought and probably have a social structure not dissimilar to that of brown hyenas. We know that groups of up to seven individuals have been observed resting, feeding, and travelling together. Individual reports exist of sub-adult youngsters helping their mothers raise the next litter of cubs, and males (on occasion, more than one) have been observed attending cubs in rocky cave dens. One striped hyena in Israel even appeared to join a wolf pack, indicating the possibility of a strong social drive.
The study of the behavioural habits of any animal is a never-ending process, and we are still very much in the early stages of understanding the nuances of the striped hyena. This is not just an academic process – it has a considerable impact on their conservation because the more social an animal, the higher we should expect their densities to be. This, in turn, means viewing population assessments through a different lens.
A striped hyena on the prowl
It’s just a phase
Female spotted hyenas have gained considerable notoriety for their unique genitals. They are equipped with an extended clitoris that functions as a pseudo-penis with a fused vaginal and urethral opening. This design comes at a considerable cost: the death rate for whelping females is exceptionally high, and first-time mothers regularly lose their first litters during birth. A universally accepted theory behind why this is the case has continued to elude researchers.
Striped hyenas add to the mysteries of hyena sex in a slightly different way. In young striped hyenas between one and 18 months of age, the genitalia of both sexes converge in appearance. In other words, they display traits that mimic the characteristics of the opposite sex. The females develop swellings resembling a scrotum (the only other example of transient masculinisation in mammals is the fossa). In contrast, young males develop swellings similar to labial folds. This is temporary, and adults develop typical mammalian genitalia upon reaching sexual maturity.
What this tells us about the evolution of the Hyaenidae is open to interpretation, but indicates that theories surrounding the functions of genital anomalies have to be broadened beyond Crocuta to include the Hyena genus. Anatomical evolution can only be understood in combination with an intimate understanding of the social structure and selection pressures of every species in the family – including the striped hyenas.
An incredibly rare sighting of mating striped hyenas (follow photographer Chelsea Zhu)
Bad omens and fertility symbols
Throughout history and across cultures, human beings have assigned an astonishing variety of superstitions and beliefs to animal parts in the hope that they will increase reproductive prowess. In today’s troubled times, rhino horns (and tiger bones and pangolin scales and so on) have fabricated powers. In Ancient Greek and Rome, the unfortunate striped hyena attracted this attention. It became a symbol of fertility, with any number of uses for striped hyena parts, including an amulet that would make a man irresistible to the person of his dreams.
Either way, it would not make much of a difference to the striped hyena, but this positive association with hyenas was a rarity. Most cultures across Africa and Asia assign negative mythology to the hyena. They represent everything from evil spirits to witches’ mounts. The striped hyena has found itself persecuted at every turn – a problem compounded by their tendency towards grave robbing.
Nowadays, the striped hyena is classified as “Near Threatened” on the IUCN Red List, and their numbers (known to be decreasing) are estimated at less than 10,000 mature individuals. The truth remains that this estimate is openly based on scientific guesswork drawn from outdated assessments. The striped hyena, with its preference for rugged habitats and secrecy, is exceedingly challenging to count. The task of blindly conserving them is even more difficult because they are not yet divided into recognised subspecies – despite the significant size differences between Asian and African specimens. Striped hyenas occurring in the Middle East, Asia Minor, Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent are larger than those found in East Africa and the Arabian peninsula.
Find striped hyenas on safari
Few people ever have the chance to glimpse the elusive, forgotten, fourth hyena of Africa. The striped hyena remains shrouded in secrecy yet could quite possibly hold the key to unanswered questions on hyena evolution that have vexed experts for decades.
For those intent on seeing an African striped hyena in the wild, you are more likely to see them on a safari to a dry region such as Laikipia than on a Maasai Mara migration season safari.
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Summer in the Lowveld has arrived with a vengeance – with several days exceeding 40 degrees Celsius and deciduous trees pushing out green shoots to replace the waning explosion of spring flowers. Cuckoos call frantically, and large songololos trundle around in anticipation of delicious rotting leaves. No dung beetles yet, but tortoises can be seen hunting down succulent early buds.
Life is now a smidgeon easier for the browsers, but there is still no respite for the ribby warthogs and other grazers as the first deep rains and grass shoots are still awol. Rotund female zebras and impalas look likely to drop their babies soon – good news for local young leopards looking for easy kills. We have enjoyed a few thunderstorms but with disappointing rain, and so we gaze in hope at the daily build-up of cumulonimbus clouds.
Seasonal blessings, special ones, thanks for your support over the years.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Scientific Editor
There is something akin to childlike excitement on Christmas day when checking the memory card of a camera trap (a motion-sensor camera often used to monitor wildlife). Of course, sometimes it yields 5,000 images of a twig blowing in the wind or 200 pictures of impala legs (or worse, clear evidence of something happening outside of the field of view). But there is always the chance of capturing something extraordinary. Imagine how the folks at Panthera and Birdlife felt when one of their camera traps set up on De Hoop Nature Reserve yielded an albino honey badger!
From our Editor-in-Chief
Yesterday, I was tapping away at my keyboard when I heard a high-pitched whistle from outside. It was an unfamiliar sound; definitely a bird and a bit like the start of a sunbird call. There are limited options for wilderness discovery in springtime Johannesburg so I dispensed with my email, grabbed my binoculars and dashed outside. After a few minutes, I discovered the source of the whistle was an adult Cape robin-chat trying to coax its young fledgling into flying. I returned to my labours with a great sense of peace and satisfaction – this is what wild discoveries do for me (and many human beings!).
Our first story below is about the rescue of five white-bellied pangolins from the markets of Lagos, Nigeria. It’s also about selfless dedication to the welfare of the earth’s wild creatures.
In our second story, award-winning photographer, traveller and storyteller Marcus Westberg delves into the pros and cons of tourism – especially the luxury kind – as he seeks a greener future for travel post the pandemic. (club members only).
Finally, our third story below is an exposition of the romance and wildlife wonders of Samburu – one of two destinations on our brilliant Kenyan travel special.
We have two extremely well-priced travel specials to some of Africa’s most epic safari locations:
• This epic 7-day safari to Kenya’s most spectacular wildlife areas – Maasai Mara & Samburu – from US$3,640 per person sharing
• Our Okavango special offer (7 days for R39,000) has been selling like hotcakes and expires in late December. Unfortunately only for African country citizens & residents. Follow this link to paradise.
• Digital/biometric passports become a reality: Airlink will be the first airline in Southern Africa to test the International Air Transport Association’s (IATA) Travel Pass. The contactless travel app allows passengers to create a digital passport, receive tests and vaccination certificates, and share testing or vaccination certificates with airlines and authorities.
This is Kenya’s Samburu County – an arid land steeped in culture and traditions, where people, livestock, and wildlife walk side by side, sharing precious resources. Like the relationship between the Samburu and elephants, a visit to the county is as much about the colourful, resilient people as the weird and wonderful wildlife and fascinating scenery.
A Samburu legend tells of a young girl leaving home for the first time with her new husband. Though her father commanded her not to look back, the girl’s heart was aching with sadness, and she turned to glance at her family manyatta (home). Angered by her defiance, the god N’gai punished her. That night she began to swell before eventually bursting out of the hut as the first elephant and running off into the night. Thus, the Samburu people say that elephants are related to them by blood. Elephants are revered, and, to this day, every time a Samburu elder encounters an elephant skull, they will place green grass and saliva on it (representing water and good growth) as a sign of respect.
Samburu County
Samburu County in north-central Kenya stretches from Laikipia and Isilio counties in the south all the way to the southern shores of Lake Turkana in the north. It marks the dramatic transition from the lush savannas of south Kenya and the vast deserts that extend through the Horn of Africa. Situated at a much lower altitude than the neighbouring Laikipia Plateau, the weather is usually hot, and rainfall levels low. The resultant scenery is beautiful in a way unique to arid areas – rugged and austere, overlooked by magnificent outcrops and rolling hills.
The exception to this can be found on the banks of the Ewaso Ng’iro River, situated on Samburu’s southern boundary, and surrounded by the Samburu National Reserve. The Ewaso Ng’iro arises from the streams flowing off the slopes of Mount Kenya, fed year-round by the mountain’s glaciers. It flows all the way to Somalia and, in otherwise dry surroundings, has been key to the survival of wildlife and people. Water always equates to life, and, in Samburu, the transition to the verdant green oasis is startling. Even during the driest times of the year, when the river slows to just a trickle or dries out completely, the underground water sustains the groves of doum palms and dense riverine forests along its banks, attracting a plethora of wildlife.
The silhouette of doum palms lining the river, as dawn breaks over Samburu
Samburu’s Wild Spaces
Samburu National Reserve is northern Kenya’s most popular park, and visitors often combine the more “traditional” Laikipia safari experience with Samburu’s astonishing scenery and wildlife oddities (see below). Though just 165 km2 (16,500 hectares), Samburu National Reserve packs a significant biodiversity punch and forms part of the much broader Ewaso ecosystem. In fact, Samburu National Reserve is one-third of a trio and is contiguous with the slightly smaller Buffalo Springs National Reserve in neighbouring Isilio County. Shaba National Reserve further to the east completes the trifecta, and an entry permit for any one of the three will provide access to the other two reserves.
The entire Samburu National Reserve is surrounded by a mosaic of operational conservancies that expand the habitat available to wildlife (and the experiences available to tourists). These conservancies are not exclusionary wilderness areas – the local communities reside here and raise their livestock alongside the wildlife while simultaneously offering tourism pursuits. This model has been vital to the conservation of vast swathes of land. Given that 65% of Kenya’s wildlife is found outside formal national parks and reserves, conservancies are vital to the conservation of the country’s wildlife.
The major protected areas within Samburu County are:
Ltungai Community Conservancy:
190 km2 (19,000 hectares)
Nkoteiya Community Conservancy:
157 km2 (15,700 hectares)
Meibae Community Conservancy:
125 km2 (12,500 hectares)
Westgate Community Conservancy:
362 km2 (36,200 hectares)
Kalama Community Conservancy:
500 km2 (50,000 hectares)
Sera Community Conservancy:
3,400 km2 (340,000 hectares)
Namunyak Wildlife Conservancy:
3,940 km2 (394,000)
Matthews Range/Lenkiuio Hills
(part of Namunyak Wildlife Conservancy)
Kirisia Forest:
920 km2 (92,000 hectares)
Ndoto Mountains Forest Reserve:
932 km2 (93,200 hectares)
Mount Nyiru Forest Reserve:
454 km2 (45,400 hectares)
Under the direction of the Northern Rangelands Trust, many of the above conservancies offer their own intimate safari experiences and, where contiguous, are managed as one ecological entity. The conservancies have faced tremendous challenges, and the majority are shining examples of how community involvement can change the face of conservation through inclusivity and tourism.
The Samburu ‘Special 5’, clockwise from top left: Beisa oryx; reticulated giraffe; Somali ostrich; Grevy’s zebra stallions locked in combat; a gerenuk foraging.
The Samburu Special 5
Catchy phrases like “the Big 5”, “the Secret 7”, and “the Ugly 5” in reference to certain wildlife species are tremendously effective marketing tools that sell everything from t-shirts and curios to safaris. In the case of Samburu, the “Samburu Special 5” is a fitting moniker for a more exclusive wildlife checklist in this arid section of Africa. Included in the Special 5 are the gerenuk, the reticulated giraffe, the Grevy’s zebra, the Somali ostrich and the common beisa oryx.
Nothing can really prepare a person for their first sight of a gerenuk in the wild. Looking for all the world like a stretched-out impala, these peculiar antelope are one of Africa’s genuine oddities – designed to stand on their hindlimbs and use bizarrely elongated necks to nibble on hard-to-reach leaves. They are in equal parts graceful and hilarious.
The endangered Grevy’s zebra is the largest of the three zebra species and quite possibly the most attractive. They can be easily distinguished from their plains zebra cousins by their large round ears, neat and close-set stripes, white bellies, and fawn-coloured muzzles. The majority of the remaining wild Grevy’s zebras are found in northern Kenya, with some small and isolated populations in Ethiopia. Equally geometrically easy on the eye are the reticulated giraffe, the rarest of the giraffe species after the Northern giraffe.
The Somali ostrich was only recently identified as a separate species, rather than a subspecies of the common ostrich found throughout most of Africa. They are native to the Horn of Africa and are also sometimes referred to as the blue-necked ostrich – during courtship the necks and legs of the males turn blue instead of flushing pink! And finally, the common beisa oryx is one of two subspecies of the East African oryx found in Kenya.
Clockwise from top left: Vulturine guineafowl; white-fronted bee-eater; orange-bellied parrots; Von der Decken’s hornbill
…and their equally special compatriots
While Samburu is not necessarily at the top of the list for many first-time safari-goers, it offers an astonishing abundance of wildlife, including the more iconic creatures. Thanks to concerted conservation efforts, elephants abound, and the population increases significantly during the two rainy seasons when they migrate north from Laikipia. Samburu is home to the headquarters of Save the Elephants, established by Iain Douglas-Hamilton, meaning that the elephants here are some of the most extensively studied in the world. Buffalo are common in the wetter areas and riverbanks. Apart from the aforementioned gerenuk and oryx, other dry-country antelope include the lesser kudu and the adorable (and ubiquitous) Kirk’s and Günther’s dik-diks.
Samburu is also a predator haven for the three big cats, African painted wolves and even the rare and elusive striped hyena. There is always a constant element of surprise to wildlife viewing in Samburu, with the added advantage that it is far less crowded than the more popular southern Kenyan safari areas.
Though rhinos are almost entirely extinct in Samburu, visitors to the Sera Community Conservancy can spend time tracking newly introduced black rhinos on foot in a massive 540 km2 (54,000 hectares) sanctuary. Given the notoriously cheeky nature of these remarkable animals, this is guaranteed to be a thrilling experience within the safe parameters laid out by expert Samburu guides.
As it occupies such a unique position between desert and savanna, it is only to be expected that the birding on offer in Samburu would be sublime. There are several coveted endemic and arid specialists to be found across its heterogeneous landscapes. Some bird species to watch for include the charismatic vulturine guineafowl, Somali bee-eater, golden pipit, white-headed mousebird, D’Arnaud’s barbet, and rosy-patched bush-shrike. Have a look at AG director Christian Boix’s Samburu National Park’s top 10 birds list, as well as our CEO Simon Espley’s account of his birding adventures in Samburu.
Hospitality and fun in Samburu
Samburu’s colourful people
From the reserves to conservancies and from budget accommodation to the ultra-luxurious lodges of Samburu, everything is almost exclusively operated, managed and staffed by local Samburu people. The Samburu people refer to themselves as the Lokop/Loikop people and were traditionally semi-nomadic pastoralists, following the rain to provide food for their livestock. Their nomadic lifestyle has been largely phased out, but cows, sheep, goats, donkeys, and camels (a more recent addition) are of tremendous cultural importance. The Samburu language is a dialect of Maa, the language of the Maasai people, with whom the Samburu share many lifestyle similarities.
The Samburu people are known in particular for their beautiful and intricate beadwork (which is always on sale for entranced tourists) and vivid traditional outfits. However, their wisdom and deep connection to their homeland add to the depth and wonder of the Samburu experience. Expert Samburu guides will freely share their knowledge and traditions with fascinated tourists, and visitors to the Namunyak Conservancy can visit the local “Singing Wells”. Here the warriors gather in the dry riverbeds to dig wells to satiate their livestock, singing haunting traditional melodies as they work.
A leopard cub practising her climbing skills
Explore & Stay
Want to go on safari to Samburu? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
Wild and remote, Samburu is the perfect combination of stark, untamed wilderness and luxury safari destination. Here visitors can choose to view the wildlife on a guided walk, horseback or even on the back of a camel. There are several public campsites within Samburu National Reserve, as well as budget chalets and fixed tent accommodation, mostly situated near the Ewaso Ng’iro River. Like the Laikipia approach, the surrounding conservancies offer a high-quality, low-density approach to tourism. Many are home to extremely luxurious lodges and greater freedom for novel experiences.
There are two rainy seasons – one between April and May and the second between October and November. However, due to its relatively low rainfall averages, Samburu is largely accessible throughout the year unless unexpected floods occur. Wildlife viewing is at its best during the dry seasons, but it tends to get quite dusty and hazy, which can obscure the spectacular scenery somewhat.
An African painted wolf; a cheetah contemplating the Samburu dawn
After a year that brought us record high temperatures, a pandemic facilitated by international travel and the lowest tourism numbers in three decades, it is difficult to imagine that the tourism industry can, or indeed should, simply return to business-as-usual. Despite the ever-increasing threat of climate change, however, I would argue that tourism is an asset we cannot afford to lose, often a powerful conservation tool in its own right, and that Africa is ahead of the game.
Travel, Climate Change and Biodiversity Loss
The looming threat of anthropogenic climate change is one that is and will continue to force us to re-think many of our habits and choices, especially in the affluent parts of the world where per capita carbon emissions are the highest. Tourism, by its very definition something we do for pleasure rather than because we have to, is undoubtedly deserving of close scrutiny in that regard, not least because of the environmental impact of air travel.
I run an animal charity called the Rare & Endangered Species Trust (REST), which focuses on the rescue and re-release of wild animals. My speciality is the raising, rehabilitation and research of ground pangolins (Smutsia temmickki). In mid-2021, I found myself with no pangolins under my care for the first time in a decade. Politics and COVID-19 seemed to be delaying new animal permits, and I had taken time off to write a book. Then, one day I opened up my email and found a plea to help raise five white-bellied pangolin pups in Nigeria.
Soon I was in touch with Mark Ofua, who runs the St Marks Animal Rescue Foundation in Lagos. It is the only animal shelter in a city of 24 million people and accepts any animal for rescue, rehabilitation and rehoming – domestic or wild.
St Marks Animal Rescue Foundation, Lagos, Nigeria. My room is top right.
A long way to go
It was intimidating. Nigeria is very far away, REST’s funds are extremely limited, and I had never worked with white-bellied pangolins before. They are tree pangolins found in northern and central Africa. They’re highly adept climbers with all four feet and their long tails operate as hook, hoist and anchor.
When I asked what to expect on arrival, Mark calmly explained that I should bring everything I might need and expect “ground zero”.
No one in the world had ever tried to raise five pangolin pups of any species simultaneously. The few of us who have successfully raised pups of any species will tell you these scaly mammals are some of the hardest animals to raise. They need complete devotion, while veterinary and dietary needs are sketchy, and there are no established protocols for the release, tracking and monitoring of tree pangolins.
One of REST’s donors jumped in, and within weeks I had a visa and plane ticket and was packing a few clothes and as many veterinary items as possible.
I arrived in a different world – full of people, traffic, noise and pollution. I knew heat from Namibia, but mixed with humidity, the hours going through immigration were stifling. I walked with my trolley full of bags to the pick-up area, followed by ten chancers offering to help for a fee. Once in Mark’s car, I was introduced to the traffic of Lagos, which is incomparable to anything I’d seen before. It was rather overwhelming, but I instantly felt at home when we arrived at St Marks’ tiny clinic and met the pangolins.
The tiny white-bellied pangolin pups
Very little sleep
Upon arrival, I was especially concerned about the health of two pups. Numbers 3 and 5 were weak – refusing to take the bottle. As a result, Number 5 had a lung infection and almost died soon after I arrived.
It is a horrible experience to watch an animal weaken, especially in the absence of a proven treatment protocol. We had to rely on gut feel, the equipment available and experience. Treatment began with antibiotics, rehydration and vitamins.
Number 5 needed constant care and coaxing to eat as many small meals as often as possible. I also had four other pups to feed and so quickly designed a schedule that allowed each pup one hour, four times a day. That took up to 20 hours, and number 5 needed extra care throughout the night. Needless to say, I was sleep-deprived and amazed the St Marks staff by being able to fall asleep instantly and deeply for short periods whenever I could!
Results and data
Soon, Number 5 started to recover, Number 3 strengthened, and the others continued to feed well. Eventually, feeding would begin at 08h00, and the third and final feed would end around 01h00. As they grew, exercise also became a key need and since we were in the middle of a large city, going outside was not possible.
We designed a playpen in my room, furnished with sand, artificial grass and tree branches. Soon, each pangolin was spending time developing the coordination they would need in the wild.
Having five pangolins raised under the same conditions at the same time by the same person allowed us to collect valuable data about veterinary care, diet, and exercise requirements. This will be very useful in setting up protocols for the rescue and rehabilitation of the white-bellied pangolin.
The dedicated workers of St Marks and the five growing pangolin pups
Life in Lagos
I rarely left the babies, as their care schedule did not allow me to be away for more than a few hours at a time. Once a week, Dr Kalista and I would go food shopping. I also ventured out to walk the dog named Tongo I’d adopted from Mark’s shelter. The pangolins were thriving under my care, preparing for release and providing invaluable data for the species.
Unfortunately, in August 2021, disaster struck on a personal level. Food poisoning soon had me barely able to move, and I was having difficulty caring for the pups, so it was decided that I should recover in a nearby, inexpensive hotel. After two days, I was beginning to recover and then suddenly, my health deteriorated. I tested positive for malaria and was hospitalised. What followed was a fight for my life and, finally, the tough decision to return to Namibia to heal with my family.
I was heartbroken but too weak to protest, and Dr Kalista took over the care of my pups. We are in constant touch, and I have used the time in Namibia to heal but also source and buy camera traps and pangolin trackers in preparation for the white-bellied pangolin releases.
A pangolin pup in his homemade exercise space
Success
The heaviest, named Sunny after a special donor and the only female, is ready for release (as of October 2021). Aiden (Number 5), who was so sick, should be ready sometime in early 2022, with others leaving in between.
