Page 22 – Africa Geographic

Poachers kill white giraffes in Kenya

Poachers have killed the only known female white giraffe in Kenya, and her calf, at a remote community conservancy in Kenya. The celebrated white reticulated giraffes of Kenya have been dealt a devastating blow, as now only a bull giraffe remains of the group.

Conservancy manager Mohammed Ahmednoor said that a search team found only the bones of the two poached giraffes.

“This is a very sad day for the community and Kenya as a whole. Her killing is a blow to the steps taken by the community to conserve rare and unique species and a wake-up call for continued support to conservation efforts,” said Mr Ahmednoor in a statement.

The discovery of the white giraffes in 2017 put the remote community conservancy on the global map and had local community members, tourists and scientists flocking to see them. The female gave birth to a calf in August 2019, bringing the population of these white reticulated giraffe to three.

The white giraffes have a genetic condition called ‘leucism’ which inhibits skin cells from producing pigment. Leucism results in a partial or total loss of pigmentation – resulting in patches of white colouring in fur or feathers. Leucines, unlike albino animals, have normal-coloured eyes, and may or may not have normally coloured legs and beaks. Leucistic animals and birds do produce melanin (unlike albinos which produce no melanin), BUT the condition prevents melanin from being deposited in the fur or feathers. Read The Black & White of African Wildlife Explained.

“This is a long-term loss given that genetic studies and research which were a significant investment in the area have now gone down the drain. Also, the white giraffe was a big boost to tourism in the area. After this incident, only a lone bull remains,” Mr Ahmednoor added.

Giraffes are listed as ‘Vulnerable’ according to IUCN, which means that they are vulnerable to extinction in the near future. There are four distinct giraffe species in Africa, and two of these species have two and three subspecies respectively.

Reticulated / Somali giraffe (Giraffa reticulata) has brown-orange patches which are clearly defined by a network of thick and striking white lines. This species is found predominantly in central, north and northeastern Kenya, with small populations and range persisting in southern Somalia and southern Ethiopia. It has been estimated that about 8,700 individuals remain in the wild – down from an approximate 31,000 as recently as 1998. Read more about giraffes here.

What exactly is CITES and how does it work?

Created as the brainchild of the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) in the 70s, CITES makes environmental news headlines regularly, often with highly polarizing results. There are, however, several misconceptions surrounding this tool of the wildlife conservation industry and, as a result, its guiding principles tend to be lost beneath the layers of opposing conservation perspectives.

CITES founding philosophy

The treaty provides the following guidance as to its aim, operation, and how it should be interpreted:

Recognizing that wild fauna and flora in their many beautiful and varied forms are an irreplaceable part of the natural systems of the earth which must be protected for this and the generations to come;
Conscious of the ever-growing value of wild fauna and flora from aesthetic, scientific, cultural, recreational and economic points of view;
Recognizing that peoples and States are and should be the best protectors of their wild fauna and flora;
Recognizing, also, that international cooperation is essential for the protection of certain species of wild fauna and flora against over-exploitation through international trade; Convinced of the urgency of taking appropriate measures to this end;

CITES is a treaty, not an organization

CITES stands for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora; in other words, it is a multinational treaty of enormous scope that regulates international trade to avoid the over-exploitation of both animals and plants. As the name suggests, the ultimate intention behind the treaty is to protect endangered species, rather than control the actions of the member state, hence the Appendix listings (see below). At the time of writing, almost every sovereign state in the world is a party to the treaty, meaning that they have ratified the treaty and are, in theory, bound by its provisions. (A conversation around the nuances of international law is beyond the scope of this article).

It falls to the member states to use the treaty provisions and appendixes as guidance for creating their national laws and policies surrounding trade in animals and plants.

Not just about elephants and pangolins

When issues surround CITES surface and make headlines, they are almost always centred around the more contentious issues involving well-known animal species. The trade in ivory or rhino horn is a good example of this. While these issues rightly cause enormous consternation, the ambit of CITES goes far beyond these matters and provides a legal framework for the protection of more than 35,000 plant and animal species – meaning that it governs everything from the trade in furniture and musical instruments made from rare woods to trading in corals or caviar.

The Appendixes

CITES does not control all international trade in wild species – the basic starting point is that all trade is allowed unless an animal or plant is in some way threatened and is placed under one of three appendixes to the treaty.

Appendix 1 – species threatened by extinction or by trade, such as cheetahs, chimpanzees and pangolins. Trade in animals listed under Appendix 1 is almost entirely banned except under exceptional circumstances, and both export and import permits are required. Any captive-bred animals are treated under the auspices of Appendix 2.
Appendix 2 – species whose numbers could become threatened if subject to uncontrolled trade. Only an export permit is required for trading in animals and plants listed under this appendix.
Appendix 3 – species included at the request of a member state wanting the cooperation of other countries to control exploitation.

It is for the member states to issue export and import permits (these can be subject to CITES scrutiny), but they are under an obligation to ensure that the species was legally obtained and should issue permits only if doing so will not be detrimental to the survival of the species. Although not mentioned explicitly by the treaty itself, a quota system is used to control trade – the member states put forward their suggested quota number that is subject to CITES approval. As a brief side note – if an animal’s listing is changed (for example, due to declining numbers, it is moved from Appendix 2 to Appendix 1), a country may enter what is known as a Reservation – essentially meaning that they object to this classification for whatever reason and that they do not consider themselves to be bound by the reduced trade. This is what the Democratic Republic of Congo did in the case of the trade in the African Grey Parrot.