I intend to spend at least three months a year at St Mark’s, helping with pangolin rescue and rehabilitation. The facility receives animals daily and pangolins at least once a week, so we have big plans for the future. Currently, there is a small, dedicated staff of six and resources are pushed to the limit. We hope to soon offer internships and sabbaticals for vets, biologists, and others with a passion for conservation while raising funds for a dedicated pangolin rescue centre – Nigeria is now the world’s leading pangolin trafficking country.
There is a wealth of engaging pangolin information and stories here
About the author
Maria Diekmann established the Rare & Endangered Species Trust in 2000 and has been the director for the past 21 years. She is most well known for her work with Cape griffons and Cape/ground pangolins. Maria remains passionate about combining conservation with research and education and is now continuing her work with pangolins in other countries to better understand and train others in raising and rehabilitating these fragile species.
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HUGGING LIONS – suitably drugged & de-weaponised – has really taken off as a tourism product in the murky corners of this glorious planet. How proud South Africa’s ‘sustainable use’ wildlife industry must feel for having spawned this wretched commercial exploitation of our lions. Thanks to Brian Sugden for posting this appalling video on our club forum. How happy these tourists appear – playing their part in the ongoing abuse of lions and other big cats. Please have a look and let us know your thoughts.
We all feel sorry for ourselves now and then – it’s a human condition. For me, the ongoing preference by social media algorithms for emotional linkbait and misinformation is a source of enormous stress. But I console myself knowing that YOU support our focus on fact and considered opinion. Thanks so much for the support over so many years. A luta continua!
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Scientific Editor
The process of creating a systematic, logical way of grouping the planet’s vast number of different yet related organisms is an ongoing exercise, greatly aided in recent years by advancements in genetic research. Of course, these techniques were not available to the naturalists of ancient Greece. Thus, the story goes that Plato once gave a tongue-in-cheek definition of man as a “featherless biped”. The philosopher Diogenes the Cynic promptly burst into Plato’s Academy carrying a plucked chicken and cried out, “Behold, I’ve brought you a man!”
And so, “featherless biped with broad, flat nails” was added to the Academy’s definition of the human race. How far we have come…
On an entirely unrelated note, thank you very much to those who have added some fascinating thoughts to our club conversation about interfering in the lives of wild animals. I have thoroughly enjoyed your input.
From our Editor-in-Chief
I have just returned from the most marvellous self-drive camping trip to the iconic Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe. We camped on the banks of the Zambezi River and spent lazy days exploring the blue-lit woodlands of ana, sausage and mahogany trees where elephants, eland, buffalo, wild dogs and baboons foraged in the heat, waiting for the first storm of summer. What a remarkable place – made all the more so by the relative lack of other campers at this time of year. The best part? You can buy a permit to walk – nowhere else do I know of where you can walk in big five country without a guide. (This is obviously not to be done by punters with no bush experience!).
In our first story below, we take a deep dive into one of the most beautiful cities in the world – Cape Town. It is a must-stop travel destination for anyone coming to magnificent South Africa – full of ocean wilderness, unique ecosystems, delicious cuisine and quirky people.
Up in Zambia, we still have hope that the new government will halt some of the environmentally ruinous developments that their predecessors allowed in or near precious national parks. In our second story below, Kasanka National Park (home of the world’s largest mammal migration) is sadly still being threatened by industrial agriculture.
More cheerfully, bees are not only playing a part in pollinating Africa’s indigenous plants and agricultural produce. They are also, with help from NGO Nikela, helping to mitigate human-elephant conflict with some success as our third story below celebrates.
• Ancient rainforest surrounding a working tea plantation: expect soul-food experiences including gastronomic picnics, wild chimpanzee tracking and indigenous open-air spa treatments. Check out this exquisite video by Rwanda’s One&Only Nyungwe House and feel the stress peel away …
Remember that club members get the best available prices at this and many other camps and lodges.
• Planning your next safari but worried about the kids?. Find out how to make the most of your time on the ground and keep the whole experience relatively stress free for you and the kids. Safari tips: Going on safari with kids.
Human-elephant conflict is a major threat to African wildlife. Many conservationists and local people are trying to develop innovative, non-lethal solutions that benefit people and elephants.
Imagine a herd of 50 elephants visiting your maize field. This crop is your livelihood. It feeds your family and earns much-needed cash for other necessities. You watch, helpless, as the elephants trample and devour your harvest. Last year the same thing happened. But your neighbour couldn’t stand it. He grabbed a club and chased a huge elephant feasting on his ready-to-harvest maize. It didn’t end well.
Imagine Elizabeth, a subsistence farmer trying to eke out an existence by growing vegetables for her family of five. The rains have been good, she’s toiled in her field, and her plants are growing nicely. Then, one warm summer’s day, an elephant matriarch and her twenty closest relatives come calling. Months of hard work is eradicated. Elizabeth stands there heartbroken. Where once she saw a promising harvest, only a few ragged stalks remain.
Jino Moja
Jino Moja! Mention of the bull elephant called One Tusk spreads fear among the villagers. Mr Gere, a farmer in northern Tanzania, tells of his first encounter with this legendary pachyderm.
“I was inside the house at around eight pm when I heard my wife scream. I took my machete and ran outside. There I saw sugar cane in my farm knocked down. A herd of elephants was inside my farm. I had heard stories about this herd. They invaded a neighbour’s farm and ate half of his maize crops. Everyone knows that Jino Moja is the stubborn one of the herd.
“One farmer tried to chase him away. He was struck by the one tusked elephant. The man went down, and the elephant herd went over him. He was crushed to the bone! In our village, we know better and stay away when we know it’s him.
“So even this night, my machete was no match for Jino Moja. I just stood and watched while they trampled and destroyed my crops.”
Elizabeth and Mr Gere are just two of many farmers living along the border of the Arusha National Park. This reserve is near Arusha, Tanzania’s third-largest city, with a population of over 700,000 (when you include the surrounding sprawl). The national park covers 137 square kilometres and is home to elephants, buffalo, giraffe, antelope, and some leopards.
People vs Elephants
Where humans and wild animals live in close proximity, conflict happens. As human populations expand and wildlife habitat shrinks, the problem grows. This is especially true when villages surround unfenced protected areas. Other than in South Africa, most African protected areas are unfenced and surrounded by buffer zones intended to form a natural barrier between wildlife and farms. However, elephants and other wild animals never got the memo. But then, neither did most farmers whose cattle and goats wander freely through buffer zones into protected areas.
It is difficult to see how human-wildlife conflict isn’t inevitable. After all, you can’t expect an elephant to stay out of a delicious field of maize or sugar cane forever. And, you can’t expect an irate farmer to stand and watch his livelihood being destroyed time and again.
Construction of beehives destined to form part of a beehive fence
One man, an idea and the humble bee
Fortunately, a young man from Arusha, Moses Ryakitimbo, heard of the plight at Lendoiya village (home to around 1,500 souls). Moses, the founder of Alert for Endangered Wildlife Species (AFeWiS), was already actively engaged in protecting elephants. After interviewing farmers and doing some research, he thought he might have a win-win solution to protect crops and elephants. Not only that, the solution was natural, sustainable and quite simple… bees!
Elephants are afraid of bees. Why? An elephant’s trunk is rich with nerve endings, and this extraordinary sensitivity makes for excruciatingly painful bee-stings. Because of this, elephants tend to stay clear of bee swarms and hives. (Bees have been used in parts of Tanzania for a while now).
Moses learned that by placing beehives to create a fence, one could redirect elephant corridors. In early 2019, Moses approached us at Nikela for support. We funded the pilot project (Phase One) of what Moses envisioned to be a massive beehive scheme. He projected safeguarding multiple village farms around Arusha National Park and other areas where human-elephant conflict occurs.
Erection of the hives on the fenceline
Phase One – a temporary success
The construction and installation of the first beehives went smoothly. It was surprising how quickly wild bees found the hives. Moses reported that within days of installation, half the beehives had residents. Within a few short weeks, the elephants adjusted their routes, bypassing five farms. The farmers were predictably delighted.
Mr Baraka, one of the first farmers impacted by the bee project, said: “Over 50 elephants used to cross boundaries and destroy food crops like maize, potatoes and banana plantations. Since the beehives were mounted four and a half weeks ago, I have seen a big difference in elephant numbers encroaching.”
This success led to many more requests for hives. Fast forward to mid-2021, and 100 beehives later, farmers are harvesting the best crops of maize, sugar cane, bananas and other vegetables in years.
The human-elephant conflict success didn’t happen without challenges along the way. During a maintenance run, several months after the completion of the ten pilot beehives, problems occurred. One, other insects were finding their way into the hives and negatively impacting the bees. Two, the beehives themselves weren’t holding up structurally.
Moses, ever the problem solver, went looking for solutions. He discovered that a different, more complex beehive design was necessary. The ten original beehives were torn apart. What materials could be salvaged were used to construct replacement hives.
A beehive funded by donors Jim and Lisa
A long-term solution appears to be working
The next 90 hives (completed in several phases) were patterned after the new design. To date, they have remained intact, even when pushed over. Again, Moses is on it. Every month he and his team check each beehive fence. Periodically a beehive is found on the ground, and the support poles need to be reinforced or replaced. The poles supporting each beehive also require regular painting to keep the invading insects away. Grasses and vegetation need to be cleared along each beehive fence. And, most importantly, honey must be harvested regularly. Honey has been a very welcome bonus, not only to eat but to sell.
All in all, the elephants are staying away, and Moses’ mission to protect them is accomplished, at least in this once conflict-ridden area.
Bees bring peace to the land
The individual stories from the farmers say it all:
Mr Elidaima: “We actually didn’t believe that bees could make such a big difference chasing away almost 50 elephants and bringing the number down to zero. We now harvest our food crops in large amounts and live in harmony with elephants.”
Mr Baraka: “Nikela has been a blessing to our village here in Lendoiya. I have witnessed a peaceful coexistence between man and this big mammal called ‘elephant’. Staying in peace with elephants and bees helping out the process. It’s a miracle.”
Elder Balozi: “At my old age, I thank God to have seen this miracle of bees protecting our farms from elephants. We now don’t have elephants disturbing us in the nighttime; we just hear them in other neighbouring villages.”
Mr Nanyaro: “I have ten beehives on my farm…since then I have never even seen elephant dung around…this means elephants don’t come here anymore…this gives me a feeling that elephants are good mammals because they don’t disturb my maize farm anymore.”
Elder Wella: “It’s now almost one year since I’ve seen the one tusked elephant. We plant, we harvest, and we eat what we planted in the soil. Beehives are just a blessing.”
Mr Emanuel: “I am new to the project but very happy to be part of this major accomplishment – seeing elephants stepping out of my farm in a peaceful manner. Thanks to Nikela for supporting us with beehives that keep our crops safe and at the same time protect the elephants from the human-wildlife conflict.”
A completed beehive fence
Building beehives
It takes a specific design to attract the bees and provide the right environment for a colony to thrive. The 100 beehives were constructed and installed in several phases allowing for refinement and calibration along the way.
The hives are professionally built with a shiny metal roof, and the necessary partitions placed perfectly inside for the bees. Each gets a coat of paint and a label. If sponsored by an individual or company, the name is proudly displayed. The completed hives are erected using a system of timber stands and support wires. Within a few weeks, the bees are quietly going about their ‘peacemaker’ duties.
Looking to the future?
With 100 beehives in place, the major elephant corridors through Lendoiya village have been disrupted. Moses has assessed that another 64 beehives will protect the remainder of the village. Eighteen of these are anxiously anticipated by Ester and Tumaini, two adjacent women farmers. In September 2020, three elephants entered their banana plantation, not leaving much behind. Now their maize is growing, and they fear the elephants’ return.
Completed hives with the craftsmen who made them
Can this be scaled?
With this human-elephant conflict model proving successful over the past two and a half years, Moses is ready to expand. Most recently, he has had requests from villages surrounding the Tarangire National Park – not too far from the Ngorongoro Crater and the famous Serengeti National Park.
Will this model work anywhere there is human-elephant conflict? Not necessarily. Only where the climate and habitat are suitable for such beehive fences and where wild bees readily populate the hives.
As with many such grassroots projects, the problem is not the ideas, skill or expertise, but funding to operationalise a vision, and even more than that, funding to maintain a project. Moses is off to a grand start. He is knowledgeable, thorough, consistent, admits mistakes and is ready to learn. All traits are essential for long term success.
A final note
We at Nikela have had nothing to do with the plans or designs of this beehive project. It has all been grassroots. We have provided (thanks to individual donors) the funding to make Moses’ dream a reality. (Nikela is an AG Club project partner – visit to donate safely and easily. Please note the Moses (from Uganda) mentioned in the AG club write up is not Moses Ryakitimbo, the designer of the beehive project in Tanzania ).
Resources
Learn more about Nikela and this human-elephant conflict beehive project here
Nestled between a rugged mountain range and the Atlantic Ocean, Cape Town is one of the most beautiful cities in the world. It’s also one of the most popular tourist destinations in all of Africa. This multicultural city enjoys a superb natural setting, pristine beaches, sophisticated infrastructure and a mild, Mediterranean climate.
According to Xhosa legend, a great battle once raged between the god Qamatha and Nkanyamba, the sea dragon, over the creation of dry land. Qamatha’s mother came to his aid by creating four giants to defend the points of the compass. With the battle won, the giants turned to stone to guard the land for eternity. Umlindi Wemingizimu, the “Watcher of the South”, looks down on the city of Cape Town as Table Mountain.
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Cape Town
The looming form of Table Mountain dominates views from the city that is sandwiched between its edifice and the icy Atlantic Ocean. The capricious seas are tamed by the harbour of the aptly named Table Bay – a gateway to South Africa that sets the stage for a rich history and melting pot of colourful cultures. Situated in South Africa’s southwestern corner, Cape Town is one of the country’s largest cities and most popular tourist destinations – for good reason. It offers a curious combination of laid-back beach town and edgy urban expression.
The cosmopolitan atmosphere is offset by spectacular natural surrounds that captivate locals and visitors. From the rich plant life of the Cape Floristic Region (more on that later) to the abundant marine ecosystems and pristine white beaches, Cape Town is a nature enthusiast’s playground. With the addition of every convenience of modern city life blended with a history of transformation, the result is a traveller’s paradise.
Table Mountain. Clockwise from top left: The tablecloth over Table Mountain with Devil’s Peak to the left; Table Mountain as seen from Lion’s Head at dawn; walking on Table Mountain; the cable car ascending to the tabletop
Table Mountain (and friends)
People often describe the topographical set-up of Cape Town as “armchair-like”, with the sprawling City Bowl nestled in the seat. The “chair” consists of the northern end of the Cape Fold Mountain range that extends along the Cape Peninsula to the Cape of Good Hope. The back of the chair is formed by the iconic Table Mountain, with Lion’s Head to the west and Devil’s Peak to the east, creating the arms on either side. This natural amphitheatre forms the iconic backdrop to the city below, while the opposite side, the “Back Table”, includes the gentler eastern slopes of some exquisite conservation areas. The Back Table’s western edge (the Atlantic side) is home to the mountains of the Twelve Apostles.
Table Mountain is a significant tourist attraction and one of South Africa’s most photographed landmarks. The top section includes a plateau over 1,000m above sea level and roughly three kilometres long. Here visitors can stroll along a network of paths to take in the spectacular views from every angle before stopping for a snack at the restaurant (or a sugary drink to steady the nerves of the vertiginous and wind-swept mountain). The easiest way to access this mountain is via the cableway, which has been operational since 1929 and the five-minute journey in the transparent car allows for plenty of time to take a multitude of photographs. Naturally, the view is occasionally obscured by orographic clouds which form when south-easter winds blow in from the sea, ascend the cliffs and condense in the cooler air. This tablecloth of clouds is guaranteed to rouse a local raconteur from somewhere. They will then promptly launch into the headache-inducing tale of a smoking contest between retired bad boy buccaneer Jan Van Hunks and the devil himself. Nearby Devil’s Peak also owes its name to this Dutch folk story.
Table Mountain National Park, along with several other surrounding protected areas, Lion’s Head (and the lion’s rump, Signal Hill) and Devil’s Peak are all crisscrossed by a series of well-established hiking trails of various difficulty levels. Most of the more popular routes can be accessed free of charge, though some will require a relatively cheap permit. Of all of Cape Town’s many drawcards, the hiking opportunities are probably at the top of the deck. From casual ramblers to skilled adventure-seekers, there are trails on offer for anyone wishing to revel in the breath-taking vistas. It is important to plan these hikes ahead of time and travel in a group to ensure the enjoyment and safety of all concerned, as the weather in Cape Town is famously unpredictable.
Top left: King proteas; bottom left: pincushion proteas; right: Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden
Fynbos and the Cape Floral Region
Part of what makes the scenery so special is the unique, astonishingly diverse plant life of the Cape region. Endangered (and in some cases critically endangered) fynbos types dominate the scrubland vegetation, with probably the most famous species being the dramatic proteas (South Africa’s national flower). The flora is part of the smallest of the six recognised floral kingdoms: the Cape Floristic Kingdom. It consists of 9,000 highly endemic vascular plant species, around 80% of which belong to fynbos families. So, while the Cape Floristic Region covers less than 0.5% of Africa’s surface area, it is home to close to 20% of the continent’s plant species. For this reason, Table Mountain National Park and seven other representative regions are the “Cape Floral Region Protected Areas” – a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
One of the best places to take in this spectacular array is in Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden, which nestles against the eastern edge of the Back Table. The world-famous garden was first established to preserve the native flora of the region but has now extended to include cultivated exhibits of representative vegetation types from throughout the country. The many paths and displays should not be rushed, and visitors should set aside at least a day for exploring this hotspot of natural and cultivated beauty. Several trails lead up into the mountains, including Skeleton Gorge, one of the most accessible routes to the top of Table Mountain.
Cape Point
Chapman’s Peak and the Cape of Good Hope
The next tick off the Cape Town checklist has to be a round trip along the Cape Peninsula via the picturesque town of Hout Bay and winding Chapman’s Peak Drive. Though Chapman’s Peak Drive comes with a small toll, the views along the road cut into the side of the eponymous mountain are well worth the price. The precipitous cliffs plunge to the rocks below, which in turn are battered by the waves of the ocean. The drive is also an excellent place to look for whales from around August until November.
A journey through the Cape Peninsula needs to be conducted at a sedate pace (this principle applies to Cape Town in general – see more below), with plenty of time set aside to explore the quaint seaside villages and beaches along the coastline. Arty seaside haunts like Noordhoek, Kommetjie and Fish Hoek are lined with boutique shops, tiny galleries, and family-run restaurants. Simon’s Town, once a naval base, is also famous for Boulders Beach and Foxy Beach and their resident African penguin colonies. These endangered little characters are found only on the southwestern coast of Africa and are completely habituated to the comings and goings of eager tourists. However, it is well worth remembering that while the penguins will allow people to get incredibly close, there is a limit to their forbearance and a bite from the razor-sharp, fishy beak of a penguin will not be readily forgotten.
The southernmost 20% of the Cape Peninsula is a section of Table Mountain National Park known as the Cape of Good Hope. This rugged and wild ecosystem is a haven for many different species of sea birds. To make things a touch confusing, Cape of Good Hope is also used to refer to the rocky headland on the southwestern tip of the Cape Peninsula, while Cape Point and its two lighthouses occupy the south-eastern tip. Contrary to popular belief, this is not the southernmost point of the African continent (that title goes to Cape Agulhas further east), nor does it mark the exact spot where the warm Agulhas Current of the Indian Ocean and cold Benguela Current of the Atlantic meet. Though it is undoubtedly true that the intermingling of these two monstrous currents contributes to the micro-climate of Cape Town, their actual meeting point fluctuates and is usually closer to Cape Agulhas.
Camps Bay with the looming Twelve Apostles mountains
Beaches and bays
After a few strenuous hikes and activity-filled seaside town visits, a day on the beach is called for, and Cape Town has a number of stunning options. The beaches offer everything from dazzling white sands and turquoise waters to ample space and calm coves. The accompanying promenades are usually filled with joggers, courting couples and happy families. There is only one minor drawback – the water is my-feet-have-turned-numb-and-my-shins-hurt cold. Fortunately, during the blistering summers, a refreshing dip is precisely what is called for. Some of the more famous beaches include Clifton 1-4, Camps Bay, Llandudno, Muizenberg (warmer water and a great place for novice surfers), Long Beach and Bloubergstrand (both popular kite-surfing spots). During the height of the tourist season (December and January), these beaches can be pretty crowded, and it may well be worth befriending a local to get inside information on the less frequented options.
Though the cold seas do not necessarily make for the best casual swimming, they provide the ideal environment for a plethora of marine life. This is because cold water holds more dissolved oxygen than warm water, supporting greater ecological diversity. Firm favourites with visitors are the Cape fur seals, which are regularly encountered sunning themselves around the waterfront. For a more authentically wild experience, visitors can take a trip to Seal Island in False Bay, where tens of thousands of fur seals gather together in a noisy, smelly, pinniped extravaganza. There is also an option to join the seals in the water and watch as they transform from awkward land-dwellers to sleek and agile underwater predators in the kelp forests.
Of course, they are not the only predators that navigate the icy waters, and seals have to keep a sharp eye out for sharks. Once considered the great white shark capital of the world, with photographers flocking to capture their famous “breach”, there has been a distressing reduction in the number of shark sightings around Cape Town in recent years.
Clockwise from top left: Seal Island; African penguin; chacma baboons which have become completely habituated to life on the peninsula; great white shark hunting a seal
Eat, drink and be merry
The city itself is as vibrant and diverse as the natural world that surrounds it. Each neighbourhood comes with its own particular ambience that can range from laidback (bordering on horizontal) or hip and happening to arty and urbane or kitsch and shiny. It is not uncommon to arrive at a coffee shop only to find that, in defiance of regular business hours, it is closed because the owner is off surfing. There is an endless array of cosy cafes to experience and a collection of some of the best seafood restaurants the world has to offer. The psychedelic nightlife is usually in full swing for the younger crowd in one of Cape Town’s five major party precincts. The Victoria & Alfred Waterfront at the harbour offers a more sedate and classy collection of shops, museums, and accommodation.