Conference of Parties

Every three years, the parties to the convention (the signatory countries) meet to review the implementation of the Convention. It is here that the Appendix listing of individual species is revised as an ongoing discussion as to their numbers and the success (or otherwise) of conservation efforts). The states can also make recommendations to improve the efficiency of the implementation of the treaty.

Three permanent committees support the Conference of Parties: the Standing, Plant and Animal Committees, created from representatives of the Parties that exist to deal with the day-to-day operation of CITES, creating a budget and standing groups as well as providing advice regarding species numbers. Only sovereign states are parties to the CITES treaty (some international treaties do include signatories from other international bodies), but the CoP events are attended by observers from non-governmental organizations involved in conservation or trade, as well as several UN agencies. These groups can participate in the meetings but are not allowed to vote in the proceedings. The next Conference of Parties will be held in 2022.

Limitations

Quite aside from the more philosophical debates about sustainable use, CITES has the inherent limitations of any instrument of international law. There is no central enforcement agency, so infractions of state parties must be dealt with through more political and economic measures. In theory, Parties to the statute are required to have both Management and Scientific Authorities; laws prohibiting any trade in violation of CITES; penalties in the case of such trade; and laws providing for the confiscation of specimens, yet many Parties face severe challenges in this regard. If a Party is found to be in contravention of the treaty, the CITES Secretariat can recommend that other state Parties suspend all CITES-related trade.

CITES is a treaty related purely to the regulations of trade – it does not extend to conservation issues relating to habitat-loss or socio-economic challenges of wilderness areas.

Final word

As mentioned, the philosophy behind CITES aside, CITES is an international treaty and should be viewed as such. Countries are not forced to enter into an international agreement – they chose to do so and must face the responsibilities that choice confers. This does not necessarily mean agreement with every decision or restriction but rather, using the existing frameworks to voice those disagreements, as well as working towards international cooperation to guard against the over-exploitation of animal and plant species. The full treaty text can be found here.

CITES processes are corrupt, says report

In a recent report, TRAFFIC highlights how corruption undermines the CITES processes and regulations, using specific examples of abuse of the documentation process. The study was part of the USAID-funded Targeting Natural Resource Corruption project aimed at strengthening anti-corruption knowledge and practices and recommends several ways of reducing the risks.

Regulated by CITES, the trade in fauna and flora species listed under the three Appendices requires various types of formal documentation including both export and import permits, certificates of various forms and notifications to the Member States. Permits and certificates are issued by the Management Authorities of specific countries and are, in theory, backed by the Scientific Authority that must confirm that the species concerned was not illegally obtained and that the trade will not be detrimental to its overall conservation. It is within this documentation process that the highest potential for abuse of the regulations arises.

Rather than focussing on illegal trade that seeks to avoid all formal forms of inspection (smuggling), the report examines situations where the trade masquerades as legal. Several reports and specific case studies were analysed to understand the methods behind the abuse of the documentation processes, as well as how corruption facilitates this practice.

TRAFFIC identifies several different methods of abuse of CITES documentation, including:

The intentional declaration of false information on the documents such as misleading information on specific species identification, quantities, the source of the species and the value of the contents.
Altered documentation such as using originally authentic permits but changing parts of the vital information to allow for the trade in species that might otherwise not have been issued a permit.
Unofficial payment for documents to officials at various levels
Counterfeit documents, often of a very high quality
Re-using or photocopying documents and the use of expired or stolen documents

The report includes specific examples where corruption has been exposed, and each provides different insights into the multitude of ways in which corrupt parties can manipulate the system. In 2011 in Guinea, permits were issued for the export of captive-bred apes despite the complete absence of any captive breeding centres in the country itself. This case eventually resulted in the arrest and prosecution of the head of the CITES Management Authority of Guinea. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, a permit was legally issued for the export of 100 red-fronted parrots but was then modified to allow for the export of 200 African grey parrots. In South Africa and Vietnam, an expose revealed corrupt practices regarding the trade in rhino horn. Corrupt professional hunters were alleged to have obtained permits under false pretences for “pseudo-hunting” – where the intention was always to trade the horn commercially. On the Vietnam side, the horn was seldom declared, and the CITES documents were consistently re-used until they expired.

In all illegal wildlife trade, corruption is identified as a key enabling factor, and while it is difficult to estimate the scale and reach, the abuse of CITES documentation processes is facilitated by corruption in various forms from junior right to senior management positions. The issuing of documentation places certain individuals in positions of power that could be subject to temptation or threats.

The report recommends several strategies to tackle the various forms of corruption, while also acknowledging the realities of the situations in different countries. The report emphasises that the prosecution of corrupt officials is vital not only to punish those responsible but to create an environment where corruption is not tolerated. Unfortunately, the report acknowledges that, at present, such investigations rarely result in the prosecution of a high-level government official. The report also calls for capacity building within the countries concerned, which includes ensuring that officials have adequate scientific knowledge and technical expertise to prevent and detect instances of abuse.

On a more immediate level, electronic permits and fraud-proof systems and technologies could go a long way to reduce the opportunity for corrupt interactions, as well as to make it more difficult to falsify permits. The eCITES initiative aims to streamline and automate CITES permit structures.

The report emphasises the need for comprehensive protocols, including checks and balances, to reduce the risk of corruption which undermines the integrity of the CITES system. However, this relies heavily on the commitment and capacity of specific countries.

The report was compiled by Willow Othwaite, who is the Research and Analysis Senior Programme Officer of TRAFFIC, and TRAFFIC itself is a non-governmental organisation working to ensure the maintenance of biodiversity and sustainability in the trade in wildlife and plant species. They work in strategic partnerships with CITES organisations and other environmental organisations to provide the necessary research and statistics to direct decision-makers and policy.

The full report can be read here: Addressing corruption in CITES documentation processes, W Outhwaite, TRAFFIC, March 2020

Your Maasai Mara safari

The Maasai Mara ecosystem is one of the most famous wilderness areas in Africa and one that attracts visitors from near and far. The breathtaking view of the sunrise from Oloololo (Siria) Escarpment, some 2,000m above sea level and 300m above the plains below, was forever etched into human memory by the film “Out of Africa”. Below the mountains, the Mara River winds its serpentine route to the south, hidden beneath groves of riverine trees, and the fields of red oat grass stretch as far as the eye can see. It is from here that one can really understand why the Maa people of the area referred to this place as “Mara”, which, literally translated, means “spotted” or “mottled” – concerning the trees and clumps of vegetation that dot the landscape.

Scenically, the Maasai Mara is one of the most beautiful places on the planet. The dawn light is a photographer’s dream: golden and soft. Rather than detracting from the natural beauty, the multicoloured hot air balloons drifting silently through the air add something fantastic to the morning atmosphere. For centuries, the Maasai people have shared this land with their wild neighbours – look carefully, and you will find the ancient grooves of the cattle paths worn by millions of bovine hooves marking the routes to salt licks still used today. Look even more carefully, and you might just find an abandoned old Volkswagen bus hidden in a secret valley known only to a few observant or lucky souls.

The facts

The combined area under conservation in the Maasai Mara ecosystem in Narok County amounts to almost 3,000km² (300,000 hectares), which is split evenly between the Maasai Mara National Reserve (150,000 hectares) and various community-owned conservancies that share unfenced boundaries. This Maasai Mara ecosystem shares unfenced borders with Loita Plains to the north and east and the Serengeti to the south, in Tanzania.
The Mara Triangle on the western bank of the Mara River comprises one-third of the Maasai Mara National Reserve. It is run by the TransMara County Council and managed by the Mara Conservancy. The remaining two-thirds of the Reserve, on the eastern side of the Mara River, is run by the Narok County Council.
Community-owned conservancies currently make up more than 140,000 hectares, with additional land under negotiation. The current conservancies are:

Olare Motorgi	133km² (13,000 hectares)
Mara North	260km² (26,000 hectares)
Lemek	24km² (2,400 hectares)
Naboisho	200 km² (22, 000 hectares)
Enonkishu	40km² (4,000 hectares)
Ol Kinyei	70km² (7,000 hectares)
Nashulai	24 km² (2,400 hectares)
Olchorro Oirowua	64 km² (6,400 hectares)
Olderkesi	100 km² (10,000 hectares)
Oloisukut	93km² (9,300 hectares)
Pardamat Conservation Area	260km² (26,000 hectares)
Siana	40km² (4,000 hectares)
Olarro North and South	100km² (10,000 hectares)

The concept of individually- or community-owned conservancies should be considered a Kenyan conservation success story. The rangelands surrounding the National Reserve were once cattle grazing lands, but now the communities of landowners rent out the land to tourism operators, and the wildlife is protected. Tourists that visit the conservancies play an enormous role in ensuring the future of these protected wilderness areas by ensuring a continuous revenue stream for the local communities. Given that the use of the land is reserved for paying tour operators, it also means that visitors to these areas are treated to a more exclusive safari experience. With over 65% of Kenyan wildlife existing outside of government-protected wilderness areas, it is easy to see why conservancies will be critical to conservation efforts in the future.

Beyond the migration

The Great Migration is one of nature’s greatest spectacles. Every year from around July until October, over a million wildebeest, zebra, topi, eland and Thomson’s gazelle make the treacherous journey from the Serengeti into Maasai Mara. Driven by their quest for food, they flow across the landscape and are forced across crocodile-infested rivers: battling currents and leaping over hippo only to be forced to dodge the predators waiting on the opposite bank. It is a chaotic, adrenaline-inducing smorgasbord of survival instincts on a knife-edge and the predators throw themselves into the melee with joyous abandon, so witnessing a kill is almost guaranteed.

That said, there is far more to the Maasai Mara than the migration. All year round, wildlife enthusiasts are treated to spectacular sightings of the Big 5 and the cheetah sightings are astounding – the now-renowned of five males deserving of a special mention. The Mara is home to some of the largest hyena clans in Africa, and while the highly endangered black rhino number only a few, they are there for those who know where to look. Many visitors have found themselves delighted not only by the larger animals but also by courageous jackal, cheeky bat-eared foxes and graceful serval, as well as the striking crowned cranes and ubiquitous secretary birds.

The experience

From rustic campsites to lodges that epitomize luxury, the Maasai Mara has something to offer every taste (and an array of varied budgets), but the knowledge of experienced guides can make the difference between a good safari and a once-in-a-lifetime adventure. Guides know the weather, the area, the best (and worst) roads and the animals, and they can use that information to make informed decisions. A canny visitor (or guide) can use the topography to their advantage during the high tourist season by using crests and viewpoints to spot sightings from a distance but during the quieter times, finding animals often requires more effort and skill. A particularly good time to visit the Mara is just after the departure of the migration: the grass is shorter; the predators often experience a ‘baby-boom’, and there is far less pressure from other safari vehicles. The Maasai Mara experience also lends itself to women planning their safari – alone or in groups.