A Constantia vineyard – in the suburbs of Cape Town
Some of South Africa’s most famous winelands are found just inland from Cape Town, extending to the university town of Stellenbosch and beyond. Here, against the verdant background of mountains and valleys, wine enthusiasts can enjoy the best of South Africa’s celebrated bouquets, and amateurs can pretend to be able to tell the difference. Whatever the experience levels, a good time is guaranteed for all.
Top left: A view from Table Mountain, Lion’s Head to left, Robben Island in the distance. Top Right: the colourful buildings of the Bo-Kaap. Bottom: The city bowl at night as seen from Table Mountain.
Colourful Cape Town
As lively as various parts of Cape Town are, Bo-Kaap takes home the prize as the most colourful area – quite literally. Situated at the foot of Signal Hill, Bo-Kaap was once home to the city’s slave population, most of whom hailed from Malaysia and Indonesia. The old buildings that line the cobbled streets were built in a mix of Cape Dutch and Georgian architectural styles and are painted in a wondrous combination of just about every colour imaginable. The effect is both beautiful and joyful, despite the area’s troubled history.
A more sombre Cape Town activity that is, nevertheless, an essential part of any visit is a trip to Robben Island and a tour of the prison where Nelson Mandela spent 27 years incarcerated, along with many other apartheid dissidents. The site operates as a living museum and is a World Heritage Site due to its importance to South Africa’s turbulent history.
Beautiful, stylish and quirky accommodation options abound all over Cape Town
There are so many reasons to visit Cape Town that the difficulty comes down to deciding how best to spend one’s time there, especially for shorter stays. Fortunately, navigating the city is a relatively painless exercise, and public transport is readily available for the inner city. It is essential to remember that despite being one of South Africa’s main hubs, the typical Cape Town approach is still one of a relaxed seaside town, and the pace is relatively serene. The best course of action is to have a rough plan in mind but be flexible in the execution.
There are many accommodation options that range from backpackers for the budget-strapped to ultra-luxury guest houses situated right on the sea.
Unlike most of South Africa, Cape Town is a winter rainfall region, and from June until the beginning of September, the weather is blustery and cold. However, July/August marks the peak whale watching season when both southern right and humpback whales gather to calve in the calm waters of the bays. The busiest time of year falls over the December/January period when the weather is spectacular, and the long, balmy days can be enjoyed to the full. Both South African and international tourists flock to the city at this time of year, and the beaches and major attractions can be very crowded.
It may well be best for those with a more flexible schedule to wait until February or even March when visitor numbers calm down, and prices drop, but the weather remains idyllic. The second “shoulder season” falls around September/October, and this is arguably the time of year when the city is at its most spectacular. This is when the wildflowers bloom, adding bright patches of glorious colour to the landscape. It is important to remember that even during these spring months, the Cape Town weather may still have a few tricks up its sleeve, and it’s not uncommon for a cold front to come barrelling in to deposit snow on the inland mountain tops.
Cape Town is one of Africa’s most evocative tourism destinations – a first-world city steeped in history in one of the most magnificent natural settings imaginable.
Resources
For great bush and beach combos that include Cape Town see here
Fanscinating research on domestic cats and their effects on Cape Town wildlife
African Penguin Conservation – Birdlife South Africa is project partner for our private travel & conservation club. You can find out more about their work here
UPDATE: The Zambian High Court has ruled in favour of the communities and wildlife of Kasanka National Park, granting an injunction that restrains Lake Agro Industries and Gulf Adventures Limited from carrying out any more damaging activities in Kafinda Game Management Area. The ruling, delivered on 25th January 2022, will halt the deforestation of protected land and water abstraction within the area.
Up until this ruling was made, Lake Agro Industries, a Tanzanian company, continued to clear forest within the Kafinda Game Management Area (GMA) in the Kasanka National Park buffer zone. The Kasanka National Park is home to the world’s most numerous mammal migration – that of the straw-coloured fruit bats. (For background to this story, see here). Since our previous report, satellite imagery shows the company had, between August and September, illegally cleared more than 80 hectares of additional, protected forest within Kafinda. This is despite the Department of National Parks and Wildlife (DNPW) ordering them to stop all clearance in July 2021.
For more than two years, Kasanka Trust has been working closely with DNPW to fight this illegal development that threatens the internationally important biodiversity of Kasanka National Park. Other government ministries, departments and regulatory authorities contacted regarding this matter include the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Lands, Zambia Environmental Management Agency (ZEMA), Zambia Water Resources Management Authority (WARMA), Central Province Administration, Office of the President, Disaster Management and Mitigation Unit (DMMU), Office of the Public Protector Zambia, Chitambo Local Council, and the District Commissioner’s Office Chitambo.
Everything culminated in a petition to the President of Zambia, signed by more than 6000 people who want to stop this illegal activity. Yet Lake Agro Industries continues to ignore all orders to desist clearing the land, demonstrating disrespect for Zambia – her laws, her natural heritage and her people.
Lake Agro Industries claims to have title to the land, but the DNPW director (who has to authorise land allocation in the GMA) knows nothing about it. It is a rather confusing and distressing situation, not least because the government departments don’t seem to be talking to each other.
Lake Agro Industries submitted an EIA report to ZEMA in May, and as far as we know, ZEMA has not made any formal response or comment on the issue.
Separately, there have been four Stop Orders issued over the past two years. The most recent was in July 2021 when DNPW issued a Stop Order saying that Lake Agro Industries could continue to farm the seven pivot circles already cleared, with the proviso that they obtain the relevant water abstraction permit and clear no other land.
Lake Agro Industries maintains that they have not cleared any new land at all in 2021 and is respecting the latest Stop Order. On the 4th of August, Kasanka Trust was present at a meeting in which the manager told DNPW that no more land would be cleared until receipt of the formal decision from ZEMA.
This latest satellite evidence (see below) is significant. It shows that Lake Agro Industries is not truthful and strengthens the argument that it can’t be trusted. They began clearing the eighth pivot circle three days after that meeting with DNPW.
Their practice destroys protected habitats and seriously threatens important ecosystems, critical to the survival of both wildlife and local communities.
Timeline of events
July 2019:A subsidiary of the Tanzanian Lake Group illegally occupies land in the Kafinda GMA. It clears 160 hectares of pristine forest to set up two centre pivot circles for agricultural irrigation.
August 2019:Department of Forestry issues the first Stop Order instructing that no further clearance takes place.
October 2019:Lake Agro Industries continues clearing, creating a total of seven pivot circles, representing over 560 hectares of illegal deforestation.
November 2019: Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Tourism and Arts (P. S. MOTA) issues a second Stop Order after field verification.
March 2020:The Director of DNPW issues a third Stop Order. This time, DNPW follows through and closes the farm. Urgent meetings are held between Lake Agro Industries and DNPW, and permission is granted for the farm to re-open to harvest crops only – but no further activity is permitted.
April 2020 to November 2020:Lake Agro Industries continues to farm the seven established pivot circles.
December 2020:P. S. MOTA and the French Ambassador to Zambia fly over the farm to confirm the development. P.S. MOTA demands that Lake Agro Industries submit documentation and follow legal procedures.
April 2021:The Director of DNPW visits the farm and instructs the developer to stop all activity.
May 2021:Lake Agro Industries submits an Environmental and Social Impact Statement (ESIS) to the Zambian Environmental Management Agency (ZEMA) requesting permission for a commercial agriculture development over a 7,000-hectare footprint (3,000 hectares of arable land plus associated infrastructure).
Lake Agro Industries begins clearing a new land area for cattle farming (apparent from analysis of satellite imagery).
June 2021:Kasanka Trust submits a 21-page statement summary outlining how the ESIS fails to meet even the most basic principles of EIA and must be rejected. The statement is supported by over 40 organisations from Zambia and beyond, representing the tourism industry, community groups, conservation NGOs, filmmakers and researchers. At least 500 different representations are also made to ZEMA by organisations and members of the public objecting to the scheme.
July 2021:DNPW issues a fourth Stop Order, allowing Lake Agro Industries to farm the cleared 560 hectares (but advising that the relevant water abstraction permits can only be granted by WARMA), and prohibiting any further clearance.
Kasanka Trust works with WWF Zambia to deliver a letter to the former president, urging him to save Kasanka.
4th August 2021:DNPW visits the farm and reminds the Lake Agro Industries manager that no further clearance is permitted.
7th August 2021:Lake Agro Industries begins clearing a new area of land for arable crops and continues clearing the cattle farming area (apparent from analysis of aerial imagery).
28th August 2021:Kasanka Trust prepares a petition for delivery to the new president, having obtained more than 6000 signatures from all over the world.
9th September 2021:Aerial imagery shows that since May 2021, over 100 hectares of additional land have been cleared for cattle, plus almost 80 hectares to install an eighth pivot circle since August 2021.
25th January 2022: The Zambian High Court grants an injunction restraining Lake Agro Industries and Gulf Adventures Limited from carrying out any more damaging activities in Kafinda Game Management Area.
Caption: Aerial pictures of land clearing in the Kafinda GMA (near Kasanka National Park) in 2021. The 3rd of April shows the clearing (five of the pivot fields visible were cleared post the first Stop Order). The 1st of May shows a new clearing had begun. On the 5th of July, the April clearing had been expanded; this continued through July until the 3rd of August, the day before DNPW arrived to inspect whether the Stop Order had been respected. Lake Agro Industries denied clearing any more land (against the obvious satellite evidence). Three days after the DNPW visit, on the 7th of August, clearing for the eighth centre pivot began. The clearing of the 8th pivot can be seen progressing until the 9th of September. Clearing for a 9th pivot began just before the 17th of September.
About the author
This story was prepared by the Kasanka Trust, a wildlife charity based in Zambia, the UK and the Netherlands. It manages the Kasanka National Park in Zambia’s Central Province. The Trust’s main objectives are to secure the future of biodiversity of Kasanka National Park and to stimulate, as well as sustain the local economy through its mission of “Tourism for Conservation”. The Kasanka Trust relies entirely on donor funding and income received through tourism to run and manage its projects.
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So. Jamie has raised a few eyebrows with her CANDID thoughts on rescuing a duiker from a lingering death in sticky mud. Read what she has to say in her editorial below and join the debate in our club. Park the emotions, please, and debate the issue.
Our new app is cooking and thousands have already signed up – thanks so much! Watch this space. We have a 100-YEAR PLAN to host the most important people in the African safari and conservation space, and you are invited. Our travel & conservation club is for those who wish to debate the issues, donate to worthy projects and travel responsibly.
With so many of our safari clients now travelling again (have you seen our Botswana special offer?) or at least booking for what will be an epic 2022 safari year – YAY! – we shed light on travel opportunities across Africa in the coming few months. Our second story below refers.
And our final story below is about that most striking of African gladiators – the oryx. A farmer once told me that if you flick a coin at a gemsbok it will easily smack it aside with those rapier horns. I pity the desert-adapted lion that ends up on the sharp end of these handsome creatures.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Scientific Editor
A few years ago, several lion prides in a reserve in South Africa contracted mange. As the images of scabby, miserable lion cubs made their way onto social media, the reserve management was bombarded with abusive messages about how heartless and cruel it was not to treat them. Some pleasant missives even found their way into my inbox, despite the fact that I was totally removed from any kind of decision-making power. Management stood firm and many of the lions died.
And I believe that was the right decision. Yet fast forward a few years later to a duiker struggling in the drying mud of a manmade dam. With the previous furore in mind, I recruited a couple of willing volunteers, we pulled her out (in a true comedy of errors known only to those involved) and kept our mouths shut. In that moment, I had absolute sympathy for the management’s decision not to interfere. Every decision to intervene has to be judged on the nuance of circumstance but a public decision to do so creates an expectation and fury when that expectation is not met in the future.
The point is this – social media frenzy and the rise of the armchair activist have added a new dimension to the age-old debate on treating wild animals. With the current challenges facing our wild spaces, it may seem trivial. But our perspectives on it go to the heart of the ethics governing every decision – from human-wildlife conflict (and the shameful lack of consideration afforded to local people living with wildlife) to trophy hunting. What is the “‘Greater Good” and how do we balance the utilitarian needs of a living, balanced ecosystem?
I’ve penned some of my thoughts in our first story below (for club members only), but it only just touches the surface of a deeply complex issue. Now we want to hear your opinions!
Finally, one of our main objectives in the creation of our private travel & conservation club is to provide a platform for trusted organisations involved in practical conservation and research to present their work and ask for support when needed. Our friends at Elephants Alive are asking for your help – have a look at their club forum post.
Story 3 https://africageographic.com/stories/oryx/
DESERT GLADIATORS
The four oryx (gemsbok) species are robust, dignified and courageous – icons of the desert & perfectly adapted to their arid environments
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Intervention, interference – should we or shouldn’t we?
A few years ago, I decided to pull an antelope out of the mud of a drying, man-made dam (I was not alone, but my fellow conspirators will have to remain nameless). Until now, only a handful of people knew about this because we were given strict instructions not to help the antelope as per the reserve’s policy. We claimed it had escaped on its own and hid the mud-splattered evidence. We intervened. Quite possibly, we interfered.
From a human perspective, there are times when nature seems abominably cruel. For instance when young animals are allowed just a brief glimpse of their new world before being snatched up by an opportunistic predator. Or when hundreds of wildebeest are crushed beneath the hooves of their fellows crossing the Mara River during the Great Migration and wretched elephants are eaten alive by hyenas while trapped in the dried, cracking mud of dry season Mana Pools. Not for nothing has the phrase “circle of life” become such a popular refrain – for wild animals, death begets life and life almost invariably means a painful, frightening death.
Heraldry, Renaissance artworks, animated films, cutesy toys, and the national animal of Scotland all bear testament to mankind’s appreciation of the mythical unicorn. Of course, most of us over the age of ten are aware that there are no horned horses in real life (a great disappointment to many). However, the ancient Greek scholars of natural history were entirely convinced of their existence. Ctesias describes them as fleet-footed wild asses, red, white, and black and sporting a one and a half cubit (around 70cm) horn. Aristotle took it one step further and described this particular creature as the unicorn’s ‘prototype’. He was, in fact, referring to the (admittedly two-horned) oryx.
While certainly not unicorns, there is something mythical about an oryx. Robust, dignified and courageous, the majestic sight of a spear-tipped oryx cresting a red dune, silhouetted against the setting sun, is iconic. In moments like these, this antelope is an embodiment of Africa’s desert spirit.
The Oryx family
The oryx refers to four large antelope of the genus Oryx: the Arabian oryx (O. leucoryx), the scimitar-horned oryx (O. dammah), the Beisa oryx (O. beisa – also referred to as the East African oryx) and the gemsbok (O. gazella). All four are well-adapted to life in arid areas and can survive for several weeks without access to surface drinking water (more on this below). Black and white markings adorn the faces of all oryxes, but their coat colours vary from the white and cream of the Arabian and scimitar-horned oryxes to the tan of the almost identical Beisa oryx and gemsbok.
Another family trait is the formidable pair of horns that can reach over a metre in length. These sabre-like weapons are carried by both sexes and are used in battles for mating rights (or to ward off unwanted attention from enthusiastic males), and in defence from predators. Like other horned animals, oryx display exceptional proprioception when it comes to the tips of their horns. Even lions exhibit trepidation when tackling the scything weapons of a desperate gemsbok.
The Oryx genus is part of the larger Hippotraginae subfamily, also known as the grazing antelope. This subfamily includes the addax, as well as sable and roan antelopes.
Clockwise from top left: Gemsbok (Oryx gazella); Beisa oryx (O. beisa); Arabian oryx (O. leucoryx); Scimitar-horned oryx (O. dammah)
Scimitar-horned oryx (O. dammah)
Like the Arabian oryx, the once widespread scimitar-horned oryx was hunted to extinction across North Africa, and they were officially declared extinct in the wild in 2000. They remain listed as ‘regionally extinct’ by the IUCN, as all populations in North Africa are fenced and managed such that they are not considered “wild” populations.
These striking antelope are almost entirely white, apart from their russet chests and necks. Unlike the other members of the oryx genus, the horns of the scimitar-horned oryx curve backwards towards their shoulders. Several captive populations are kept in research centres – most notably the Smithsonian National Zoo – so a fair amount of research into oryx morphological adaptations and social structure has been conducted on scimitar-horned oryx.
Scimitar-horned oryx (this animal is wearing a tracking collar)
Beisa oryx (O. beisa)
The East African oryx was once considered a subspecies of the gemsbok, and the two species are physically very alike. However, genetic and morphological studies have proved their separate status. The Beisa oryx as a species is listed as ‘endangered’ by the IUCN.
There are two recognised subspecies of Beisa oryx. The common Beisa oryx (O. b. beisa) is found north of Kenya’s Tana River and into the Horn of Africa while the fringe-eared oryx (O. b. callotis) is distributed south of the Tana River and into parts of Tanzania. Both subspecies have been allocated their own IUCN classification, with the former considered ‘endangered’ and the latter ‘vulnerable’.
Beisa oryx (these are the fringe-eared subspecies)
Arabian oryx (O. leucoryx)
In the early 1970s, the Arabian oryx was declared extinct in the wild. The wild populations in Oman, Saudi Arabia and the UAE today owe their existence to intensive reintroduction projects from zoos, breeding programmes and private collections. There are now an estimated 1,600 Arabian oryxes in the wild, and while they are still listed as ‘vulnerable’ by the IUCN, their population is considered stable.
The Arabian oryx is the smallest member of the Oryx genus, and the species name leucoryx refers to their almost luminously white coat.
Arabian oryx
Gemsbok (O. gazella)
Also known as the South African oryx (though its range extends across Namibia, Botswana and southern Angola), the gemsbok is the only oryx that is not vulnerable, endangered, or extinct in the wild. It is the largest species of the genus, with males standing about 1.2m at the shoulder and weighing up to 240kg.
As the most common of all the oryx, the information below relates to gemsbok unless explicitly stated otherwise.
Quick facts
Social structure:
Herds of 10-40 animals, occasionally accompanied by a dominant bull
Mass:
150-240kg (males heavier than females)
Shoulder height:
1.2m
Gestation period:
270 days (9 months)
Number of young:
1 calf (twins extremely rare)
Average life expectancy:
around 18 years in the wild, longer in captivity
The gemsbok is a large antelope, around the same size as a sable or roan and only fractionally shorter and lighter than a greater kudu. Their hooves are disproportionately large, and the two halves are flexible, preventing the antelope from sinking into the soft desert sand. They have been recorded reaching speeds of up to 60km/h.
They are highly nomadic, following rare seasonal rains and subsequent green flushes. Where drinking water is unavailable, gemsbok feeding habits become more selective. They target succulent plants such as tsamma melons and cucumbers and dig to access roots and bulbs.
Gemsbok
Keeping a cool head in the face of great thirst
All oryx species are adapted to living in arid areas where daytime temperatures can easily exceed a sweltering 50˚C. A human exposed to such scorching weather would soon be awash with sweat in an involuntary physiological effort to cool down. However, the oryx does not have the luxury of wasting precious water on sweat unless absolutely necessary.
Instead of fighting a losing battle, oryx metabolisms are adapted to run at higher temperatures than most other mammals (something they have in common with camels and other desert-dwelling creatures). The internal temperatures of gemsbok have been recorded rising by over 4˚C during the day. Research conducted on scimitar-horned oryx showed that their body temperatures could increase to over 46˚C before they began to perspire. This is primarily due to the carotid rete – a network of blood vessels that essentially “trick” the brain’s hypothalamus into thinking the animal is cooler than it is.
Contrary to misconception, this selective brain cooling does not seem to protect the brain, nor is the brain more sensitive to rising temperatures than any other part of the body. (In fact, it is the digestive system that is most vulnerable to internal temperature changes.) Instead, selective brain cooling is a water conservation strategy. Many animals, including most of the artiodactyls (even-toed ungulates), have an operational carotid rete. Blood travelling from the carotid artery divides into fine blood vessels that run parallel to a network of veins carrying cooler blood from the oronasal passages. The arterial blood is cooled as it passes the cooler venous blood and then flows into the brain, cooling it slightly. The thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus typically respond to increased internal temperatures by triggering sweating and panting, which results in a loss of moisture due to evaporation. Even a small cooling effect on the receptors can conserve considerable amounts of body water. Thus, selective brain cooling is closely correlated to dehydration or lack of available water rather than external temperatures. This process is complex and is regulated by different physiological factors, including the salt concentration in body fluids.
Oryx are brilliantly adapted to staying cool and minimising water loss in their arid ranges
In addition to the carotid rete, the kidneys of the oryx are specialised to reabsorb as much water as possible from the urine and oryx show greater water reabsorption levels from the colon. These methods, along with certain behavioural modifications (shade-seeking, for example) and specialised feeding, allow some oryx species to survive without drinking for up to 10 months at a time!
All’s fair in love and war
Gemsbok males are loosely territorial, and while fights are rare and generally short-lived, the horns are sharp and occasionally deadly at close range. However, a victorious male still has to face the ire of his intended mate, and female gemsbok are equally combative in their approach to love. Thus begins the “mating whirl around” phase of courtship as the female turns to meet her intended head-on, presenting him with a literal barrier of spears (and, from his perspective, the wrong end). Her eventual submission may well reward a persistent male, but only once he has proved his mettle in battle.
Nine months later, the cow moves away from her herd to give birth to a tan calf that initially looks nothing like the striking antelope it is destined to become. The tiny calf is highly camouflaged and will spend the first six weeks of its life in hiding, emerging only to suckle when its mother visits roughly twice a day. As the black facial markings and budding horns emerge, mother and calf reunite with the rest of the herd.
Enemies beware
Lions, cheetahs, spotted hyenas, and African painted wolves (wild dogs) all prey on gemsbok, though all do so with a considerable degree of caution. Renowned naturalist Jonathan Kingdon records instances of lions dying from gemsbok-inflicted wounds. Though the gemsbok will almost always flee if it has the choice, a trapped antelope will turn on the offensive, swaying, whirling, and stabbing at attackers with the grace of a fencing champion.
Beisa oryx at war – all oryx species are formidably equipped to deal with challenges from predators or pretenders
Conclusion
Whatever the Ancient Greek naturalists may have thought to the contrary, the oryx is about as far from a fairytale, horned pony with a penchant for maidens as conceivably possible. Instead, these mighty creatures with their fearsome horns and black warpaint markings exude an unmistakable “don’t mess with me” aura. This rugged design has allowed all four species to survive in some of the most inhospitable habitats on the planet. Yet for three of the four, it has done little to save them from a human fascination for their horns and pelts or from human-introduced diseases like rinderpest. Though the gemsbok is relatively common, the sad fact is that we have come disconcertingly close to losing the other three spear-tipped species.
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There I was, slaving away WHEN the Whatsapp ping comes through: Debbie is walking a pangolin nearby – wanna go see? Grabs mobile, car keys and bolts out the door …
I spent the next hour trundling along behind the determined Lilly (and her human minder – respected wildlife vet Debbie English) as the pang sniffed out and devoured delicious ants in their thousands. At times her entire head was down a hole, eyes screwed tight in blissful rapture as she hoovered up the tasty morsels. I, on the other hand, spent much of the time bouncing around, swatting at the savages as they swarmed over me and attacked with vicious intent.
Lilly, twice poached and confiscated, is again undergoing rehabilitation and eventual reintroduction to the wild. Handling is kept to a minimum and according to strict protocols, and best left to experienced professionals. This is a time-consuming and expensive process. Pangolins are the world’s most trafficked animal, and their worsening status is of massive concern. There is a steady procession of these precious creatures into the care of Debbie and the Provet team, as demand in the Far East drives poaching. To donate much-needed funds to help Lilly and her kind, please email ProVet.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Scientific Editor
While taking a break from the formalin-infused aroma of the dissection hall earlier this week, I sat alone beneath a fever tree and watched a flock of tiny bronze manikins. (I am a veterinary student when not working for AG). My head had been reeling with what felt like a thousand different things and an encroaching sense of panic at my week ahead. Yet five minutes in the company of the tiny birds, so engrossed as they were with their seed search that they came less than a metre from my feet, was enough to bring balance to my world. Time spent with wild creatures, no matter how fleeting, is a powerful restorative.
From our Editor-in-Chief
I recently travelled to the Maasai Mara – my first international trip since Covid imprisoned us at home. Regulations are easing, but many remain hesitant to travel, especially to Africa. They are justifiably afraid of the virus but also cowed by idiotic fearmongers in the media and Afropessimists in general. In this forum post in our club I’ll tell you that if you’re thinking about travelling to Kenya, you should book now. The Kenyans have strict but seamless Covid protocols in place and travellers can feel as safe there as they can anywhere.
In our first story below, Sam Turley tackles the tricky ethics and potential pitfalls around human beings developing tactile relationships with wild animals. Sam takes us through three fascinating case studies.
Then, in our second story below, Dr Anna Spenceley summarises the devastating effects of the Covid pandemic on African tourism, conservation and local livelihoods. It’s not all doom and gloom, there are some inspiring options for sustainable recovery. (For club members only).
Chad in central Africa…not a country many people would associate with epic safaris. Zakouma National Park, run by the NGO African Parks, is helping to change that perception. See our third story below for an exciting deep dive into the adventure safari of a lifetime.
• Travel revival now in full swing: Uganda Airlines is now flying from Dubai to Entebbe three times a week, and British Airways is flying from Heathrow to Nairobi four times a week. Virgin Atlantic will be reinstating twice-weekly flights from Heathrow to Cape Town in January
• Safari dreaming If you are looking for the perfect add-on to your safari check out this marvellous video of Victoria Falls River Lodge. Join our private travel and conservation club to enjoy the best rates at this and other camps and lodges
Acknowledgements: This article is drawn from a recent report from the Luc Hoffmann Institute by the author, “The Future of Nature-based Tourism: Impacts of COVID-19 and paths to sustainability” and other resources.
What impacts has the COVID-19 pandemic had on nature-based tourism in Africa?
In 2018, before the COVID-19 pandemic, over a third of all direct tourism contributions to gross domestic product (GDP) in Africa, and 8.8 million jobs were attributed to wildlife tourism. The UN World Tourism Organisation estimates that entrance, gate and park fees from all types of protected areas in 14 sub-Saharan African countries were an estimated USD 142 million per year, and safari tourism in Kenya alone generated USD 1.1 billion in 2019.
Revenues from tourism generate a substantial proportion of conservation area budgets in some countries. Many wildlife tourism operators base their business models on sustainable development principles. They have actively contributed to biodiversity conservation, including species and habitat conservation, directly through their operations or by channelling donations towards them (see Figure 1). Local people also benefit from nature-based tourism, including through tourism jobs, by selling products and services that
Zakouma National Park is one of Africa’s most recent examples of a park pulled from the brink that has rapidly returned to a vibrant and spectacular wilderness teeming with life and bursting with biodiversity. Africa’s remaining intact ecosystems are a marvel of circumstance, both ancient and modern, wild and human. They are often described as fragile – a label undoubtedly apt but overly simple. For although the survival of the continent’s wild spaces is never certain, they are fragile in the way that new leaves of a sapling are fragile. Given a chance, with the right resources and protection, history has proved nature to be remarkably resilient.
Complicated though its story may be, the complexity is compelling. Zakouma’s extraordinary recovery only adds to the appeal of a journey through this magnificent landscape. It doesn’t offer the most conventional safari experience, but for seasoned travellers looking for a once-in-a-lifetime adventure off the beaten track, Zakouma is perfect.
Zakouma National Park
Zakouma National Park safeguards 3,000km2 (300,000 hectares) of savanna habitat, marking the transition between Africa’s central rainforests to the south and the inhospitable Sahara Desert to the north. It is situated in the southern part of Chad. As the country’s oldest national park, Zakouma’s fates and fortunes have been inextricably linked to human politics, bad neighbours and civil war. It was the arrival of African Parks at the invitation of the Chadian government that prompted the park’s gradual return to its former glory. The non-profit conservation organisation took over management in 2010 (in partnership with the government). In keeping with what is rapidly becoming an African Parks tradition, they set about protecting the remaining wildlife and working closely with local communities (which has been fundamental to Zakouma’s success) to the lay foundations for the park’s long-term survival.
For tourists, this means a safe visit to one of North Africa’s most precious ecosystems to revel in vast numbers of wildlife and spectacular scenery. The greater Zakouma landscape includes the national park and extends over an enormous 30,693km2 (over 3 million hectares) of Sudano-Sahelian vegetation (characterized by shrubland, tall grasses, and Acacia – now Vachellia – woodlands). This ecosystem includes the Bahr-Salamat Faunal Reserve (13,000km2 – 130,000 hectares), which surrounds the park, as well as Siniaka-Minia Faunal Reserve (4,260km2 – 42,600 hectares) and a further 10,000km2 of adjoining wildlife corridors. African Parks manages all of these protected areas. The reserves act as vital buffer zones while adding to the space available to burgeoning numbers of wildlife.
DID YOU KNOW that African Parks offers safari camps (lodges and campsites) where 100% of tourism revenue goes to conservation and local communities? Find out more and book your African Parks safari.
This vast ecosystem is primarily flat, with perennial river systems and marshy floodplains lined by patches of verdant gallery forest, woodlands, and savanna grasslands. The only exceptions are the granite inselbergs located in the southwestern section of the park. The vast area of available land allows the animals to survive the dramatic differences between the distinct dry and wet seasons – with a seasonal migration seeing many animals returning to the heart of the park when water is scarce.
On a canoe safari in Zakouma
Protected pachyderms and journeys of giraffe
It is the return of the park’s elephants that is perhaps most symbolic of the rehabilitation of Zakouma. Once whittled down by ivory poaching to fewer than 460 individuals, the elephant population has increased slowly but steadily over the last decade. This is a remarkable achievement in a part of the continent where most elephant populations are either extinct or in terrifying freefall. Perhaps even more astounding is the elephants’ capacity to offer what, to the human interpretation, looks somewhat like trust. The atrocities committed are easily within living memory for most herd members yet, while still occasionally nervous, they are sufficiently relaxed in the company of rangers and tourists to allow for intimate glimpses into their world. The elephants are breeding again – there are over 560 elephants in Zakouma, and the population is predicted to reach over 1,000 in the next few years. A baby elephant is always a joy to behold no matter the circumstances, but knowing the history of the park and the value of each youngster is guaranteed to make a sighting even more heartwarming.
Six black rhinos were also reintroduced to the Zakouma area in 2018. These population pioneers were the first to set foot in Chad since rhinos were exterminated over half a century ago. Sadly only two survived their first few months, the rest succumbing to the various strains of relocation. The remaining cows are constantly monitored and thriving. If Zakouma continues its upward trajectory, both white and black rhinos could once again move through its savanna habitats.
In addition to the growing number of pachyderms, Zakouma is also a population stronghold of the Kordofan giraffe, a critically endangered subspecies of the northern giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis). Experts estimate that there are only around 2,300 of these giraffe left in Africa, and around 60% are found in Zakouma. Read more about Kordofan and Africa’s other giraffe species here.
An elephant bull enjoys respite from the heat
Hundreds and thousands
Though the elephants are a highlight for most visitors, equally entrancing are the enormous herds of antelope and Central African savanna buffalo that roam the park’s plains. The antelope include rarities such as the northern greater kudu, red-fronted gazelle, Lelwel hartebeest, tiang (a type of topi), roan antelope and Buffon’s kob. You’ll also find Defassa waterbuck, oribi, Bohor reedbuck, duiker, and warthog.
Of course, this profusion of prey (and any number of suitable hiding places) makes Zakouma a predator haven. The three big cats – lion, leopard, and cheetah – are all present in increasing numbers, while a visitor might also see smaller species such as serval, caracal, jackal, and pale fox. Though African painted wolves (wild dogs) have yet to settle in the park, they have been glimpsed passing through it. Spotted hyenas are present in small numbers, their whoops and cackles a warning to their rare and silent striped hyena cousins also found in Zakouma. Few guests glimpse these shy, nocturnal creatures, but there is always the chance of becoming the first to snap a photograph of one inside Zakouma.
Vast flocks of birds gather at the wetland areas of Zakouma
Birds of a feather
The mammal life is matched and possibly eclipsed by the park’s avifauna. Zakouma has 373 recorded species. The wetlands form part of the RAMSAR site “Inundation Plains of Bahr Auok and Salamat”, one of the largest RAMSAR sites in the world. These habitats are vital for migrating birds, which use them as stopovers or breeding grounds. The wetland areas attract enormous flocks of pelicans, storks, geese and black-crowned cranes, especially as the water starts to recede during the dry season and life concentrates around the remaining pools.
Away from the water’s edge, the arrival of the northern carmine bee-eaters decorates the skies in pink as they search for appropriate nesting sites in the sandbanks. The black-breasted barbet is at the top of the ‘Most Wanted’ list for most birders, the Abyssinian ground hornbill a close second. The latter can be heard at dawn, serenading visitors with a deep booming call that carries across the Sahel.
Zakouma is also home to what experts believe is the largest number of North African ostriches – a subspecies that is all but extinct in most of its historic range.
A young male lions stalks the plains of Zakouma
Seasons
In Zakouma, the ebb and flow of life and animal movement is powered by the pulse of the wet and dry seasons. During the wet season from June to October, the park receives an average of 850mm of rain which inundates much of the park and floods the roads. Zakouma is closed to visitors during this period because it becomes almost inaccessible. The early dry season offers the best scenic photography as the surroundings are still green, but the later dry season ensures the best wildlife sightings. The temperatures regularly reach over 40˚C during the dry season, and there are sections of the park where tsetse flies congregate.
African Parks run accommodation – top left: Tinga Camp; right and bottom left: temporary mobile camping sites
Visiting Zakouma
Want to go on safari to Zakouma? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
Tourism remains a vital part of African Parks’ strategy for Zakouma’s future. Visitors with a taste for adventure can rest assured that they are playing a role in protecting one of the continent’s most important ecosystems.
There are currently limited accommodation options in Zakouma: a couple of basic campsites and Tinga Camp – a basic and budget-friendly camp originally constructed in 1965. African Parks is currently working on tourism development options in Zakouma to improve the diversity of accommodation options available for both local and international travellers.
A Zakouma safari is not necessarily the best option for first-time safari-goers or families with young children. Yet, for some, the rustic accommodation, remote location and hot weather is exactly what make Zakouma sought-after – a truly unique, off-the-beaten-track adventure where their visit directly contributes towards an ongoing conservation success story. Zakouma’s Lazarus-like recovery is nothing short of remarkable and has set it on the firm path to becoming one of the continent’s top (and most unusual) safari destinations.
Forming a relationship with a wild animal (i.e. not a dog, cat or horse etc.), or crossing the human-wildlife barrier, requires tremendous patience, motivation, knowledge and expertise – not to mention consideration of a whole host of ethical concerns.
Humans in nature
Humans have always been linked to wild animals through hunting and domestication for work, transportation, pest control, food, and, more recently, companionship. Having said this, modern humans are now so far removed from nature that many of us long to rekindle that forgotten connection – to cross the human-wildlife barrier. This desperation can often lead to confusion. What we may think is a special connection with an animal may not be – especially for the animal.
As the human population grows, wilderness areas do the opposite. Competition for space and resources is at an all-time high resulting in increased human-wildlife conflict. Although we have implemented a wide range of social, technological and behavioural approaches to reduce this problem, most of our interactions with wildlife (outside of ethical tourism) have become negative. We must find ways to coexist with wildlife, for if we don’t, it will lead to our ultimate demise.
Yet, as wildlife becomes rarer, many of us are drawn to it like a moth to a flame. However, how close is too close and when do we end up getting burnt? Wild animals are, after all, just that, wild.
Top left and bottom right: an orphaned blesbok; top right: an orphaned, hand-raised pangolin; bottom left: filmmaker Kim Wolhuter with wild spotted hyenas
Human-animal relationships
When I think about crossing the human-wildlife barrier, I struggle to think of positive examples. Poaching or “pets” that turn into problems, spring to mind. For many, nature is a place to be feared, with many species viewed as dangerous pests. So how can we shift this perception, and is it possible to form relationships with wild animals without it being detrimental to them?
During my time working with wildlife in Southern Africa, I have been fortunate enough to witness several human-wildlife relationships. Over the past year, I have made it my mission to document, analyse and, where possible, celebrate the human-wildlife connection.
Wildlife interactions can be controversial, depending on the unique circumstances of each animal and the motives of the organisation or individuals involved. There are positives and negatives to be considered when crossing the barrier between humans and wild animals and the best interests of the animal should always be of paramount importance.
In this story, I feature three unique and extraordinary human-wildlife relationships that I have been lucky enough to photograph. I discuss the often controversial ethics surrounding each.
Mateo (dedicated handler) and Marimba (pangolin orphan)
Mateo and Marimba
Marimba, a ground pangolin, was around a year old when her mother was poached for her scales. Marimba was simply too young to fend for herself. Her rescuers took her to Wild is Life sanctuary in Harare, Zimbabwe, where she met her full-time carer Mateo.
Pangolins are notoriously difficult to look after in captivity, requiring particular and personal care. Mateo’s gentle nature seemed like a perfect fit, and a remarkable relationship was born.
Pangolins are naturally nocturnal; however, for their safety, Marimba and Mateo go out in the day so she can satisfy her insatiable appetite for ants and termites. Marimba and Mateo have spent ten hours a day together for the past 13 years, and it shows – they are inseparable. Many attempts have been made to rewild Marimba, but she always finds a way back to Mateo. She is simply too attached to him and has never learnt the essential skills required to survive in the wild – perhaps because she was orphaned so young.
As Marimba cannot be released, she will now live out the rest of her life at the sanctuary as an ambassador for her species so that others do not succumb to the same fate as her mother.
Do not be fooled by their reptilian appearance – pangolins are affectionate, gentle, sentient creatures. And they are rapidly disappearing from our planet. As the most trafficked animals in the world, most human-pangolin interactions end in another pile of lifeless scales.
In a perfect world, the close connection between Marimba and Mateo would have never existed. However, this relationship has elements of what all humans should strive to emulate in our relationship with pangolins if we are to save them from extinction—one of trust, love, and compassion.
Like me, I am sure many would rather see Marimba released into the wild than live an unnatural lifestyle with Mateo. However, even if Marimba could be released, the reality is that pangolins are being poached all over Africa at an unprecedented rate, so where could she be released safely? Her habituation to people means that releasing her at this stage could be a death sentence.
Vera (carer) and Meme (orphaned blesbok)
Vera and Meme
Meme is a blesbok – a beautiful, medium-sized antelope characterised by a striking white blaze. They occur at Imire Rhino and Wildlife Conservancy in Zimbabwe, although they are naturally endemic to South Africa.
I played a significant role in this particular rehabilitation. Meme was only two weeks old when she was found roaming Imire without her mother. On the third day of searching, we found a dead cow, her enlarged teets indicating that she’d recently given birth. After much deliberation, we decided to catch Meme and raise her.
Why were we interfering with nature? Why did we cross the human-wildlife barrier? It seems to go against Darwin’s survival of the fittest. There were, however, some unique circumstances surrounding Imire that we considered carefully. At the time that Meme was orphaned, there were no predators on Imire. There is no doubt that if she’d been left alone, she’d have died a long and painful death – without predators, a total waste of life. For me, hand-raising any wild animal should only be considered almost as a last resort.
Vera was tasked with the rehabilitation and ultimate release of Meme. She spent hours on end trying to convince the tiny calf to drink milk from a bottle. Sometimes force-feeding was required, but eventually, Meme took to drinking from a bottle with ease.
This example highlights some crucial points pertinent to crossing the barrier between humans and wildlife. Raising Meme was a constant internal battle between doing what was right for the animal versus doing what made us happy. I mean, let’s be honest, how amazing is it to have a blesbok following you around wherever you go? It is an entirely natural and almost unavoidable feeling to become attached to an animal you have raised.
A considerable part of that connection from the animal’s side was, of course, the food. It was tricky to judge exactly when to stop feeding her, and it became more difficult as both parties enjoyed the process. We probably fed Meme for at least a month longer than necessary. Luckily feeding her for longer than required wasn’t to her detriment, and she remained fit and healthy throughout the process.
Meme on the day she was released and joined a herd of wild blesbok
Throughout the entire process, the goal remained to release Meme back into the wider reserve. The rehabilitation would have been pointless if we had simply kept her as our pet and denied her the right to live as a blesbok should. Meme was released at eight months old. Remarkably, she’s joined a herd on the reserve, leaving her human parents behind for a life in the wild. This was the perfect outcome for her and for our crossing of the human-wildlife barrier.
During our time with Meme, we gained a newfound appreciation for this often overlooked antelope species. Although the life of one antelope is just a drop in the ocean for conservation, it is everything for that individual. Many successful conservation projects rely on compassion, and rehabilitation stories like Meme’s can have profound and far-reaching effects. Teaching others to care about nature is half of the battle for, as Jane Goodall said, In the end, we will conserve only what we love.
Kim Wolhuter and a completely wild but habituated spotted hyena
Kim and the hyenas
Kim Wolhuter is a renowned wildlife filmmaker and conservationist from South Africa. What distinguishes his work from all other filmmakers is the incredible bonds that he forms with his subjects. Kim spends a minimum of eighteen months on each project and this extended period ensures that the animals he works with are completely relaxed in his presence. Through gaining unprecedented access to his subjects, Kim’s goal is to dispel myths that cloud certain species and ultimately restore our connection to nature.
There are very few mammals with a worse reputation than the spotted hyena. Kim has made it his mission to change that. Disney started villainising hyenas with The Lion King – smelly, dirty, ugly, devious scavengers.
Kim is based in the Sango Wildlife Conservancy in Zimbabwe, where he has formed a remarkable, tactile relationship with completely wild hyenas.
He works with three basic but critical rules:
He never carries a weapon – being armed can lead to arrogance which some animals might detect (although not as arrogance obviously but possibly as overbearing dominance).
The hyenas come to Kim apparently purely for affection. He NEVER feeds them. When food is involved, Kim will often remove himself from the situation.
They make the rules. Every interaction happens on their terms. Kim positions himself near the hyenas and waits for them to come to him.
Many people regard Kim’s work as unethical, interfering with wildlife and changing their natural behaviour. There is an element of truth behind changing their behaviour because, of course, if Kim wasn’t there, the hyenas wouldn’t walk up to him. However, this can also be said for safari vehicles. Just because an animal has become used to vehicles does not mean they enjoy the interaction. I have seen countless examples of safari vehicles having adverse effects on animals, yet far fewer people think of these as unethical.
Is Kim’s interaction with the hyenas harming them? From my experience, not. As pictured here, the hyenas appear to love the affection, and after all, the interactions are strictly on their terms. If they didn’t want it, they wouldn’t approach him.
The other often raised concern is that the animals habituated to Kim will be more vulnerable to poaching. There is no doubt that animals pick up on our body language, and a poacher will move very differently from somebody with innocent motives. The hyenas also know Kim individually; just because he has got the clan used to him does not mean that they will be comfortable in the presence of others. I experienced this firsthand.