The Mara is enormous and covering ground is essential to experiencing the beauty of this ecosystem in its entirety. The days may be long, but nothing is as refreshing as lunching beneath the boughs of an ancient fig tree, languishing in its shade and perhaps speculating as to how much history the fig has witnessed over its long life. The rains are biannual – the “short rains” usually arrive around November and dissipate sometime in January and then the “long rains” begin again in April until around June. The weather, however, is unpredictable and torrential downpours and afternoon thunderstorms are not uncommon. Getting stuck up to the axles in black cotton soil is part of the Mara experience and should simply be accepted in the spirit of adventure.

For the most part, the afternoon thunderstorms dissipate just in time for another Mara treat: the sunset. With the dust of the day washed away by the rain, the landscape is once again drenched in gold, this time with the faintest of pinkish hues. The extraordinary beauty of the Maasai Mara and its abundance of wildlife make it deserving of its reputation as one of the most exceptional safari experiences in Africa.

Want to go on safari to Maasai Mara? To find lodges, search for our ready-made packages or get in touch with our travel team to arrange your safari, scroll down to after this story.

Photographer of the Year 2020 Weekly Selection: Week 14 – Gallery 1

Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing. Here is this week’s selection:

? A lioness walks through the burnt vegetation, perfectly contrasted against the scorched earth. Phinda Private Game Reserve, South Africa © Alexandre van Dievoet

? A pair of zebra look out across the pink sand lilies. Liuwa Plain National Park, Zambia © Andrew Macdonald

? A glowing yellow full moon makes for a perfect silhouette. Montenegro, Kunene Region, Namibia © Ben McRae

? A group of armed warriors stand silhouetted against a dramatic sky. Omo Valley, Ethiopia © Kevin Dooley

? A serval launches into the perfect pounce to ambush its unsuspecting prey from above. Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe © Blade Bester

? Male lions frozen in a brief burst of fury, teeth bared and claws extended. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Corlette Wessels

? The golden spiral of a sleeping dwarf chameleon’s tail. Natal Midlands, KwaZulu Natal, South Africa © Courtney Robert Hundermark

? Love is a battlefield for these three lions. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Xavier Ortega

? A Kenyan girl playing with a tyre on the white sands of Diani Beach, Kenya © Dan Baciu

? A spotted bush snake pokes its head out from a kudu lily. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Daniel Koen

? A rufous-naped lark completes its display by fluttering and rattling its wings. Pilansberg National Park, South Africa © Japie Bornman

? A flamboyance of flamingo silhouetted in a Walvis Bay lagoon, Namibia © Jenny Rood

? A young woman prepares grain for the local market. Ethiopia © Kevin Dooley

? A family of bamboo lemurs huddle together in the forest treetops. Andasibe National Park, Madagascar © Laurent Morax

? A lion cub practices the skills vital to its future survival on a Thomson’s gazelle fawn. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Xavier Ortega

? A lion cub rests on the neck of the giraffe it has been feasting on. Savuti, Botswana © Margie Botha

? A nocturnal sportive lemur peers out from its hiding position in the late afternoon. Western Madagascar © Neville Jones

? The mottled colouring of a marbled tree snake. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Sophie Brown

? A leopard stalks its warthog prey from atop an anthill. Okavango Delta, Botswana © Tami Walker

? A symmetry of horns as a pair of evenly-matched impala rams engage in battle. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Tristan Masterton

? An African darter opens its throat wide to swallow a tiger fish. Chobe River, Botswana © Willem Kruger

? A mother raises her baby to greet a new day. Ethiopia © Kevin Dooley

? A handsome pair of male lions affectionately affirm their brotherly bond. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Xavier Ortega

? A large rinkhals rears up and flares its hood in a very effective threat display. Magaliesburg, Gauteng, South Africa © Courtney Robert Hundermark

? A cattle herder warms himself by his fire and prepares for a hard day’s work. Ethiopia © Kevin Dooley

? A flat-tailed gecko exquisitely camouflaged against a mossy branch. Maosala Rain Forest National Park, Madagascar © Laurent Morax

? Black-backed jackals bare their teeth during a feeding frenzy over an eland carcass. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa © Willem Kruger

Newly discovered Taita Mountain dwarf galago (bushbaby) could already be on the brink of extinction

A team of researchers based at the University of Helsinki Taita Research Station in Kenya have confirmed the survival of what they believe to be a scarce species of bushbaby – the Taita Mountain dwarf galago (Paragalao sp.). The first reports of this tiny, secretive primate living in Kenya’s Taita Hills were made in 2002, but at the time the scientists were unable to secure a thorough identification, though biologists recognised that they were most likely a new, undescribed mammal species.

The Taita Hills are part of the Eastern Arc Mountains and include several fragmented montane forests that are home to several endemic species. The fact that 98% of these forests have been destroyed due to the spread of agricultural land had researchers fearing for the survival of the Taita Mountain dwarf galago. During 2019, they set about searching the five largest remaining forest fragments and found small surviving bushbaby populations in two: the Ngangao and Mbololo Forests.

Certain dwarf or lesser galagos are notoriously difficult to observe and identify. In essence, they are cryptic and nocturnal, and most researchers use their calls to distinguish between species in the field (the alternative method of examining their unique genitals is more difficult to execute). In analysing their calls, researchers believe that the Taita Mountain dwarf galago is related to the Kenya coast dwarf galago – Paragalago cocos – which are only found at low elevations.

Bushbaby researchers were able to make some progress in observing the natural behaviours of the dwarf galagos – they were seen using tree hollows as sleeping spots during the day, as well as hunting insects around small trees. On three occasions, wood owls were seen hunting the galagos, and one of these attempts was successful.