To get these immersive, eye-level images, I also had to be low to the ground in and amongst the hyenas. Many of the cubs approached me in a familiar setting for the clan out of curiosity but with extreme caution. None of the adults came to within five meters of me, whereas they were more than happy to receive scratches from Kim.
I think most of the opposition to Kim arises because he is doing what no others are. It is in our nature to fear the unknown and to question different practices. A lot of people discount his work as unethical without ever researching what he does. Kim has dedicated his life to protecting wildlife, and by showcasing the relationships that he forms with his subjects, he allows others to feel what he does. A love of wildlife. The value of that alone to wildlife conservation is impossible to quantify.
Potential pitfalls
Apart from the concern that habituation makes wild animals more vulnerable to poaching, there are a number of other pitfalls associated with crossing the wildlife-human barrier.
Habituation can be potentially catastrophic for both people and the animals involved – animals that lose their fear of human beings could become a risk to people and property. It is important to remember that all wild animals pose a risk, no matter how “fluffy” or “cuddly” they appear to be. In my opinion, that risk increases tenfold with the introduction of food. Animals close the gap in order to enjoy whatever morsels we have to offer. I have witnessed it many times whilst working with wild animals, things can change quickly. When we introduce food, we are often too close to the animal to react in time and this is when accidents happen. More often than not, strong food-related habituation ends in disaster. It is hugely important that a holistic view of the risks associated with habitation be taken before any attempt to cross the human-wildlife barrier is made. Could the animal become a danger to human beings? Could it become a danger to property?
There are, however, different levels of habituation and I assume that with our ever-growing human population and the resultant pressure on habitats, most animals on our planet are now habituated to some degree. Whether they have become used to game drive vehicles, people, or our infrastructure, habituation is now unavoidable. For the safari industry, some level of habituation is necessary for good sightings of animals. You wouldn’t want to pay $20,000 on your dream safari just to see the backsides of animals running away from your vehicle but equally, you wouldn’t want to spend that amount of money to be charged by an expectant elephant whose lunch is late.
It’s a fine balance, but there certainly are different levels of habituation and not all are bad. Having said this, wildlife should never become reliant on humans for food. Food-related habituation should only be explored in rehabilitation or wildlife management scenarios, and even then, it should be undertaken with the highest level of care.
There is also the fear that people might try and mimic situations they do not understand, resulting in injury or death and the subsequent euthanasia of the animal involved. Caution should therefore be taken with any publicity associated with human-wildlife interactions. Warnings and ‘do not try this at home’ admonitions should always accompany careful explanations of situations where the human-wildlife barrier is crossed.
Conclusion
Each scenario is unique. Before working in conservation, I was sceptical of almost all interactions that crossed the human-wildlife barrier, and I would dismiss them as unethical. In today’s social media culture, I think it’s essential to do your research before judging organisations and individuals that get close to wildlife. Still, I think it’s equally important to ask those difficult questions. Why is the animal there in the first place? Is the interaction necessary? Does it negatively affect the animal? What are the long-term goals, and can the animal eventually be released? If not, why not?
Crossing the human-wildlife barrier is not something that should be taken lightly. Wildlife is, after all, wild, and although I have highlighted what I believe are three success stories, it does not always go that way. I have heard of a wildebeest disembowelling a horse, a warthog killing a child and a cheetah mauling someone. No matter how cute or cuddly wild animals may be, they are all potentially dangerous.
Having said this, when done correctly, there are substantial potential benefits to crossing the human-wildlife barrier. As modern-day humans, no matter how far we remove ourselves from nature, we will always be a part of it. Wherever you live in the world, every action affects the natural systems of our Earth. With our ever-expanding population, we have no choice but to interact with wildlife. With the current state of our planet, we also have no choice but to interact positively.
About the author:
Sam Turley was born in Staffordshire, England, in 1992. Growing up in the countryside, Sam’s fascination with the natural world started at a very young age and has never left him. He has since dedicated his life to wildlife conservation, and after studying zoology in the UK, he went on to qualify as a field guide in South Africa, where he worked for three years. During a trip to Namibia in 2016, Sam’s passion for wildlife photography ignited, and he has been obsessed ever since. He was the overall winner of the 2020 Wilderness Safaris People’s Choice Award and was a three-time finalist in the highly prestigious 2020 Natural History Museum’s Photographer of the Year competition. His work has also been featured in many magazines, including The Telegraph, Getaway and Travel Africa. Sam is moving back to the UK in October to start a family. He is available for photographic and videographic conservation-related projects. You can contact Sam on sturleyphotography@gmail.com
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HOW CAN I HELP? is a question seldom asked in today’s self-absorbed society as we barrel along our evolutionary journey to algorithmic subserviency. Even just asking the question seems to change the chemistry of our minds, nudging us towards being decent, caring creatures. Is it too late to recalibrate to an earlier form of us?
We hope that once our new travel & conservation club has evolved out of its ‘beta’ development phase, it will be a tool to find African people and conservation projects to support. To get there, we need you. Yes, YOU. Go on, I dare you, join us on this journey and help teamAG make a difference where it matters – here in Africa. Some early-adoptors have already donated to the carefully selected projects via the club – yay!
I leave you with this thought, totally unconnected to my ramblings above: “The more chopped and packaged the animal in your freezer is, the more socially acceptable it gets.” (unknown source, altered)
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Scientific Editor
Is it a bug or a beetle? If its front wings are hardened into a solid pair of wing cases (elytra), then chances are you are looking at a beetle, a member of the Coleoptera order. This is the largest of the insect orders – so far, over 400,000 different species have been discovered, about 40% of all insect species described. They range in size from the smallest free-living insect (Scydosella musawasensis just 0.3mm long) to some of the heaviest and strongest insects on the planet. Have a look at our “Did you know” fact of the week below to learn more about the astonishing size of Africa’s largest Coleoptera member.
From our Editor-in-Chief
One of the benefits of having worked in the safari industry for so many years is my body’s natural desire to wake with the dawn. A tar-thick espresso with rusk as the birds begin their morning oratorio is the perfect way to begin the day. For those not from South Africa, a rusk is a bizarre piece of confectionary that might be confused for a small brick or piece of diamond-hard, stale sweetbread. Here, it is a safari delicacy – go figure.
In our first story below, we plunge into the chasm of Mosi-oa Tunya with the raging waters of the Zambezi River. Victoria Falls is a tourism mecca boasting wildlife, adventure and stunning hospitality on both the Zambian and Zimbabwean sides of the river. Chat to our safari experts to book your Vic Falls experience.
For many people, fencing protected areas is the best way to secure them. For others, fences represent the devastating closure of corridors for migratory animals. In our second story below, Gail Thomson gives a succinct and brilliant overview of the debate for and against fencing our wild spaces (club members only).
I love lying on my back in the wilderness, staring up at the sky. There is something profoundly peaceful about watching eagles soaring overhead – floating specks in the endless blue vault. In our third story below, we bring you the first part of our two-part series on Africa’s majestic apex predators of the sky.
• Fantastic news as 21 African countries have been hauled off the UK’s red list – meaning that travellers returning from these countries will no longer need to enter hotel-managed quarantine on arrival in England. The steps to be taken following arrival will be determined by the traveller’s vaccination status. Read here for more information. The 21 newly removed countries include Botswana, DRC, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia & Zimbabwe. Note that Kenya was previously removed from the red list.
• The awakening continues: Uganda Airlines is now flying from Dubai to Entebbe three times a week, and British Airways is flying from Heathrow to Nairobi four times a week.
The rivers of Africa are her lifeblood. Streams trickle down the mountains and gradually unite to form some of the most spectacular and biodiverse waterways, carving gorges across the continent. Nothing, not even geography, can hold them back as they tumble off cliffs and through dramatic ravines. As the largest waterfall in the world, Victoria Falls needs little introduction.
Even to the uninitiated, the name conjures images of breathtaking vistas, verdant vegetation, thrill-seeking and water thundering down into gorges, releasing spray that can often be seen kilometres away. The falls are also officially known as Mosi-oa-Tunya or “The Smoke That Thunders” in the Lozi language of the area – a name that perfectly captures the almost mystical atmosphere of this World Heritage Site. Victoria Falls is a place of myth, magic, and romance.
Victoria Falls and the Zambezi River
The world-famous Victoria Falls marks the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe, where the mighty Zambezi River gathers its strength and tumbles off a fractured basalt plateau into a series of dramatic gorges 100 metres below. Though not the tallest waterfall (on land, this title is held by Angel Falls in Venezuela), at an impressive width of 1,708 meters, the Victoria Falls creates the single largest continuous falling curtain of water in the world. At the height of the rainy season, five hundred million cubic meters of water hurtle over the edge every minute, sending up clouds of rainbow spray. From there, the river is forced through a narrow and twisting path between walls of steep rock – a churning tumble of Grade V rapids ideal for thrill-seekers looking to test their nerve.
Zambia lies on the northern and eastern sides of the falls (topographically slightly higher), while Zimbabwe is situated south and west. The neighbouring cities of Victoria Falls on the Zimbabwean side and Livingstone on the Zambian side are thriving tourism hubs easily accessed by road, rail or air. Upstream of the falls, the Zambezi River flows across an almost flat basalt plateau in a shallow valley teeming with wildlife and dotted with sedate luxury lodges away from the bustle of the central tourism regions. The Victoria Falls Bridge connects the two countries – a 1905 marvel of engineering that spans the Second Gorge, designed as part of Cecil Rhodes’ Cape to Cairo Railway vision.
The mighty Zambezi River widens to plunge over the Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe on the left bank, Zambia on the right
Zimbabwe or Zambia?
For those new to Victoria Falls, the first question is usually where to stay – the Zimbabwean or the Zambian side. Fortunately, crossing over to either side is a relatively painless process that requires a simple visa purchase and can be easily accomplished on foot. While both sides offer spectacular views of the falls and most activities, there are subtle differences between the two towns and certain attractions that can only be accessed from one or the other side.
Victoria Falls is the smallest of the two towns and is almost entirely tourism-based, with many backpackers, cafes, lively bars, and colourful local markets. The falls are just two kilometres away. Livingstone is slightly larger and offers a more city-like feel and a better representation of authentic local life. It is situated somewhat further from the falls, but the Zambian side is known for its stunning accommodation options along the riverside.
Around two-thirds of Victoria Falls is situated on the Zimbabwean side, which means more viewpoints are accessible from this side. It is also slightly lower than the Zambian side, and during the dry season (see below), water still flows even if the Zambian side has dried up completely.
However, the lower water levels at the start of the dry season open up the seasonal chance to visit Livingstone Island and Devil’s Pool, which are only accessible from the Zambian side. Livingstone Island is often touted as the point at which David Livingstone first set eyes upon Victoria Falls. However, given that the island sits right on the edge of the largest waterfall in the world, one has to imagine that he had an inkling before then. Whatever the case, the island is still a historical landmark and marks the site where Livingstone reeled out a length of calico weighted with a bullet to measure the height of the falls. From there, courageous visitors can swim out to either Angel’s Armchair (June-August) or the more famous Devil’s Pool (late August-December). Here, thousands of years of erosion have excavated a deep pool, with a thick rock wall right at the edge of the falls that allows tourists to take daredevil photographs without being carried over the edge by the current. It is vital to accompany experienced tour guides to these attractions, as rigorous safety measures and an intimate knowledge of the river are essential.
Clockwise from top left: a microlight flies through the water vapour at dawn; white-water rafting is extreme fun; sedate sundowners above the falls; a guided tour to the edge of the falls; just one of the many ways a person can fling themselves into the Zambezi gorge below the falls; taking a dip in the Devil’s Pool.
Adrenaline Capital of the World
Devil’s Pool is just one of the many adventures on offer in Victoria Falls that have marked it as the “adrenaline capital of Africa”. The rapids below the falls are classified as Grade V and present some of the best white water rafting in the world. Adrift on inflatable rafts, armed with just a plastic oar and a lifejacket, visitors throw themselves on the river’s mercy, safe in the knowledge that expert guides are on hand in kayaks to assist as necessary. Nothing is quite as humbling as experiencing the sheer power of a churning river (especially while underneath it), but the calm stretches also allow for peaceful moments of quiet appreciation of the exquisite gorge views. White water rafting is only possible at certain times of the year – depending on the rainfall. It is guaranteed during your August safari and in September, but the season may extend between June and September.
Suppose rafting alone is not sufficient to fill one’s adrenaline quota. In that case, there are several other anxiety-inducing options, including bungee jumping or swinging off the Victoria Falls Bridge, cable gliding/ziplining, abseiling and skydiving. After all that excitement, it is essential to decompress with a more sedate activity like a sunset cruise, a train trip with canapes and cocktails or even the time-honoured tradition of a High Tea in a historical setting.
A rainbow over the falls.
Seasons and water levels
The Falls are usually at their most dramatic from late February to May, when the most water tumbles into the chams below and a curtain of spray hovers over the Falls. The flip side of this is that there is a chance that the Falls may be partially obscured by the rainbow-lit spray. After months of dry weather, the falls begin to reduce in size and reach their lowest levels towards the end of the year when bare rock faces are clearly visible, particularly on the Zambian side. This, too, presents different opportunities for visitors, allowing them unobscured views of the falls and the opportunity to go rafting.
At certain times of the day, the mist from the waterfall catches the light at just the right angle, creating arched rainbows. Viewed from the forest amidst clouds of butterflies and accompanied by the cries of trumpeter hornbills, the effect is like something out of a fairy tale. Possibly even more magical are the lunar rainbows, visible for three nights a month.
Gorgeous accommodation with awesome views and a relaxed, magical atmosphere
Your safari to Victoria Falls
A Victoria Falls trip offers the perfect escape for almost every traveller, from the solo adventurer and budget-strapped student to families with children and romantic couples. There is a vast range of hospitality options, from shared accommodation in backpacking establishments to ultra-luxurious lodges on the Zambezi banks. The lively towns are filled with historical and cultural experiences.
Two small national parks protect the falls and their surroundings: the Mosi-oa-Tunya National Park on the Zambian side and its twin, the Victoria Falls National Park, on the opposite side of the river. Neither are ‘Big 5’ reserves, but they are teeming with wildlife. Elephants are everywhere in Victoria Falls (and should be treated with the requisite respect and caution). Visitors can spend time tracking rhinos on foot in the Mosi-oa-Tunya National Park. Those searching for a more traditional safari experience (and large predators) can visit the nearby Zambezi National Park in Zimbabwe or travel further afield to Hwange National Park or Chobe National Park in Botswana. Upstream, canoe safaris navigate between hippos and crocodiles while admiring elephants feeding on the banks and searching for the 460 bird species found in the Victoria Falls region.
Comfortable shoes with sufficient traction are always good, especially for the slippery paths around viewpoints or descending into the gorge. Waterproofing for all equipment is essential, especially when water levels are high.
Conservationists working throughout Africa have recently engaged in a fascinating fencing debate about how best to conserve wide-ranging wildlife, such as lions. The debate centred on a single important question: should protected areas in Africa be fenced? As human populations on the continent continue to increase, this timely debate provides food for thought as we contemplate the future of Africa’s wildlife under growing human pressure.
The debate centres around lion conservation, yet has important implications for many other wildlife species. As Africa’s largest predator, the lion is seen as a key species for conservation. Because they roam over large areas, require large numbers of prey, and are especially feared by humans, it appears that if we can conserve lions effectively, then we can conserve their associated ecosystems and a host of other species. I present the cases for and against fencing, as expressed by Africa’s top predator conservation scientists, and look into some of the implications of this debate for Botswana.
Africa’s iconic terrestrial predators – the three big cats, the African painted wolf, and the spotted hyena – are all wondrously proficient predators that fit neatly into place in their ecosystems. Tourists flock in their droves to admire the unique hunting styles that include coordinated killing, stealth and ambush, high-speed chases and remarkable displays of stamina. In the skies above these dramatic scenes, the avian apex predators soar. Sharp-eyed and fierce, African eagles bring unexpected death from above.
Birds of Prey – The Accipitridae
When distinguishing between African eagles and other birds of prey, most guides (and likely most safari guests) are taught that the “true eagles” have feathers that extend to the foot. While this would certainly simplify matters, the exact definition of what constitutes an eagle is simultaneously broad and somewhat vague. It is a definition usually based on size and a rough description of “power”. Fish eagles, bateleurs, and snake-eagles lack the feathered legs of “booted” eagles, but ornithologists still consider them eagles.
The term ‘eagle’ encompasses several different genera of large birds, some of which are not particularly closely related but all of which belong to the Accipitridae family. This is an enormous family with over 230 species of raptor, including eagles, kites, hawks, buzzards and Old-World vultures. At present, eagles can be informally divided into four subfamily groups:
Aquilinae – “booted” eagles (not to be confused with the booted eagle Hieraaetus pennatus/Aquila pennata, this grouping encompasses multiple species such as the martial, steppe, tawny and crowned eagles) and hawk-eagles
Circaetinae – snake eagles
Harpininae – harpy eagles
Haliaeetinae – sea and fish eagles
With ever-improving genetic technology, our understanding of phylogenetic relationships between species is changing. Many eagles will likely be shifted to a new genus or grouping as research continues. In Africa, they range in size from the relatively small snake eagles to the stocky martial eagle, the fifth heaviest eagle in the world.
Whatever the definition used, most people associate African eagles with hunting proficiency and strength – a well-earned reputation. These sleek masters of the skies are efficient and intimidating predators that use a combination of skill, speed, and power to survive.
Juvenille Verreaux’s eagle
“Two eyes with wings”
The description of “two eyes with wings” was coined by Rochon-Duvigneaud about the pigeon but is no less applicable to eagles. They are sight-hunters, capable of spotting potential prey from several kilometres away. Most bird species have exceptional visual acuity, but eagles are probably at the top of the list. The reason behind this is two-fold: the physical structures of the eye and the brain’s ability to process visual information. These physiological adaptations confer eyesight that experts estimate to be between four to eight times sharper than humans.
Like other raptor species, the eyes of eagles are approximately 1.4 times larger than birds of equivalent size and weight. The eyes are so large that there is little room for muscles to move the eyeball, which is the case in most birds. In addition, a sclerotic ring of bone holds the eagle’s eye in place, and thus eagles need to turn their heads to view anything outside the peripheral range.
Though the eyes are forward-facing, eagles can use both monocular and binocular vision, meaning that they can see straight ahead and to the side simultaneously. This is made possible by two foveae (humans only have one) in each eye – focal points consisting of clusters of specialised cells known as photoreceptors. On average, the retina of an eagle has roughly twelve times the number of cone cells as a human – photoreceptors that are associated with clear colour vision at high resolutions. They are also able to see ultraviolet light, which helps them detect urine trails on the ground.
Muscles in the eye itself can contract rapidly to change the shape of the lens, allowing the bird to focus on prey while diving. Their brains are able to resolve moving stimuli far faster than mammals, and they process that information exceptionally quickly. This is how birds of prey can navigate a forest hunt at speeds that would simply be a blur to the average human.
A bony projection above the eye, known as the supraorbital ridge, is responsible for the typical raptorial scowl. Absent in owls, this ridge is believed to provide support and protection to the eye socket, as well as shading the eye while the eagle is in flight. The spin-off is that eagles give the distinct impression that they are deeply annoyed by everything and everyone in their vicinity.
An adult (left) and a juvenile (right) African fish eagle scrap over a fish (follow the photographer here on Instagram)
Formidable weaponry
Eagles generally use razor-sharp talons backed by the considerable momentum of their bulk to dispatch prey. Hurtling out of the sky at speeds of over 100km/h, they collide with their unsuspecting quarry, often breaking the neck and spinal column instantly or penetrating the skull with a curved talon. The four-toed feet of eagles are specifically designed for this purpose, powered by strong muscles and covered in a thick, protective coating of scaly skin. The talon is solid bone, the distal phalanx (final joints) of the foot enclosed by the protective layer of keratin similar to fingernails.
Three talons are forward-facing, while the fourth points backwards and secures a solid grip on struggling prey. This hallux claw is the first digit and is sometimes referred to as the “kill claw” because it may be used to spear prey or grip tightly enough to cause asphyxiation. Naturally, there are variations in its size depending on the habitat and hunting style of the African eagle species concerned. For example, crowned eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus) are believed to have the largest hallux claw of any eagle. This may relate to the restrictions of the forest habitats they prefer. There are also anecdotal accounts of a martial eagle breaking a man’s arm with its talons. (This account is chronicled in old hunting records and, as such, should probably be treated with the same scepticism given to fishermen recounting catch size.)
The talons of eagles will be used during territorial battles, where two opposing eagles clasp their talons together and cartwheel through the sky, pulling out of the freefall at the last moment. This cartwheeling display was once believed to be courtship behaviour, but recent research suggests it is more likely related to competition.
Long-crested eagle (follow photographer Graeme Gullacksen here ( here )
Leading ladies and doting fathers
Like most birds of prey, African eagles exhibit considerable sexual dimorphism, which is relatively standard in the avian world. However, unusually in the animal kingdom, the females are heavier and stronger than their male counterparts. No one is entirely certain as to why exactly. Still, several theories have inspired what one scientific paper refers to as a “passionate debate” that goes back centuries.
Explanations include reduced food competition between the sexes (seldom born out by research and failing to explain why the male is not bigger) and the female being able to protect her nestlings from the male’s predatory instincts. More recent theories lean more towards the fact that the female does most of the active guarding of the nest and young. As such, a heavier, stronger female has been evolutionarily selected. However, no one theory has received universal acceptance, and every approach has exceptions.
African eagles are monogamous, and most species are known to form lasting pair bonds, where the males share much of the parental load. Even migratory species will reunite after a long journey to breed, though a missing or delayed mate will be summarily replaced. Mating pairs build the messy nest of twigs, formally referred to as an eyrie, and regularly reuse the same nest site (known as strong “nest site fidelity”). While the female incubates the eggs and guards the nestlings, the males will see that they are kept well-fed.
A tawny eagle considering a wasp (follow photographer Lars Roes of Lifejourney4two here)
What’s on the menu? (Us?)
African eagles hunt and feed on a wide variety of prey. Naturally, the size and the exact breakdown of prey are extremely species-dependent, but almost all eagles can tackle animals heavier than themselves. For example, Africa’s three prodigious eagle species – the martial, Verreaux’s and the crowned – have been observed catching and killing adult antelope. Certain eagle species maintain a specialist diet (such as fish eagles), while others have adopted a much broader palate.
Fascinatingly, the Taung Child, a young Australopithecus africanus whose remains were discovered in South Africa, is believed to have been killed by an eagle. According to Professor Lee Burger, the damage to the skull’s eye sockets matches that of monkey specimens collected from crowned eagle nests. The crowned eagle shows a particular preference for primates, and there have been a couple of isolated incidents in modern times where crowned eagles have killed or injured small children. However, this is highly unusual behaviour, and an eagle is far more likely to target a small dog or cat.
Wahlberg’s eagle
The inevitable descent
Unfortunately for African eagles, humans present a far more significant threat to their survival than they do to ours. In recent decades, most eagle populations have suffered at our hands in one way or another. The dramatic fall in vulture numbers has been relatively well-documented in recent years, but conservationists are also raising the alarm for many other birds of prey, including eagles. The distressing decline has been particularly pronounced in West Africa but is widespread throughout the continent and has affected most of the larger raptors. The reasons behind this drop are likely diverse and can be linked to habitat loss, power lines and poisoning. Large eagles, particularly martial eagles, are also targeted by farmers who blame them for killing their livestock. As a result, a 2020 Red List update saw the bateleur, martial eagle, and secretary bird raised to the higher threat level of ‘Endangered’.
Persecution at human hands is exacerbated by the fact that the larger, territorial eagle species naturally occur at low densities. Their reproduction rates are slow, and a breeding pair may only raise one chick every two years. It will then take a young eagle between six and eight years to reach sexual maturity. This makes it extremely difficult for African eagle populations to bounce back once their numbers begin to fall.
Conclusion
It is little wonder that African eagles are associated with powerful symbolism in religion, mythology and even heraldry. They are silent and deadly killers, devoted parents, and fierce combatants.
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Well that was special! Daily encounters with hunting cheetahs, painted wolves and mating lions in Botswana’s Khwai Private Reserve was the tonic I needed to remind me why I am so in love with Africa, my home. And of course elephants everywhere and even a few sightings of stunning sable antelopes.
My personal highlight was hours spent watching thousands of birds working the drying out channels for fish and molluscs. Flotillas of pelicans shepherded the shoals amongst hovering pied kingfishers while marabou and yellow-billed storks stabbed away and black herons, slaty egrets and open-billed storks worked the fringes. And of course, fish eagles kept everybody on their toes. Simply breathtaking. And somewhere a leopard lurked on the fringes, but we could not see it.
Expect my report back in a month or two – and some mouth-watering images
Have you ever wondered why, when you were a child, the summer holidays seemed to last forever but now whole years seem to pass in the blink of an eye? Our perception of time is extremely subjective and tends to speed up as we age. In other words, people are fairly bad at objectively comprehending the passage of time.
Why do I mention this? Have a look at our “Did you know” fact of the week about the tallest tree in Africa. Experts estimate that this particular tree is between 500-600 years old but there are some pine trees in North America that are over 5,000 years old and still living. Imagine if our lifespans extended that long – would we be more invested in protecting the planet’s future?
From our Editor-in-Chief
The storms are beginning to build over Southern Africa, the hot afternoons pregnant with anticipation for the dry season’s breaking. For many areas, we are still a month or so away from the first big rains that will coax the exuberant green from the dusty, brown-grey landscape. As the heat increases, so the herbivores are forced to the diminishing waterholes. The predators know this and provide a terrifying gauntlet for the thirsty herds.
Now, if you live in Africa, you can go and see these epic dramas unfolding in Botswana for a bargain price – check out this amazing special. Alas for African residents only.
While you are considering where to find the cash to take us up on this amazing offer, have a read through our first story below which delves into the lives of what many consider Africa’s most beautiful antelopes – sable and roan.
In our second story below, CEO Simon Espley leads teamAG into the remote mountains of Magoebaskloof in search of Africa’s rarest parrot as part of the conservation efforts directed at saving the Cape parrot.
Finally, to inspire you further into safari mode, our third story below is a deep dive into Chobe National Park, Botswana – a stunning, diverse wilderness heading into its most action-packed month.
• Safari dreaming? Check out this seductive video of the stunning Elsa’s Kopje in Meru National Park, Kenya. For the best prices for this and many other camps and lodges check out our club lodge collection.
• Wonderful Covid-related news is that Kenya has been removed from the UK red list and Malawi has loosened its requirements to a 72-hour negative PCR test window and no prior clearance required from the Ministry of Health. Visit our club forum for Covid-related travel advice from our members.
• Did you know that tipping can be an anxious moment for some safari-goers, and the subject of much debate and advice? Well, stress no more because here is all the information that you need: Tipping while on safari.
Many places offer excellent elephant viewing, but Chobe National Park of Botswana boasts the world’s highest density. From rich riverine habitats to vast dry savannas, names like Chobe, Savute, and Linyanti are imbued with the spirit of safari legend. Of the many safari wonders on offer in Africa, time spent in the company of elephants is always something to be treasured. With their complex intelligence and delightful social dynamics, every sighting of these grey giants is unique – whether it involves babies swinging their trunks around, a breeding herd cooling off in the mud or the calm towering presence of an old bull.
Chobe River and Chobe National Park
The Chobe region is dominated by Chobe National Park (NP), an 11,700km2 (117 000 hectares) park situated in the northeastern corner of Botswana. As Botswana’s third-largest national park, it is arguably its most biodiverse, divided as it is into four distinct habitat regions (more on that below). The park is also surrounded by private and state concessions and reserves. These protected areas act as buffer zones around the park and extend to and link with other reserves to create a massive open system for wildlife movement. This enormous Chobe-Linyanti Ecosystem is open to Namibia’s Zambezi Region to the north, the Okavango Delta region to the west and Hwange National Park and surrounds in Zimbabwe to the east.
The Chobe River marks the border between Namibia and Botswana. Its banks and flood plains are Chobe NP’s most popular destinations, attracting vast numbers of wildlife (and eager tourists) during the dry season. The river enters Botswana further west as the Kwando River, which historically would have linked with the Okavango River to feed the once enormous Lake Makgadikgadi. The same tectonic shifts that created the Okavango Delta and, ultimately, Victoria Falls redirected the paths of the rivers. The Kwando River divides into the Linyanti Swamps and continues east as the Linyanti River, cutting a jagged path across the country’s north. It feeds into the seasonal Lake Liambesi before finally emerging as the Chobe River. Its confluence with the Zambezi River marks “Africa’s Four Corners” – the meeting point of Namibia, Zambia, Botswana, and Zimbabwe. When the Zambezi is in flood, it pushes water back up through the confluence, making the Chobe flow in the opposite direction.
These vast waterways are the lifeblood of the Chobe region, and whether viewed by boat or safari vehicle, the scenery and wildlife on display are, quite simply, breathtaking.
Goliath heron cooling down in the Chobe heat
Chobe National Park can be conceptually divided into four distinct areas, each with its own unique character, vegetation, and wildlife highlights. These are the Chobe Riverfront on the northeastern edge of the park, Linyanti to the north-west, Savute to the south and the Nogatsaa area/Ngwenzumba Pans.
Chobe Riverfront
Also sometimes referred to as the Serondela area, this is the most popular part of the park and is easily accessible from the nearby town of Kasane. Unsurprisingly, given the availability of water, this region has the highest wildlife concentrations and offers some of the best boat-based safaris in Africa. Naturally, many luxury lodges offer packages that include various activities, including game drives, guided walks, and boat trips. Self-drive visitors can opt to stay at the public Ihaha Campsite.
The lush floodplains attract enormous herds of elephants, buffalos and zebras. Away from the river, the deep sands are dominated by gorgeous forests with Zambezi teak (Baikiaea plurijuga) as the starring attraction. The Chobe Riverfront is also home to Botswana’s only puku population (a fawn-coloured relative of the waterbuck that is more commonly seen in Zambia).
The contrast between the emerald green wet season and the dusty heat of the late dry season is almost incongruous
Savute
The western stretch of the park is Savute (occasionally spelt Savuti), which borders Moremi Game Reserve to the southwest. Wild and remote, this region is popular with self-drive travellers who approach from Botswana’s safari capital, Maun, and aim for the Savute Campsite, the second of Chobe NP’s public campsites. Perhaps the most famous attraction (and the most geographically significant feature) is the enigmatic Savute channel, which empties into the Savute Marsh. This once-forgotten river was dry from the late 19th century until it flowed some 75 years later in 1958. Since then, it has followed an entirely unpredictable rhythm, drying up for decades at a time, seemingly unaffected by neighbouring floods (though possibly influenced by small tectonic movements), before flowing once again. The haunting silhouettes of dead trees lining the Savute Marsh bear a sun-bleached testament to the effects of the channel’s temperamental nature.
In an often-arid region, the presence (or absence) of water changes the landscape and forces the wildlife to adapt in new and innovative ways. Regardless of whether or not the channel is flowing, animals have to adjust their behaviour to the pattern of the seasons, from wet to dry and back again. The lions of Savute have become famous for their dry season elephant hunting techniques, often targeting adolescents on the fringes of breeding herds and using numbers and sheer determination to secure themselves the biggest meal possible. Leopards stalk the outskirts of the drying pools of the marshes, displaying no cat-like concern for cleanliness when diving into the mud to catch the flailing catfish.
The savannas are dotted with rocky outcrops where leopards seek refuge and survey the beautiful landscape. The hills were also the haunts of ancient humans who lived to the pulse of the seasons in Savute. The rocky outcrops of the Gubatsa Hills are decorated with their ochre drawings.
The Linyanti swamps at dusk
Linyanti
This delta-like and predator-rich section of the park lies in the north-western corner, bordered by the Linyanti River and Namibia to the north and linked to the Okavango by the Selinda Spillway. Though getting to Linyanti is something of a journey in itself (and occasionally impossible by road during the height of the wet season), the effort is well rewarded by one of the most spectacular and unspoilt wilderness areas in Southern Africa. Another watery wonderland, the Linyanti Marshes are divided by a series of lagoons and waterways just begging to be explored by motorboat or in a mokoro (a traditional canoe-like vessel). The marshy reedbeds hide unusual antelope such as sitatunga and red lechwe. The open habitats away from the riparian woodlands are perfect for viewing Linyanti’s famous packs of African painted wolves (wild dogs).
Though most of the accommodation options are at the higher end of the luxury spectrum, there is a third public campsite in Linyanti. Private concessions like Linyanti Game Reserve and Selinda Game Reserve expand the opportunities to explore the Linyanti ecosystem beyond the confines of Chobe NP. The surrounding private concessions also offer additional budget-friendly options.
Nogatsaa grasslands/Ngwenzumba Pans
The fourth and final region of Chobe, Nogatsaa, is known for a series of clay pans surrounded by mopane woodlands and grasslands. It is notoriously difficult to get to, with the roads alternating between wily thick sand and disagreeable black cotton soils. This tends to keep all but the most hardcore nature enthusiasts at bay, resulting in a pure and unspoilt wilderness experience for those who do brave the journey.
On land or water, exploring Chobe is full of fun and animal action
Wild Chobe
Chobe NP is a safari enthusiast’s playground – an unapologetic spectacle of Africa at her most wild. Quite aside from the more “traditional” wildlife, few people realise that Chobe is part of the longest mammal migration in Africa: the Chobe-Nxai Pan zebra migration. Every year around 20,000 zebras make a round trip of nearly 1,000km, spending the dry months around the Chobe River from June until early November, before massing and returning south to Nxai Pan. Chobe is also a fantastic place to view some of the more unusual antelope like sable, roan, tsessebe, puku, oribi and lechwe.
The waterways are filled with pods of hippos that emerge to mow the grasslands at night or during cool weather. They share their world with the Nile crocodiles, which prey on everything from incautious lions to the savage-looking African tigerfish. Undeterred by this array of teeth, elephants take to the water during the heat of the day, swimming with surprising grace for such massive animals and using their trunks as built-in snorkels. The enormous troops of baboons that spend their days foraging for fruit around the riverine forests are often overlooked but are hugely entertaining.
The birding is as remarkable as the mammal viewing, with over 450 species on offer. Of course, the water birds are of particular interest. Even the most disinterested birder could not fail to be charmed by the oversized feet of lily-trotting jacana chicks or the water-shading antics of the black heron. Every year, a noisy cloud of pink heralds the arrival of the southern carmine bee-eaters and birders can spend time at the Kasane rapids searching for rock pratincoles, African skimmers and Pel’s fishing owls hidden in the huge riverine forest trees.
From five-star to camping – accommodation for all tastes and wallets
Explore & Stay
Botswana’s Chobe National Park is the quintessential Southern African safari experience, bursting to the brim with extraordinary wildlife, spectacular scenery, and a constant sense of adventure. The remote areas offer the perfect opportunity to unplug and enjoy a digital detox while serenaded by Chobe’s birds, beasts, and frogs. The Chobe River can be enjoyed on a day’s river cruise or, for those wishing to take in the experience over several days, on one of the region’s houseboats.
The dry season from June until October is the busiest time in the park. For good reason – the dwindling drinking water concentrates the wildlife around the river and remaining water points, and the sightings are extraordinary. However, the green season offers its advantages, including the arrival of migratory bird species, a baby boom, and lower accommodation rates. During the height of the rainy season, many of the roads become waterlogged and difficult to navigate, so self-drive travellers would be well advised to plan their routes well and ensure some level of 4WD driving proficiency.
Chobe NP has three public campsites for those travelling on a budget: Ihaha, Savute and Linyanti. These are extremely popular during the dry season and need to be booked well in advance to avoid disappointment. The town of Kasane – which briefly rose to fame as one of Elizabeth Taylor’s wedding destinations (an honour shared by just seven other venues) – offers several budget accommodations outside of the park. Visitors looking for more exclusive alternatives can take their pick from any number of luxury lodges and, during the high season, mobile camps.
Want to go on safari to Chobe? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.
An elephant calf enjoys the coolth of the Chobe River
Twenty-seven of Africa’s rarest parrots – the Cape parrot – cavorted in the pecan nut trees above us, screeching as they played, squabbling and scoffing delicious, ripe nuts. I was entranced and rooted to the spot, absorbed by the energy and amazingness of the moment. But for the next few days, when it mattered, we saw no parrots.
Our beautiful counting site on a mountain top near Magoebaskloof
We were in Magoebaskloof, South Africa, enjoying a sneak peek at these national treasures at a popular Cape parrot hangout the day before our participation in the annual Cape Parrot Big Birding Day. For the following two days, our designated count site was atop a remote mountain a few hours drive away. My counting partners and I – teamAG – were in an old pecan nut grove on a working farm, with local birdman extraordinaire and professional guide David Letsoalo. The tasty nuts are an irresistible temptation for parrots – especially with the decline of South Africa’s Mist-belt forests that contain the birds’ natural food sources (yellowwood and other indigenous tree fruit and nuts). Unfortunately, regular feasting on pecan nuts is terrible for parrot health – a bit like too much pizza for humans.
Top: a half-eaten pecan nut. Bottom: A Cape parrot using its dextrous feet and sharp beak to crack open a tasty pecan nut.
Before I get into the count itself, a quick shout out to Amorentia Farm owner Howard Blight and manager Wynand Espach, who host not only these unique birds that descend to mutilate their crop but also welcome crazy bird-watchers like me who come to see the Capes. The farm’s business model has moved away from pecan nut harvesting (although the trees have been left standing for the Capes to feast on) and now focuses on dragon fruit, ornamental flowers, avocado, and macadamia saplings. Howard and Wynand are rapidly becoming legendary ‘parrot-whisperers’, so passionate are they about their former nemeses. Thanks also to John Davies of Endangered Wildlife Trust, who put in long hours to arrange the Magoebaskloof counting groups.
Before heading to our count site the following morning, we spent more time with David scouting the indigenous forests around Magoebaskloof – his backyard. We were lucky again, relishing a few sightings of Capes, one at a nest site high in an old (alien) gum tree and another of a black sparrow-hawk hunting a flock of five parrots. During this thoroughly enjoyable morning, we also ticked off olive woodpecker, olive bushshrike, yellow-streaked greenbul, yellow woodland warbler, blue-mantled crested flycatcher and black-fronted bushshrike, amongst other avian jewels. David was a superb guide, and his intimate understanding of Cape parrots and immense birding skills make him a must-have guide for any birding trip to this area.
Cape parrot pair at their nest site in an old gum tree. Bottom photo: Male on left, female on right.
Okay, so back to the count. It was May, early winter, and even the Lowveld at this altitude can be inclement. And so it was – cold and blustery. TeamAG (me, safari product manager Nadia and Photographer of the Year runner-up Marcus) was allocated a never-before monitored site overlooking a deep ravine with snatches of forest below. Our spot was on a remote mountain plateau, so we required a four-wheel drive and camping equipment (including a spade …) for this off-the-grid adventure.
We sat diligently at our posts for the allocated late afternoon and early morning slots and heard a flock of three to five parrots noisily chattering as they winged their way to their roosts in the evening and again the following morning as they left to forage at lower altitudes. But unfortunately, we did not see them, because each time they flew by just below the lip of the ravine below us. This is why the farm and forest visits the day before were so special.
The two-day sojourn was thoroughly enjoyable, and we will be back next year – hopefully with more volunteers.
Clockwise from top left: At the count spot; in the forest enjoying the expert avian knowledge of David Letsoalo; David Letsoalo listening to a bird call; our remote campsite; our dining room
Others positioned in and around Magoebaskloof were luckier – as were groups at other count sites in KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape. That said, fewer birds were counted this year (1,477) than in 2019 (1,804).
Quote from Colleen Downs – Cape Parrot Working Group chairperson
“This was the 23rd count since we launched this fantastic citizen science project in 1998. The only year we did not count was in 2020 – for Covid reasons. This year 163 volunteers were posted at a minimum of 70 localities across the provinces. 2022 will be the 25th anniversary of the first count – a significant milestone. Please diarise Saturday 7 May and Sunday 8 May 2022 if you wish to help.”
Contact The Cape Parrot Working Group via email if you wish to volunteer for this epic adventure and become a much-valued citizen scientist.
Taxonomists have prodigious power – their choice of the scientific name for everything from viruses to large mammals leaves behind an enduring historical footprint of our understanding of evolutionary relationships. In recent years, newly discovered species are given names based on everything from bad puns to popular culture (Agra vation – a type of canopy beetle, Polemistus chewbacca – a wasp). Taxonomists of old went in for a more descriptive approach, and while it is impossible to know whether or not it was ever tongue in cheek, the outcome is sometimes equally entertaining. Enter the Hippotragus (sable and roan antelope) – the two magnificent “horse-goats” of the ungulate world.
Early artistic representations of the roan antelope (left), the sable antelope (top right) and the now extinct blue buck (bottom right)
Hippotragus
With long faces, caprine ears, and brawny, equine musculature, there is something “horse-goaty” about the only two surviving members of the Hippotragus genus. Both the roan and sable are among the most attractive antelope in Africa. Characterised by striking markings, robust bodies, and backward curving horns, the family resemblance between the two is evident in shape if not in coat colour (both species take their English names from the predominant colour of their fur).
One glance at their morphology should be sufficient to see an unmistakable resemblance to the oryx family, albeit with a different approach to weaponry. Thus, the roan and sable are grouped into the subfamily Hippotraginae (the “grazing antelopes”) along with the four oryx species and the addax – a collection of seven extant species belonging to three genera. These likely evolved from a common ancestor, with the Oryx and Addax settling in northern Africa initially and the Hippotragus adapted to the savanna habitats of the south. Ruminant classification, particularly antelope, remains a work-in-progress, but great strides have been made with recent genetic analysis.
Though the roan and sable diverged some five or more million years ago, they still show considerable similarities in behaviour, features and adaptations. Fascinatingly, even though they have spent millions of years evolving sympatrically (within overlapping ranges), recent evidence indicates that they can and do hybridise. Hybridisation is most frequently observed in Angola, where declining giant sable numbers (more below) have seen sable and roan interbreeding. This is sometimes referred to as Hubb’s principle or ‘desperation’ hypothesis and creates a vicious cycle where a rare species is more likely to mate with a similar species. (Disappointingly, there is no record that these hybrids are ever referred to as either “soans” or “rables”.)
Quick facts
Roan
Sable
Mass
223-300kg
220-235kg
Shoulder height
135-160cm
117-140cm
Gestation period
278 days
273 days
Number of young
One calf (twins occasionally recorded)
One calf (twins occasionally recorded)
Average life expectancy
Up to 25 years in captivity (around 17 years in the wild)
15-20 years in captivity (less in the wild)
Even without hybridisation, the tiny calves of sable and roan antelope are almost indistinguishable during their early months. However, by six months, the youngsters begin to take on the distinctive colouration of the adults. The two species stand almost the same height at the shoulder, but the roan is slightly taller and significantly heavier. Roan and sable are both specialist grazers and, as a general rule of thumb, both flourish in regions where competition with other grazers is reduced.
Sable and roan share a virtually identical social structure, with territorial bulls, a breeding herd of females and their youngsters and bachelor groups of immature or displaced males. The only significant difference is that roan breeding herds tend to be slightly smaller on average (5-15 as opposed to 15-22) but show more variation. Like many other antelope species, the bulls defend suitable territories (ideally with plentiful resources) and the females come and go, despite the male’s best efforts to detain them. The females have a strict hierarchy that is usually age-related and maintained by regular displays of low-intensity aggression.