Critically, the researchers call for urgent molecular analysis, ecology investigation and estimates of the population to assess the taxonomic classification of the species. This is vital to ensure it receives the correct IUCN Red List classification and the associated protection. The observed Nangao Forest population numbered less than ten individuals. The researchers stress the desperate need to protect the remaining forest fragments in the Taita Hills as these tiny galagoes, not even fully described, already seem to be on the brink of extinction.

The full report from the researchers on some of their observations is available here: Taita Mountain dwarf galago is extant in the Taita Hills of Kenya
H Rosti, J Rikkinen, T Pellikka

Photographer of the Year 2020 Weekly Selection: Week 13 – Gallery 2

Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing.
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here: Gallery 1

? An East African gaboon viper lies motionless amongst leaf litter waiting for its next meal. St Lucia, KwaZulu Natal, South Africa © Tyrone Ping

? A lion cub hones the hunting instincts ingrained since birth. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Xavier Ortega

? A brand-new giraffe calf wobbles to its feet for a drink just after birth. Olare Motorogi Conservancy, Kenya © Yaron Schmid

? A spotted hyena showing off an impressive set of teeth. Liuwa Plain National Park, Zambia © Andrew Macdonald

? Dozens of African grey parrots in flight. Odzala Kokoua National Park, Republic of Congo © Antoine Ede

? An Ethiopian wolf on alert. Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia © Franciscus Scheelings

? A pair of cheetah siblings share a tender moment. Mara North Conservancy, Kenya © Jacques-Andre Dupont

? A black-backed jackal grips tightly onto its prey. Mara North Conservancy, Kenya © Jacques-Andre Dupont

? A wide-eyed African wild cat. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Jenny Andersen

? An old male lion covered in blood as it feasts on an eland. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

? A pack of painted wolves tear apart their baboon kill. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

? A glowing Namibian sunset. Namib Rand Reserve, Namibia © Lambert Heil

? The watchful gaze of a chimpanzee observing a troop member through the dense foliage. Budongo Forest, Uganda © Patrice Quillard

? A pangolin in the wild peers over a tree trunk. South Africa © Richard Visser

? A tiny elephant shrew takes in the view. Tuli Game Reserve, Botswana © Saul Rivkind

? A spotted hyena cub rests on its mother at their den site. Timbavati Nature Reserve, South Africa © Stephen Lee Sun

? A satanic leaf-tailed gecko at night. Ranomafana National-Park, Madagascar © Timothy Portas

Spotted hyena

The spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) is one of the world’s most misunderstood animals. Public perception often tends towards scorn and even outright hate – they are reviled as cowardly, thieving, dirty, ugly, lazy…the list goes on. These impressions are embedded in human history and public consciousness then reinforced by mainstream media and films. Fortunately, though, more and more people are coming to appreciate hyenas for the fascinating creatures they are. Regardless, misconceptions about hyena abound. Spotted hyenas are extraordinarily complex: they defy most natural ‘rules’ and research that might apply to hyena in one part of Africa might not be born out in their behaviour elsewhere. They are so highly adaptable and varied that generalizations are inappropriate, especially given that certain aspects of their lives are still being researched and are are not fully understood.
Quick facts:
– Social structure: a clan of anywhere from under 20 to over 100 individuals
– Mass: between 50 – 85 kg (East African spotted hyenas tend to be smaller than those in southern Africa.)
– Shoulder height: between 70-90cm (as above)
– Gestation period: 110 days
– Litter size: 1 or 2 cubs (3 rarely)
– Average life expectancy: debated, probably area-dependent but around 12 years in the wild, 20 in captivity

Spotted hyenas in action. Left) © Caleb Shepard. Right) © Margie Botha

Taxonomy

There are four extant species of hyena: the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), the brown hyena (Parahyaena brunnea), the striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) and the aardwolf (Proteles cristatus). Despite their dog-like appearance, all members of the hyena family (Hyaenidae) are more closely related to the genet (Viverridae) and mongoose (Herpestidae) families, as part of the Feliformia (cat-like) sub-order of Carnivora.

The basics

Spotted hyenas are the most abundant large predator in Africa, and though populations are fragmented, they are found in savannah and forest habitats throughout most of sub-Saharan Africa. They live in social units called clans of anything from a handful of individuals to over a hundred – consisting of several unrelated females and their offspring (matrilineal lines), as well as immigrant males from outside clans.

Despite their reputation as scavengers, they are able and efficient predators in their own right and in some parts of their range, they hunt over 90% of the food that they consume. Their large hearts relative to their body size allow spotted hyena the extra stamina necessary to exhaust their prey during a relentless chase. They adapt their strategy depending on the prey and use mud, rain, rocks or water to their advantage, either individually or in groups, which allows them to hunt and catch larger prey species. Spotted hyenas are also opportunists and will scavenge or steal from other predators. They are not alone in this – all predators steal from other predators if conditions suit them; lions often more so due to their sheer bulk.

Reproduction

Hyena cubs peaping out the den © Rod Watson

The unusual genital structure of the spotted hyena is perhaps its most famous trait. Females have what is known as a pseudopenis – fused urinary and vaginal tracts and an extended clitoris. The outer labia are also enlarged, taking on the appearance of testicles. There are several theories as to the reasons behind this curious evolution, but no conclusive agreement.
The pseudopenis has to be retracted to mate – a process that can make the courtship lengthy and the act itself an exercise in dexterity, particularly for the male, whose aim has to be impeccable. Due to the anatomical restrictions, the male is forced to undergo an elaborate courtship to win the affections of the female. These courtships can be highly entertaining to observe as the male bows and scrapes the ground, tucking one front foot under the other – the picture of servile submission. This becomes even more amusing when the female disdainfully walks away, or worse, ignores him completely. The males have to be forward-thinking and often ingratiate themselves with females by playing with their cubs in the hope that their efforts might be remembered when it comes time to mate, months or years later.

If the mating process is tricky, the birthing process is difficult and often dangerous. The narrowed opening of the clitoris has to split to make space for the 1.5 kg cub(s), and it is common for at least one, if not both cubs, to die during a female’s first labour. The cubs are born with their eyes open and their milk teeth erupted and immediately engage in a savage battle for those critical early days as siblings look to establish which is dominant. The widespread belief that siblicide in hyena cubs is common is inaccurate – it is rare and generally only occurs when access to milk is restricted.

Hierarchy

The first few weeks in a cub’s life are critical – they must learn from their mothers where their position lies in a complex hierarchy. Within a clan, whether it is large or small, each hyena occupies a level in the clan hierarchy. At the head of the clan sits the matriarch. Not all males in the clan are the lowest-ranked individuals because each cub inherits his or her mother’s status in the clan, slotting in directly beneath her position and above their older siblings. If a high-ranked female has a young son, he is automatically a high-ranked member of the clan unless and until he chooses to disperse. Not all males disperse from their natal clans, but if they do approach a different clan, they will enter at the bottom of the hierarchy. The females generally stay with the clan throughout their lives.
Naturally, higher-ranked positions within the clan are coveted because they mean better access to food and resources for both the females and their offspring. While hierarchies are strictly enforced regularly, lower-ranked individuals can rise up against those above them in something very close to what we would understand as a coup.

Intelligence

Behavioural ecologists who have studied spotted hyena believe that they rank among some of the most intelligent animal species on earth and that there is strong evidence of convergent evolution with primate intelligence – they learn quickly and are natural problem solvers, outperforming chimpanzees in certain aspects of cognitive tests. Like primates, each hyena recognizes every other clan member, and they show kin nepotism, even in situations where kin are generationally removed. Their notorious (and often feared) laugh-like vocalization is just one of the many sophisticated ways in which spotted hyena communicate. Studies of spotted hyena behaviour aim to reveal not only their secrets but to reflect some of our own as well, as they are the only apex predator on this planet with anything close to the complexities of our own social history.
So strong is the bias against hyena that even Jane Goodall, upon her arrival in Tanzania, did not expect to have any affection for them. However, like all those who spend time in the company of these peculiar mammals, they won her over. “Hyenas are second only to chimpanzees in fascination,” she wrote, “they are born clowns, highly individualistic.” In a rush to view the more beloved wildlife, tourists so often overlook Africa’s smartest predator.
The information included here was mainly sourced from the two long-standing hyena research programs: the Michigan State University’s Mara Hyena Project, and the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research’s Ngorongoro Crater Hyena Project. Anything further comes from the IUCN Red List and personal observations of the writer, Africa Geographic scientific editor Jamie Paterson.

Surrounded by vultures © Thorsten Hanewald

Photographer of the Year 2020 Weekly Selection: Week 13 – Gallery 1

? A ring-tailed lemur shows off its impressive tail. Anja Reserve, Madagascar © Timothy Portas

? A white-bellied tree pangolin rehabilitated and released into the wild, after being confiscated from the bushmeat market. Tikki Hywood Foundation, Cameroon © Angelia Young

? A yellow-billed oxpecker picks at a giraffe’s old wounds. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Chris Jolley

? A baboon gently investigates a kaleidoscope of yellow butterflies. Chobe National Park, Botswana © Corlette Wessels

? A big-headed African mole-rat emerges from below ground. Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia © Franciscus Scheelings

? A cheetah uses its tail for balance during the tight turns of a high-speed chase. Mara North Conservancy, Kenya © Jacques-Andre Dupont

? A cheetah cub launches itself from the trunk of a tree. Mara North Conservancy, Kenya © Jacques-Andre Dupont

? A black-backed jackal is an agent of chaos at a waterhole as it hunts Burchell’s sandgrouse. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Arica © Jenny Andersen

? The eye and the fly. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

? A pack of painted wolves (African wild dogs) chase away a scavenging spotted hyena. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

? A white-necked raven flies over camp. Barranco Camp, Kilimanjaro © John Mullineux

? A hyrax emerges from its secret crevice. Kaokoveld, Namibia © Lambert Heil

? Sunlight highlights the membranous wings of a straw-coloured fruit bat in flight. Musha, Rwanda © Mihir Bhatt

? A male lion cuts a fine figure, lounging at sunset. Liuwa Plain National Park, Zambia © Andrew Macdonald

? A rescued and rehabilitated pangolin by @africanpangolinconservation and cared for by @johannesburgwildlifevet. Undisclosed location © Gareth Thomas

? A common barking gecko sticks its head out from beneath the sand. Namaqualand, Northern Cape, South Africa © Tyrone Ping

? A brown hyena and black-backed jackals feed on an eland carcass. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa © Willem Kruger

? A leopardess tenderly carries her precious cub. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Yaron Schmid

Leopard raids ground-hornbill nest

Camera trap footage has confirmed what has long been suspected but never before proved – leopards raid the nests of southern ground-hornbills. The footage shows the predator climbing into a tree with an occupied artificial nest and, despite the best efforts of the adults, climbing into the nest. The footage can be viewed here – watch for the leopard hissing at the frantic adult birds:

Ground-hornbills are endangered within South Africa, and The Associated Private Nature Reserves (APNR) in the Greater Kruger has been home to a research project for the past 20 years. Run by the FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology (University of Cape Town) and funded through a National Geographic grant, the APNR Ground-Hornbill Project has been researching and conserving southern ground-hornbills in an attempt to increase our understanding of the species and help to slow and reverse their decline in numbers. The birds naturally nest in large tree cavities; however, habitat loss has resulted in a shortage of nesting sites within the region. One of the earliest tasks for the project was to install artificial nests throughout the reserves – to provide these large birds with the opportunity to breed. This aspect of the project has been a massive success.