The females hide their calves after birth and will only introduce them to the rest of the herd after a few weeks. The calves then spend most of their time with others of a similar age, and research indicates that sable calves, at least, have preferred playmates whose company they choose over others.
The IUCN Red List lists both species as ‘least concern’, but it must be remembered that these classifications are based on an overall view of the species and are not always applicable to specific regions.
A sable antelope bull
Sable (Hippotragus niger – the “black horse-goat”)
The remarkable sable cannot be mistaken for any other antelope. The coat of the males is jet-black (hence the name), the inky hide broken only by vivid splashes of white on the belly and face. Adult males are equipped with sharp-tipped crescent horns that extend back over their arched necks. Males usually carry their heads high in a show of dominance except for threat displays when they drop their heads and scythe their horns from side to side. The females are furnished with arched horns, and while these are shorter and thinner than those of the bulls, they are still potentially deadly weapons. The cows lack the ebony sheen of the males, and their coats are more subtly chestnut coloured.
Sable can be exceptionally defensive when provoked, attacked, or injured, and, as adults, their only natural predators are lions and crocodiles (and very occasionally, Africa painted wolves and spotted hyenas). Like most antelope, sable are generally shy around people, but captive individuals are less nervous. A warning charge from a sable bull can be singularly terrifying. (Watch here for an entertaining insight into how quick wildlife vets need to be on their feet.)
Sable have a preference for miombo woodland and are found in savanna and grassland habitats across south-east and south-central Africa, with a small isolated population found in Angola. While classified as specialist grazers, they readily browse during the dry season when they compensate for poor grazing with leaves and forbs. There are four recognised subspecies of sable (though the validity of these divisions remains in question and most are not yet recognised by the IUCN): the southern sable (H. n. niger), Zambian sable (H. n. kirkii), eastern sable (H. n. roosevelti) and the giant sable (H. n. variani).
Though the first three subspecies occur in relatively stable numbers, the resplendent giant sable of the Angolan savanna is critically endangered. Despite being a national symbol of Angola, the latest assessment of their numbers by the IUCN suggests that fewer than 250 mature individuals remain. As the descriptor “giant” indicates, they are the largest of the four sable subspecies, and their horns can reach over 1.5m in length.
Roan antelope cow
Roan (Hippotragus equinus – the “horsey horse-goat”)
As their vernacular name suggests, roan range in colour from a pale grey to reddish-brown, with their faces marked by bold black and white patterns. They are the second tallest and third heaviest antelope in Africa. Their horns are proportionately shorter than those of the sable (the record is just over 90cm) and are slightly less curved. The sexual dimorphism is considerably less marked in roan, and adult females are only fractionally smaller than the males. The most beguiling feature of roan antelope is their elongated and angled ears, which add a somewhat absurd edge to an otherwise handsome animal. Like sable, roan are placid until provoked, at which point they fight viciously and have been known to kill lions in self-defence.
Roan antelope inhabit woodland and grassland savanna habitats, and their range overlaps with that of the sable in several areas. However, roan are the only Hippotragus antelope found north of the Equator and across into West Africa. Six subspecies are currently recognised, which has made fragmented populations challenging to manage and added to conservation challenges. There are parts of Africa where the roan numbers have plummeted, particularly in South Africa’s Kruger National Park and the Ruma National Park in Kenya.
The extinct blue buck
Bluebuck (Hippotragus leucophaeus– the lost “horse-goat”)
Until the late 1700s, a third Hippotragus antelope roamed the southern tip of Africa. The bluebuck was the first large mammal to become extinct in historical times, hunted to extinction around 1800 and followed shortly by the quagga a few years later. The unfortunate bluebuck was likely restricted to a small range within the Cape area of South Africa. And genetic studies indicate that bluebuck numbers were low even before European settlers arrived in South Africa. Though hunting finished them off, there were likely several other contributory factors, including disruption of ancient migratory pathways due to natural climate shifts, loss of habitat and competition with roan and then livestock.
While the blue buck was once considered a subspecies of the roan, genetic studies confirm that it was a distinct species. However, experts have had to work extremely hard to clarify its exact history because many of the collected specimens were either roan or sable. The bluebuck was probably more closely related to the sable, with a small population becoming geographically isolated and eventually evolving into a separate species.
Slightly smaller than both sable and roan, the bluebuck was likely equally attractive and charismatic.
Where to find them in the wild?
Though both sable and roan have a relatively widespread distribution throughout Africa, there is nowhere that they could be considered to be particularly common. Moremi Game Reserve and Chobe National Park in Botswana, as well as Hwange National Park in Zimbabwe are good places to spot both. Malawi’s Nyika Plateau is an excellent location to view roan antelope, as are the Busanga Plains of Kafue in Zambia. The miombo woodlands of southern Tanzania and western Zambia both support large populations of sable.
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A sable bull chases some vultures off an elephant carcass
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Most heroes get on with their hero work anonymously. Often their only reward is the personal knowledge of a job well done, or, a pat on the back from a proud spouse, parent or colleague. Many have and will die, as they lived – in penury, rewarded with memories rather than money.
We can all think of such people – courageous rangers who, as we acknowledge on World Rhino Day on the 22nd of September, risk life and limb to protect our precious wildlife; passionate researchers who toil in heat, cold and dust in the pursuit of knowledge; tireless fundraisers who pry open the coffers of the well-to-do; the generous donors who hand out largesse without ever asking for acknowledgement.
In our first story below, we take a look at a tiny proportion of the substantial academic literature related to lion hunting in Africa. This is a fascinating and important area of research undertaken by academic heroes who work in politically and physically dangerous spaces, making a huge difference to African predator conservation.
Our second story below is a wonderful tale of a family smitten by African wilderness. While on a canoe trip, they passed an idyllic spot on the Zambezi River bank below Kariba Dam and fell in love. Now their lives are dedicated to restoring nature at Mukalya Private Game Reserve.
Reading academic tomes can be like mainlining anaesthetic drugs. Our third story below is an exception. It is a summary of a massive report compiled by the School of Wildlife Conservation at the African Leadership University. It’s the result of years of often thankless research compiled by unsung heroes at the coalface of trying to understand the future of Africa’s wild spaces.
James Hendry – Editor-in-Chief
From our Scientific Editor
The distressing decline of insect numbers across the globe is cause for tremendous concern. Not only do these helpful animals play a role in removing detritus but, most importantly, they pollinate many of the crop species that feed the world. Whatever the reason for this disappearance, it could exponentially worsen malnutrition and nutritional deficiencies (particularly vitamin A) for hundreds of thousands of people. Have a look at our “Did you know” fact of the week – it is a terrifying realisation that the future of our chocolate supply potentially rests on the tiny shoulders of the cacao plants’ midge pollinators.
• If this evocative video filmed in Tanzania’s remote Katavi NP does not get you dreaming of your next safari, nothing will. Tip: visit our club lodge selection and search for ‘Katavi’ or ‘Tanzania’ for the best lodges and prices.
• Travel insurance is vital for your safari plans. Make sure your insurance package includes cancellation or curtailment of the safari (including due to Covid), emergency evacuation expenses, medical expenses, repatriation expenses, damage/theft/loss of personal baggage, money and goods.
• Intrepid travellers are taking advantage of killer prices – out there as you read this enjoying their safaris arranged by teamAG. Check out this review of an excellent safari to Greater Kruger, South Africa.
In March 2021, the School of Wildlife Conservation (SOWC) at the African Leadership University published a report – State of the Wildlife Economy in Africa – based on research to determine the value of wildlife in Africa. The goal: to encourage more public and private investments in natural landscapes to improve conservation outcomes and support economic development.
Africa possesses extraordinarily rich and diverse wildlife resources. They comprise the planet’s largest mammal species assemblages, second-largest tropical rainforest and three of the most productive marine ecosystems. Africa’s wild resources – its wildlife (fauna and flora, marine and terrestrial) and its natural landscapes are, however, largely not recognised for their economic, livelihood, and health contributions. And they should be, as should ecosystem services linked to wild resources such as agriculture and commercial forestry.
Given that the Global Risks Report has ranked biodiversity loss as one of the top five global risks in the next ten years (WEF, 2019), it is critical that governments invest in protecting biodiversity. This will stimulate development by supporting the growth of the wildlife economy, increasing revenues and employment. Investments in conservation deliver competitive returns compared with other mainstream sectors. Therefore, African governments must step up to create an enabling environment for investment in the sustainable use of wildlife and natural landscapes. This is especially important given how many local livelihoods and macro-economies are tied to and reliant on wildlife and other natural resources.
The sun slips towards the horizon, turning the sky from blue to shades of pale pink and orange. We’re staying at Mukalya Private Game Reserve (upstream from Lower Zambezi National Park) and have just spent the afternoon fishing on the Zambezi River in Zambia. As we drift downstream, we catch sight of an elephant, a lone young bull, who uses his prehensile trunk to grasp clumps of grass and leaves. He slowly ambles along the bank, almost keeping pace with our drifting boat for a couple of kilometres, before he climbs the steep bank and disappears.
My husband resumes fishing, and I continue to watch the bank where groups of women gather to wash the family laundry and children splash in the shallows. Men relax, chat, and doubtless discuss the merits of various fishing sites and methods. We drift past islands, big and small.
The massive corkscrew horns of a kudu bull loom above the boat as we glide on, while impala gaze passively down from the riverbank and pied kingfishers dive for fish. Then, a movement on the bank catches our eyes. A magnificent male leopard, indifferent to us, saunters along the soft sand. We watch until he disappears.
My husband begs for “one more cast”, and his afternoon suddenly improves as he hooks a tiger fish. The river predator puts up a brave fight but, after a brief tousle, is landed, weighed, measured, photographed and returned to the water. A leopard and a ‘tiger’ in one afternoon – impressive.
Clockwise from top left: African fish eagle; water monitor lizard; puku cows; kudu bulls; a young leopard; a territorial hippo.
Mukalya Private Game Reserve
We are staying at Mukalya Private Game Reserve on the banks of the Zambezi. Seventy years ago, this was an area of incredible biodiversity and wildlife. It was also where most of Zambia’s rhino lived. However, poaching, habitat loss caused by deforestation (both for farming and charcoal production) denuded the area of wildlife. Just over a decade ago, barely an animal was to be seen. Then in 2006, on a canoe trip down the river, a family fell in love with the area and decided to restore it. They developed a vision for reintroducing wildlife, protecting the forests and restoring the space to its former glory.
Once they had securely fenced the reserve, they began reintroducing wildlife and educating the local villagers about the value of wildlife conservation. To date, the family has reintroduced 14 mammal species (including sable, eland, tsessebe, giraffe and zebra). This was not a process without its challenges. Some animals died during transportation; others failed to adjust to their new environment. A severe drought necessitated additional feed while elephants and hippos regularly broke fences, causing costly repairs. A pride of lions swam across the river from the Zimbabwean Hurungwe Game Management Area and consumed many newly introduced residents.
Local fishermen plying their trade on the Zambezi River
Conflict
Initially, there were also challenges with the members of the local community. Poaching, conflicts over boundaries, and widespread tree felling were some. But the family’s hard work has paid off. Local people are now benefitting through much-needed employment and social projects that include community schools, clinics, solar lighting, agricultural inputs for local farmers, wells and the provision of water pumps. In addition, the family has worked with the Zambian Wildlife Authority to reduce poaching and have not lost a single animal to illegal hunting in the last six years. Indeed, when an animal escapes from the Mukalya now, the local villagers inform the family and play an active role in herding the escapee home.
Mukalya’s stunning hospitality experience
Turning to tourism
The re-stocking project was costly, as were the ongoing costs of staffing and maintaining the reserve. With this in mind, the family recently decided to open a tourism operation to help the reserve support itself.
The previous afternoon we had headed upstream and into the Kariba Gorge. The river here has carved its way through the basalt rock, creating dramatic cliffs. As we entered the gorge, the river narrowed. Water swished and swirled around our boat. The precipitous banks are covered in dense vegetation, and we passed the occasional sandy beach and seasonal waterfall cascading into the river. There were scores of fish eagles dotted in the trees above the turbulent waters. In the shadows of the gorge, we saw two rare, rufous plumaged Pel’s fishing owls.
Precipitous gorges of the Zambezi River
Heading further upstream, towards the Kariba Dam (the largest dam in the world for storage capacity), we passed ‘Nyami Nyami Rock’. Local legend has it that this rock island is the Zambezi River God, Nyami Nyami, trapped forever in the river below the wall, while his wife remains trapped in the dam above. Traditionally, superstitious fishermen wouldn’t pass this rock and would never fish upstream of it, but time has softened traditions, and we saw a couple of dugout canoes and local men trying their luck as we headed towards the wall.
The closer we got to the wall, the more the water seethed and swirled, rushing over rocks and creating hundreds of tiny whirlpools. Then, suddenly, it loomed out of the water ahead of us. We sat in the boat, engine idling, and looked up at the massive construction, holding back 185 billion cubic metres of water.
Nyami Nyami rock
Strolling in the wild
The following morning, we explored the local area on foot – a 12km round trip to some hot springs. We walked through the reserve, surrounded by groves of false chestnut trees (local name Mundoli, scientific name Triplochiton zambesiacus). These vast, wide-canopied trees, with mottled, grey-white bark, large-lobed leaves and clusters of pale yellow flowers, are restricted to the Zambezi Valley.
We spotted kudu, duiker, sable and waterbuck in the dappled shade. An African golden oriole flew overhead, and we stepped over the fat tracks of a python. We had hoped for a sighting of the elusive, migratory African pitta (formerly Angolan pitta), which is in the area from November to February. It was March, and sadly there were no lingering pittas. We did see and hear a variety of other birdlife, however.
Between August and November, thousands of southern carmine bee-eaters paint the sky, bushes and steep, sandy riverbanks dazzling pinks and blues. We stood in the dry bed of one the Zambezi’s tributaries and marvelled at the extensive network of tunnels excavated into the towering banks above.
We were there at the right time to examine some of the smaller critters, including creepy, omnivorous (and occasionally cannibalistic) harvester crickets. We also watched numerous spider-hunting wasps, which paralyse their prey, burying it live with their eggs, to provide the young with ‘fresh’ food.
Elephants cooling off in the Zambezi River
Hot Springs
Leaving the reserve behind, we walked through local villages, waving at cattle and goat herders, greeting school children and stopping to have a chat with the village headman, before reaching the hot springs. At 90°C, the water was much too hot to touch, and clouds of mist rose above it in the cool morning air. Local women sometimes bring their pumpkins here to cook in the hot water while they tend the fields nearby. Further from the source, in a shaded clearing, the water was cooler, and our guide told us that bathing here, with the natural salts, sulphur and other minerals, has numerous health benefits. We didn’t stop to swim though; our tummies were rumbling.
Brunch was a scrumptious affair, and after our morning exertions, we felt we had earned it. Zebra looked on while we sat and chatted with the family. Uncle Josh regaled us with tales of the past, the giant trees that had grown here, and the wild animals roaming the area before poaching and human encroachment changed everything.
Sitting, coffee in hand and bellies full, we chatted with Michael, the driving force behind the project. He spoke of Mukalya’s future – the expansion of the reserve, the reintroduction of more animals, combating deforestation, plastic waste reduction, recycling projects, sustainable local fishing methods and future community projects. The family hopes to drop fences with neighbouring properties to increase the conservation footprint.
We couldn’t help but be inspired by the passion and commitment that has gone into the development of Mukalya Private Game Reserve. We hope the future will be a bright one and that it won’t be long before we return to check on progress.
In the wake of the bow-hunting of Mopane the lion, we searched for some literature and expert commentary on the sustainability of the trophy hunting of free-roaming lions in Africa, particularly around Hwange National Park in Zimbabwe. We came across extensive scientific literature on African lion hunting and its effects on population dynamics and numbers.
Around 20 – 30 male lions are shot by trophy hunters every year in Zimbabwe. Some of these are in community-owned conservancies and some private hunting concessions, which may border national parks.
Hwange National Park
We wanted to know if the hunting of lions around Hwange as it is currently practised might drive lions to local extinction. The answer is most likely not. Hwange is part of a massive, open system stretching to Victoria Falls in the northwest and the Okavango Delta (and beyond) in the west. Hwange hunting is like ‘nibbling on the edges’ of the greater transfrontier protected area.
That is not to say the effect of hunting is negligible by any means. Between 1999 and 2012, of 206 recorded lion mortalities in Hwange, human beings caused 88% of male and 67% of female deaths. Trophy hunters caused the vast majority of male deaths while lionesses fell to bycatch snaring, retaliatory killing and hunting 1.
Lion hunting in Hwange has wrought tremendous changes on lion demographics and has certainly reduced lion numbers 2. When male lion offtakes were highest, survival of all age and sex classes were lowest. Over the period 1999 – 2021, reduced hunting quotas coincided with an increase in the overall population (62%) and a male density increase of 200 %! According to the 2016 study (footnote 2), the population started to decline again with increased hunting pressure and higher mortalities. When hunting was most intense in the early 2000s, population ratios were highly skewed towards females.
The Hwange situation has been repeated in various parts of Tanzania, where over-hunting has reduced lion numbers on a national scale 3 and lower population growth rates are expected where trophy hunting persists 4.
It is also important to appreciate that anthropogenic lion deaths around Hwange are not only caused by trophy hunters. Unintentional deaths from snaring and intentional killing due to human-wildlife conflict also reduce lion numbers. All of these causes combined could lead to a population crash – but at the moment, this seems unlikely. In many parts of Africa, it is simply not known how many lions are lost to anthropogenic mortality 5.
Why the six-year-old threshold?
In Zimbabwe, the minimum age for a trophy-sized male lion is six years old. This threshold comes from a mathematical model developed by Anthony Starfield in the early 1980s in the Kruger National Park, South Africa 6. The model was expanded and refined in 2007 by Whitman et al. 7. Further research, however, indicates that harvesting males after they have reared their first cohort of cubs can be sustainable but that in Southern Africa, where lions appear to mature more slowly than in East Africa, the threshold of six years is too low and should be increased to at least seven 8.
However, this assessment of sustainability assumes two things. First, the hunting operator is ethical in so much as he will not allow a client to shoot an animal too young (not always the case9), and second that he can accurately age the lion his client is about to kill. One study shows that hunters achieved a success rate of only 63% when ageing lions, normally overestimating the ages10. The study recommended that to negate the effects of these errors, the minimum threshold for lion hunting should be greater than seven years. Beyond this age, hunters were much more accurate at ageing their targets. This is supported by at least one study 11 that showed lion population numbers to be negatively affected by the hunting of lions under the age of seven years.
Sinks
What killing lions on the edge of Hwange does cause is a change in lion demography and a vacuum or sink effect. It is not impossible for old lions like Cecil (13) and Mopane (12) to be dominant over prides in an area where lion trophy hunting is prohibited, but it is not common. It is possible and even probable that these old lions were still dominant because trophy hunting has created a dearth of male lions in the Hwange area. By continually shooting dominant males on the edge of the reserve, i.e. by creating vacant territories, males looking for territory will naturally move into these areas – often young nomads looking for their first territories or older males who have already been excluded from their first or second territories. This ‘sink’ effect pulls males into the hunting area and denudes other areas 12.
Likewise, trophy hunting on the Hwange boundary seems to exert a measurable edge effect where lions of all ages and genders living close to the boundary exhibit lower survival compared with more distant groups 13.
Should lions be hunted on the Hwange boundaries?
From a PR perspective, hunting male lions on the boundary of one of Africa’s most famous, most visited photographic safari destinations makes absolutely no sense. In the case of named lions, tourists come to see specific animals and take photographs of them. This is a sustainable, largely non-consumptive practice that lasts for the lifetime of the lion concerned. Famous, named lions attract tourist dollars and act as ambassadors for conservation 14. Shooting a named lion ends this long-term conservation and tourism reward.
Less directly, the negative publicity associated with killing lions – especially when bowhunters are involved in maiming them – could easily result in a booking reduction for photo tourism operators in Hwange. Why would a safari-goer travel to a destination where the latest headlines lament the maiming and killing of a famous lion? Tourists can choose from hundreds of safari locations where the killing of lions is not allowed, thus many, with cash to burn and a dislike of sport killing, will simply spend their money elsewhere. It is possible that for the hunting operators, the adage ‘no publicity is bad publicity’ applies, but it seldom applies to tourism marketing.
Sources in the Hwange area say that local safari guides who ply their trade in the National Park (and other high-profile hunting areas) where hunting on the boundaries is allowed also resent the hunting of iconic animals. Not only do they face the risk of cancelled bookings at their lodges and a reduction in occupancy, but they’re also unable to show their guests the iconic animals that have made their areas famous. This could directly impact their ability to make a living.
Conclusion
So is lion hunting driving lions to extinction, or is it contributing to their conservation counter-intuitively as it may sound? One model suggests that there are no continuous harvesting strategies that do not result in population declines15. The model suggests that hunting periods should be interspersed with periods of no hunting and that the cost of lion hunting should increase due to diminished supply.
While the argument that keeping areas for trophy hunting (which includes lions) keeps that land under wildlife seems to be anecdotally supported, there is a dearth of research confirming this16.
More worrying is the difficulty of following the money trail. In the end, it doesn’t seem to make a great deal of sense for a private landowner and hunting operator on the borders of a national park to benefit from shooting lions that contribute so much to the incomes of so many involved in photo-tourism. If lion hunting takes place in community-owned conservation areas that lack income from photo tourism and the money flow is transparent and equitable (for land, people and lions), then it makes more sense. This is not always the case. In some Zimbabwean CAMPFIRE areas (community-run conservation zones set up to benefit local people and promote positive attitudes to wildlife conservation), residents bemoan the fact that they earn very little from hunting and that wildlife continues to menace their lives17.