One of the best ways to unobtrusively monitor which birds are breeding and what is happening at the nests is through the use of camera traps. These cameras provide vital information about the breeding of the birds and about which group members are contributing towards the incubating female and growing nestling. This ultimately provides us with a deeper understanding of the social structure within the species.

While cameras help us improve our knowledge, they also provide insights previously assumed, yet unconfirmed, such as the idea that predators take advantage of defenceless nestlings. Recently, a camera located inside Klaserie Private Nature Reserve caught one of the culprits – a leopard. The footage shows the agile and inquisitive leopard raiding the nest while the adult birds remain nearby alarm-calling and swooping past the nest, trying to distract the predator. It is not unusual for ground-hornbill breeding attempts to fail, and while it has always been assumed that leopards are one of the main culprits, the event has never been captured on camera and confirmed.

While this was obviously an unfortunate outcome for this endangered bird, it has provided us with some much-needed proof of what is preying on the species.

If you are interested in finding out more about the APNR Ground-Hornbill Project, check out the Facebook and Instagram pages. Otherwise, if you have any questions, contact them via email on nghututu@gmail.com. If you would like to contribute towards nests or cameras at the nests, please consider donating via their gofundme page.

Elephant body language 101 – a guide for beginners

A headshake is a very effective intimidation tactic. © Sally Lucas

Animals communicate in a variety of ways but the most obvious of these, to humans at least, is their body language. Anyone can learn to read the body language of animals to differing degrees – we spend our lives figuring out the complexities of human communication and animals are far less equivocal than human beings. With their complex social structure and high intelligence, not to mention their potential danger to humans, elephants are an excellent place to start. A little practice and some observational skills are all that’s needed to understand the basics. In turn, this understanding can add immeasurably to the enjoyment of an elephant sighting or ensure comfort for elephants and those viewing them.

Where to start

Are you looking at a breeding herd or a male or a group of males? This is important because different things can motivate bulls and cows. The older females of a breeding herd are the ones that will dictate what the herd does and how they respond to something, and their sole objective is to ensure the safety of their herd. The younger elephants can be playful, insecure or looking to establish their boundaries, so their signals are often misleading, meaning that it’s always a good idea to gauge the mood of the larger females first. The intentions of males can be harder to read or understand. The younger males that have left the security of their herds at puberty are often quite nervous, and this either translates into either moving away or attempting to intimidate a potential threat. Older males are the undisputed kings of all that they survey and should be treated as such – don’t block their routes or antagonise them, and most will behave like perfect gentlemen.

Tails

Believe it or not, the tail is the real key to reading elephant body language. Elephants are intelligent and often display what’s known as displacement behaviour – they sometimes pretend to feed, for example, while they figure out their next move in an uncomfortable situation. Their tail, however, gives them away. The tail of a relaxed elephant swings from side to side; the tail of an alert or uncomfortable elephant is held still, pointing downwards; and the tail of an upset, frightened or angry elephant is held out stiffly at right angles from the body.

Ears

An elephant that is flapping its ears isn’t angry, it’s hot and trying to cool down. They use wind cooling over the surface of their ears to lower the temperature of the blood and ultimately, their core body temperature. If an elephant is unsettled by something, they will raise their heads and spread their ears in an attempt to show off how large they are (this is mostly unnecessary, as anyone who has been close to an elephant will tell you). A headshake often accompanies this.

This is often something that older cows do close to vehicles and is their way of telling you not to try anything silly. You, in turn, can communicate your good intentions by staying still and quiet. If this movement from a female is accompanied by a few short running steps in your direction, it’s time for you to move off if you can – again calmly and as slowly as possible.

Trunks

This complicated body part so unique to elephants often displays the nuances of elephant body language. An elephant uses its trunk for everything from eating and drinking to smelling and touching so it is continuously moving and interpreting its meaning can be quite complicated. A good general approach is that if the movement is focused – feeding, for example, then the elephant is relaxed. If the elephant is standing still with the trunk raised and curled with the tip pointing in a specific direction, the elephant has picked up on a particular scent and is working out what it is and what direction it is coming from. If the elephant is standing still with the trunk down and the tip twisting from side to side, this can mean that something has caught the elephant’s attention and it is deciding what to do next. A twisting trunk can be a sign of anxiety.

Bull elephants, particularly those in musth (see below), sometimes drape their trunks over their tusks. This is almost always an attempt at intimidation and should be interpreted as such – those new to elephant behaviour should take this as a sign to move out of the male’s way.

Feet and general body language

Elephants use their feet constantly to dig up roots or kick up dirt or dust, so an elephant kicking the ground repeatedly is no cause for concern. Elephants are constantly moving so any stillness (unless they are resting with sleeping youngsters) is a sign that something is amiss or that they are listening intently – either to other elephants or something else. Rocking from side to side can also be a sign of indecision or anxiety.