Other than in Namibia, it is extremely difficult to determine exactly what proportions of hunting revenue are directed to local communities18.
The sport hunting of lions to satisfy human needs is repellant to many of us (me and many of the scientists referenced here). What many of these scientists desperately want, however, is to find the best possible way of conserving lions into the future while taking into account myriad complexities (the needs of local people, habitat protection, economic necessity). As Macdonald et al.(2017) suggest, lion hunting should be strictly regulated to ensure that it contributes to conservation (people, land and lions). Where hunting is banned, suitable alternatives need to be found for the economic shortfall. It is also worth bearing in mind that overall, the cost of biodiversity loss exceeds income from both photo tourism and hunting.
References (this is a tiny fraction of the available academic literature on trophy hunting)
1 Loveridge A.J., Valeix, M. Elliot, N.B., & Macdonald, D.W. 2017. The landscape of anthropogenic mortality: how African lions respond to spatial variation in risk. Journal of Applied Ecology 2017, 54, 815–825.
2 Loveridge A.J., Valeix, M., Chapron, G., Davidson, Z., Mtare G., Macdonald, D.W. 2016. Conservation of large predator populations: Demographic and spatialresponses of African lions to the intensity of trophy hunting. Biological Conservation 204 (2016) 247–254.
3 Packer, C., Brink, H., Kissui, B.M., Maliti, H., Kushnir, H. & Caro, T. 2011. Effects of trophy hunting on lion and leopard populations in Tanzania. Conservation Biology 25:142–153. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01576.x.
4 Packer, C., Loveridge, A., Canney, S., Caro, T., Garnett, S.T. & Pfeifer M et al. 2013 Conserving large carnivores: dollars and fence. Ecology Letters 16: 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12091.
5 Macdonald, D.W., Loveridge, A.J., Dickman, A., Johnson, P.J., Jacobsen, K.S. & Du Preez, B. (2017) Lions, trophy hunting and beyond: knowledge gaps and why they matter. Mammal Review, 47(4) 247 – 253.
6 Starfield, A.M, Shiell, J.D. & Smuts, G.L. 1981. Simulations of lion control strategies in a large game reserve. Ecol. Modelling, 13: 17-28.
7 Whitman, K.L., Starfield, A.M., Quadling, H., Packer, C., 2007. Modelling the effects of trophy selection and environmental disturbance on a simulated population of African lions. Conserv. Biol. 21, 591–601. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00700.x.
8 Miller. J. R. B., Balme, G., Lindsey, P.A., Loveridge, A.J., Becker, M.S., Begg, C., Brink, H., Dolrenry, S., Hunt, J.E., Janssoni, I., Macdonald, D.W., Mandisodza-Chikerema, R.L., Cotterill A.O., Packer, C., Rosengren, D., Stratford, K., Trinkel, M., White, P.A.,Winterbach, C., Winterbach, C.EK., & Funston, P. 2016. Ageing traits and sustainable trophy hunting of African lions. Biological Conservation 201 (2016) 160–168.
9 Loveridge, A.J., Searleb, A.W., Murindagomo, F., Macdonald, D.W. 2007. The impact of sport-hunting on the population dynamicsof an African lion population in a protected area. Biological Conservation 134 (2007) 548 – 558.
11 Creel, S., M’soka,J., Dröge, E., Rosenblatt, E., Becker, M.S., Matandiko, W. & Twakundine, S. 2016. Assessing the sustainability of African lion trophy hunting, with recommendations for policy. Ecological Applications, 26(7), 2016, pp. 2347–2357.
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RIGHT NOW, I am loving it in Botswana’s spectacular Khwai Private Reserve – hosting our 2021 Photographer of the Year winners. This is my first international foray since Covid descended on us all, and it’s good to be back in the saddle.
I have always enjoyed excellent wild dog encounters in Khwai (both the private reserve and community concession) and look forward to the same thrill on this safari. Mostly though, I will be kicking back and enveloping myself in the heady aroma of wild sage, the soothing motion of a mokoro sliding along water channels, and the early morning avian chorus.
I will also be checking out new lodges on behalf of our travel desk and being re-acquainted with others – stand by for my thoughts.
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Scientific Editor
The microbiological world is a battlefield. Everyday, our immune systems face down microscopic invaders and every now and again, something slips past our defences. Of the seven and a half billion people on the planet, scientists believe that at least two billion are infected with a microscopic protozoan called Toxoplasma gondii. Luckily, most healthy adults are asymptomatic. Now, new research shows that this same parasite alters hyena cub behaviour – often with fatal consequences. Could this parasite be programming its hosts to sacrifice themselves? Read our second story to find out and then perhaps go and clean out your cat’s litterbox.
From our Editor-in-Chief
I was jogging through a reserve last weekend as dawn broke. Giraffe watched, their jaws chewing the night’s cud and a herd of wildebeest scattered into the woodland at the sight of my (less than impressive) human physique. The rhythm of my footfalls, combined with a burgeoning hangover, conjured a song in my mind. ‘There is enough’ croons Peter Garrett of Midnight Oil, ‘for everyone.’. My thoughts drifted to trophy hunting – I try and keep an open mind to it. I know it funds conservation. But the Oil’s lyrics kept repeating ‘there is enough’.
If people can afford to come to Africa to destroy elephants, lions and leopards (as our first story below refers) and often because they claim to love nature, why not just donate the money to conservation? Why the need to hold swathes of land to ransom by refusing to conserve it unless they can kill something and extract it? How is that love? ‘I love you so much that I must shoot you and hang you above my mantlepiece. This is how I express my profound love.’
I have descended from my soapbox now to tell you to sit back and dream of the bizarre, wacky and wonderful world that is Madagascar in our third story below. This is the first of a four-part series on Madagascar, and it takes you on a journey to the northern reaches of the magical island.
If you haven’t joined the AG Club yet, then you can do so here. You could join in wonderful forum discussions created by club members such as guide Greg Lederle who wrote a thought-provoking post on naming wildlife after human beings (see our fourth story below).
• Dreaming of a beach holiday? Seychelles has eased Covid restrictions and is now accepting travellers from all countries except Brazil, India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Cote D’Ivoire & Guinea.
In a recent Government Notice, (482 of 2021) signed on the 2nd of September, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) of Botswana announced the wildlife hunting quotas for the year 2022. The total number of leopard trophy hunting quotas allocated equates to 70 leopards across the country.
The quotas are allocated per area/concession. Of the 70 leopards, 15 were allocated to the region around the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, 16 come from the area between the Okavango Delta and Makgadikgadi, 12 from the area west of the Central Kalahari Game Reserve and six from the Chobe region. The Government Notice can be found here and a map of relevant areas can be found here. This Government Notice was sent to Africa Geographic by one of our sources and we have been unable to confirm its veracity or trace a version officially released by the Botswana government that is freely available to the public.
Though the Government Notice includes quotas for a total of 16 different species (including elephants but not lions), this article focuses specifically on leopards. As largely solitary, territorial big cats, unsustainable trophy hunting can have potentially devastating effects on leopard numbers and demographics (Balme et al., 2009).
How many leopards are there in Botswana?
As they are a cryptic species, obtaining a reliable population count of leopards is notoriously difficult. An actual physical count at national level is next to impossible so scientists rely on a number of different techniques such as camera trap studies, spoor (track) counts, and citizen science photographic surveys. The density of leopards (usually in number of leopards/100km2) is then calculated and extrapolated to give a rough estimate of leopard numbers depending on the vegetation type/habitat. As a result, population estimates of leopards usually have extremely large confidence intervals (the population could be anywhere within an extensive range). The next step is to use this method to analyse the population trend over the years to determine the impact of human activity, including legal and illegal “offtake” and conservation measures.
A report from the DWNP from May 2020 gives an estimated population of 4,295 leopards, with a caveat to this being that this number could range from anywhere between 1,893 and 6,700. The report also breaks down the estimated leopard population. The DWNP acknowledges that data on leopard population trends is limited, though comparison with a previous count in 2004 from the Central Statistics Office shows a decline in numbers. The DWNP suggests that this is due to an overestimate of numbers by the 2004 report, rather than a declining leopard population. They also point to other “proxy trend measures” such as a stable number of leopard attacks on livestock to demonstrate that the population is stable.
The report states that the data for leopard numbers and densities were compiled by the Botswana Carnivore Forum (a coalition of carnivore projects). We have attempted to reach them for comment on the hunting quotas for leopards and asked if they are happy that the numbers specific to allocated areas are sustainable. We have not yet received a response but will update as and if we do.
The Government Notice includes quotas for a total of 16 different species including elephants but not lions
CITES quotas, hunting quotas and over-estimates
Each year, CITES issues export quotas for various species. These quotas are a limit on the number or quantity of specimens of a particular species that may be exported from the country concerned within a 12-month period. This is not the same as the hunting quota set by the national government, the two numbers are set independently but clearly if a national government sets a hunting quota for a particular species at a number higher than the CITES quota, then that country will not be able to export that excess.
The May 2020 report from the DWNP was compiled as part of a legal CITES requirement for member states to submit a review and non-detriment determination for their annual CITES export quota of leopard hunting trophies and skins. The high CITES leopard export quotas up to 2018 came under fire from academics as being “fundamentally at odds with principles of sustainable use, precaution and adaptive management” (Trouwborst et al., 2019). See Leopard hunting: CITES quotas not sustainable for further information.
At present, Botswana has a CITES export quota for 130 leopard trophies – a number that the May 2020 report states is sustainable and that the DWNP requested be maintained. It states that “the leopard population sustainably supported trophy hunting offtakes when the annual quota was set at 130, and there is no reason to expect that there has been a subsequent decline in leopard numbers and no evidence of such a decline”. Similarly, Namibia and South Africa both requested that their CITES quotas remain the same, at 250 and 150 respectively. Both Kenya and Malawi have scrapped their quotas entirely.
It is important to note that these quotas are not targets and many of the 12 leopard range states with export quotas do not make use of their full quotas. So Botswana has an international export quota from CITES for leopard trophies and skins of 130 but has only issued 70 national hunting quotas, so they do not intend to fill their quota for 2022. South Africa is another good example here, where the most recent national leopard hunting quota was set at 11.
In response to the 2018 national reviews of leopard hunting quotas, the IUCN Cat Specialist Group released a position statement cautioning that “robust information on distribution, abundance and population size and trends at the national level and in hunting areas” is “largely missing” and that “extrapolations based on incorrect assumptions have resulted in overestimates of abundance”. Botswana, Namibia and South Africa all went some way towards addressing these concerns in their subsequent quota reviews.
Apples and oranges
To put Botswana’s leopard quotas into context, it is useful to compare their approach to that of both Namibia and South Africa, especially as these two countries offer arguably the most robust data on national leopard densities. However, it is important to bear in mind that each of these countries has its own unique circumstances, leopard densities, and pressures.
In South Africa, the government imposed a moratorium on leopard hunting in 2016 and 2017 after the country’s Scientific Authority expressed concern that the number of leopards in South Africa was unknown and that trophy hunting posed a high risk to the remaining population. Quotas for seven and 11 leopards were then allocated in 2018 and 2020 respectively. The government has not yet released the quota allocation for 2021. However, South Africa differs from both Botswana and Namibia in that protected areas only cover eight per cent of the country. Recent studies suggest that leopards are extinct in 67% of South Africa (Jacobson et al. 2016) and that the population could be declining by as much as 11% per year (Mann et al. 2018). There is no reliable estimate of the national leopard population. (See Leopard Quota Review: South Africa.)
In contrast, around 40% of Namibia falls under some level of ecological protection, a percentage similar to that of Botswana. Leopards are believed to be present in around 63% and 70% of Botswana and Namibia respectively (Jacobson et al. 2016 and Stein et al. 2011). Between 2004 and 2017, an average of 142 leopards were hunted per year in Namibia, with the highest number of leopards hunted being 161 in 2017. Namibia’s leopard population was most recently estimated at 11,733 leopards in an extensive study from 2019 that delves into everything from leopard densities and population trends to human-wildlife conflict and the sustainability of current trophy hunting quotas. The methods used are clearly outlined, as are the potential limitations of the study, and can be accessed here: the National Leopard Census and Sustainable Hunting Practices Study Report. Importantly, the study does not necessarily indicate a country-wide decline in leopards between 2011 and 2019, despite the relatively high number of leopard trophy hunting quotas.
Disparities
Even when taking into account that estimating leopard populations is complex, there is a glaring discrepancy between the estimated totals and densities in Botswana and Namibia (4,295 versus 11,733). In Botswana there are swathes of what should be prime leopard habitat: the Okavango Delta, Chobe, and Savuti for example, yet the density of leopards is approximately 0.7 per 100 square kilometres, while Namibia’s leopard density is almost twice that in a more arid country. Is it really likely that Namibia has a leopard population twice the density of Botswana’s? If so, this is surely something that warrants further investigation. With such massive uncertainty, how can the effects of trophy hunting (or indeed, any other anthropogenic offtake) be effectively monitored?
Trending
Experts believe that global leopard populations have likely declined by over 30% in the last three leopard generations – less than 30 years (Stein et al. 2016), resulting in their recent change in listing to “Vulnerable” on the IUCN’s Red List. Of course, this does not necessarily reflect the trend for every individual country within their range.
Leopards are notoriously secretive which in the past has led to the misplaced “assumption that their conservation status is assured” (Balme et al. 2010). Quotas should, in theory, always be based on the best available data and age restrictions should be in place to ensure that the offtake is sustainable (Packer et al. 2009). When that data is deficient, the approach should always be to err on the side of caution in line with the precautionary principle. This does not automatically translate to “when in doubt, don’t”, but rather suggests a high standard of proof required when setting quotas. Given how difficult it is to accurately count leopards, it is safe to assume that confidence intervals within estimates will always be large, even as counting and extrapolation methods become more accurate.
There are places, such as the Sabi Sands Game Reserve in South Africa, where leopard populations are accurately known. This is, however, a product of a high density of tourist vehicles over a relatively small area, with each individual leopard tracked down regularly. Guides are able to identify individuals on sight and this is recorded in a Pathera database that tracks every leopard sighting. However, this is clearly not possible in most places which is why an analysis of population trends is essential to inform adaptive management policies that allow for quotas to be changed depending on available data. As leopard densities differ tremendously depending on area and habitat, it is vital that long-term data is relevant and specific to the areas where trophy quotas are allocated.
It is interesting to note that the DWNP’s review of leopard hunting quotas makes no reference to adaptive management, though there is a promise of a planned national census of leopard populations.
Effective communication
We have had no response to our request for comment from the DWNP. It also required considerable digging to find Botswana’s most recent leopard data. These quotas clearly took planning and with trophy hunting a predictably emotive issue, it is hard to understand why the Botswana government has chosen such an opaque approach once again – particularly if they are confident that the data is reliable and that the quotas are sustainable. Empirical evidence surrounding leopard populations is one thing but analysing sustainability is another, longer-term process that needs to be subject to scientific scrutiny. Namibia has gone a long way towards demonstrating the sustainability of their hunting practices and acknowledging a willingness to adapt their strategies if necessary. Are we satisfied that the DWNP have done the same? Now that the hunting moratorium has ended, is there a plan in place to ensure it is done sustainably? Who should the onus fall on to prove that is the case?
References:
Balme, G. A., Slotow, R. and Hunter, L. T., (2009) Impact of conservation interventions on the dynamics and persistence of a persecuted leopard (Panthera pardus) population. Biological Conservation, 142(11): 2681-2690.
Balme, G.A., Hunter, L.T., Goodman, P., Ferguson, H., Craigie, J. and Slotow, R., (2010) An adaptive management approach to trophy hunting of leopards Panthera pardus: a case study from KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Biology and conservation of wild felids, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp.341-352.
Jacobson, A.P., Gerngross, P., Lemeris Jr, J.R., Schoonover, R.F., Anco, C., Breitenmoser-Würsten, C., Durant, S.M., Farhadinia, M.S., Henschel, P., Kamler, J.F. and Laguardia, A., 2016. Leopard (Panthera pardus) status, distribution, and the research efforts across its range. PeerJ, 4, p.e1974. https://peerj.com/articles/1974/
Mann, G., Pitman, R., Broadfield, J., Taylor, J., Whittington-Jones, G., Rogan, M., Dubay, S., and Balme, G. (2018). South African Leopard Monitoring Project, Annual report for the South African National Biodiversity Institute.
Toxoplasma gondii is a parasitic protozoan that reproduces in felid (cat) hosts. The microscopic, single-celled organisms are then passed on to intermediate hosts, including humans, often through faecal contamination or consumption of infected tissue. In rats, an infection by Toxoplasma gondii has been shown to alter their behaviour to increase the likelihood they will be preyed upon by cats. Now, new research reveals this process playing out on a much larger scale in the Maasai Mara, Kenya: hyena cubs infected by the protozoans are more likely to be killed by lions! The kicker? The parasite can only sexually reproduce in felid hosts…
The study was conducted by Michigan State University’s Mara Hyena Project – one of the longest-running studies of any mammal species anywhere on Earth. Their findings, published in Nature Communications, are based on three decades of field observations and reveal that T. gondii infected hyena cubs approach lions more closely and have higher rates of lion mortality.
T. gondii has long been suspected of being an example of host manipulation by a parasite. Infected rodents demonstrate diverse self-destructive behaviours, including reduced avoidance (or even attraction to) feline urine and increased boldness. Many scientists hypothesise that this is an evolved method for the protozoan to facilitate prey-predator transmission and allow the parasite to return to its definitive felid host. (Recent research now suggests that human infections – estimated at around 2 billion people – may be associated with behavioural risk-taking. There is even a possible link with bipolar and schizophrenia.)
Of the 166 surveyed hyenas, 65% presented with antibodies specific to T. gondii – indicating exposure to the parasite. Unsurprisingly, adult hyenas are more likely to have been exposed to T. gondii, as many cubs have not yet consumed infected tissues or faeces. (Like healthy human adults, the adult hyenas are often asymptomatic.) Of the cubs tested, 17 cubs (35%) were infected by the parasite. Eleven of these cubs died – all of them killed by lions. In other words, lions accounted for 100% of the infected hyena cub mortalities. By contrast, only 17% of uninfected cub mortalities were due to lions.
Like most predators, the first year in a hyena’s life is the most dangerous, and for hyena cubs, lions are their main external enemy. Yet infected cubs were consistently recorded venturing closer to lions. This pattern was not observed to the same degree in adult infected/uninfected hyenas, possibly because older individuals could assess threats and inhibit risky behaviour. (Adult hyenas also stray closer to lions than juvenile hyenas, as a matter of course.)
While widely tested under laboratory conditions, this study offers important insight into the impact of T. gondii on wild host/felid interactions. However, whether or not this behaviour is induced via adaptive parasitic traits evolved to facilitate transmission remains unanswered. The exact mechanism behind why infected hosts exhibit costly boldness in the presence of feline species remains something of a mystery. The parasite may be manipulating the host’s behaviour to “sacrifice” itself to a felid species, but there are other plausible theories that could explain the effects. One such explanation is that the parasite causes encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), and the fearless behaviours are a simple side-effect. (This does not explain why the mortalities were all caused by interactions with lions specifically.)
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It’s surely time for the ENTIRE safari industry to take stock of the sustainability of doing business in our wild areas – the true costs to ecosystems and biodiversity and the genuine benefits for local people. This has to be an honest, transparent process if we are to protect Africa from the ravages of human population growth and the headlong rush to extract every resource as quickly as possible.
So many safari camps and lodges are the LIFEBLOOD of entire regions – without them, we would see a catastrophic reduction in our wild areas. But others seem to believe that sponsoring a local village vegetable garden is nothing short of heroic. As for tour operators and travel agents (AG included) – including many that are hidden from the public eye – how many are involved in long term, genuine conservation activities?
The core message from Michael Schwartz’ exceptionally well-written and BRAVE opinion post below feeds this thought process. Are we all exaggerating the benefits and ignoring the true costs of what we do?
Keep the passion
Simon Espley – CEO, Africa Geographic
From our Editor-in-Chief
Spring has sprung, the weavers are building, the blossoms are, well, blossoming. For the dryer areas, a few months of expectantly looking at the sky await as the heat builds to a crescendo. It is a special time of the year, but then, every season has its charms.
Renewable power is an essential part of our species’ future, but it doesn’t come without ecological consequences, especially when tacked onto the buffer zone of a premier ecotourism destination. Our first story below examines an industrial-scale wind farm on the borders of South Africa’s Addo Elephant National Park.
Conservation is often unfathomably complex. In our second story below, Michael Shwartz has encapsulated and explained so much of this complexity in a brilliant treatise on our desperate efforts to protect Africa’s last remaining wild areas. Full story for club members only.
While it may seem slightly incongruous to have a story on autumn travel in the spring (our third story below), this is the perfect time for you to think about booking a safari at the end of the southern summer.
• Great News: Namibia has extended the negative Covid PCR test requirement to 7 days before arrival – making travel easier. This requirement also applies to vaccinated travellers. Unfortunately, antigen rapid diagnostic test results are not accepted for entry into Namibia.
• While you plan your next epic Namibian safari why not immerse yourself in this live video stream from Ongava Lodge – bordering the spectacular Etosha National Park. Tip: As a club member, you have access to the best rates for Ongava and other camps.
• Now that you are suitably inspired to travel to Africa take a look at the ultimate packing list for your Safari.
Travel in Africa is about knowing when and where to go, and with whom. A few weeks too early/late or a few kilometres off course, and you could miss the greatest show on Earth. And wouldn’t that be a pity?
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If you are looking for the perfect add-on to your safari check out this marvellous video of 