Musth

Musth bulls are deserving of their own section based on the fact that they can be more unpredictable and occasionally more aggressive while in this state. All mature bulls experience musth cycles where their testosterone levels skyrocket to around 60 times the normal levels. They secrete liquid from their temporal glands (see below) and that, combined with a constant urine drip that coats their legs, gives them a distinctive musky odour. Musth bulls hold their heads high with the ears above the level of the shoulders and walk with a self-assured swagger.

Temporal glands

Elephants have glands between their eyes and ears (the temporal region) that secrete an oily substance containing hormones and other substances. Often these secretions go into overdrive when the elephant is nervous, stressed or excited, although interpreting the reasons behind this can often be quite tricky.

Final word and disclaimer

Elephants are complex creatures, and it is impossible to apply any rules with absolute certainty. Discretion is always the better part of valour where elephants are concerned, and they should never be taken for granted – if you are uncomfortable with a situation, move away slowly and calmly. This guide is intended to assist beginners in reading an elephant, rather than encourage a sense of overconfidence. All wild animals should be treated with respect and elephants are no exception.

An elephant’s trunk communicates a vast amount of information © Karen Blackwood

Photographer of the Year 2020 Weekly Selection: Week 12 – Gallery 1

Our Photographer of the Year 2020 is now in full swing.
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here: Gallery 1

? Endangered Grevy’s zebras locked in a fierce battle. Samburu National Park, Kenya © Yaron Schmid

? A black mamba strikes a pose. Sabi Sands Game Reserve, South Africa © Asgeir Westgård

? A curious elephant calf and a leopard tortoise. Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa © Barbara Fraatz

? Two black-backed jackal pups play hide and seek at night. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Brandon Huntley

? An aerial view of a herd of gemsbok on sandy desert dunes. Sossusvlei, Namibia © Chase Wells

? A painted wolf pack play in the water near the Marico river. Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa © Darren Donovan

? A great white pelican bathing in Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya © Dave Richards

? An endemic Namaqua chameleon. Namib Desert, Namibia © Jandre Germishuizen

? A silhouetted baboon enjoying the sunlight. Sabi Sands Game Reserve, South Africa © Janine Malan

? A male lion with a bloody tongue after feeding on its kill. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

? A hungry crocodile catches a fish. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Johan Wandrag

? Young baboons at play being disciplined by an adult. Kruger National Park, South Africa © John Mullineux

? A big male leopard feeds on a steenbok. Sabi Sands Game Reserve, South Africa © Jp VanZyl

? An exhausted lion falls asleep on the head of its giraffe kill. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Julien Regamey

? A charging hippo. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

? A middle-aged coconut crab. Fanjove Island, Tanzania © Marten Heinrichs

? A lioness carries her cub to a safe spot in the early morning. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Nicolas de Vaulx

? An elephant uses its versatile trunk to uproot a waterlily. Khwai, Botswana © Sandy Hickey

? The yellow eye of a muddy crocodile. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

? A southern ground hornbill gathers a mouthful of insects and lizards. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Tristan Cary

Photographer of the Year 2020 Weekly Selection: Week 12 – Gallery 2

Our Photographer of the Year 2020 is now in full swing.
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here: Gallery 1

? A male lion rids his mane of water by giving it a big shake. Kgalagadi National Park, South Africa © John Mullineux

? Bad timing for an elephant calf. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

? A territorial male hippo explodes from the water. Sabi Sands Game Reserve, South Africa © Brandon Huntley

? A leopard can’t decide whether to play with its impala prey or eat it. Okavango Delta, Botswana © Chase Wells

? A ground squirrel rids another’s tail of parasites. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa © Daniela Anger

? A resting elephant calf. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

? A fork-tailed drongo irritates a martial eagle. Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa © Darren Donovan

? A curious baby baboon. Mashatu Game Reserve, Botswana © Deborah Jordan

? A leopard poses with its hanging impala kill. Khwai, Okavango Delta, Botswana © Jens Cullmann

? A pregnant Thyene natalii jumping spider feeding on a fly. Rustenburg, North West, South Africa © Elaine de Bruin

? An aerial view of pink salt pans. Swakopmund, Namibia © Jandre Germishuizen

? An elephant calf trapped in mud – tragically, the clay ultimately claimed its life. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

? A hippo emerges close by a tiny vervet monkey that is caught in the mud. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

? A lion pins a buffalo down by the throat to suffocate it. Okavango Delta, Botswana © Panos Laskarakis

? A baby vervet monkey plays amongst marula fruit. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Karen Blackwood

? Three hyena feed on a buffalo carcass. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

? A tiny jacana chick navigates across the water via lily pads. Chobe River, Namibia © Lambert Heil

? A chacma baboon and her baby huddle together during a heavy summer rainstorm. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Samuel Cox

Baby elephants rescued – 11 incredible images

October 2019, and Mana Pools National Park was at the height of the dry season, after an extended drought. This is ‘suicide month’, and the mercury regularly rises to the mid-forties Celcius. The animals of Mana, already pushed to the brink of survival, must eke out an existence before the arrival of the rains.
Photographer Jens Cullmann, on his annual Mana Pools sojourn, was bushwalking when he came across an elephant cow and two calves stuck in the mud of a rapidly drying pool. The elephants, driven by their desperate thirst, had ventured too far into the sticky mud and as their strength deserted them, they had collapsed in exhaustion.
Jens quickly realised that the three elephants were highly dehydrated and that their lives were hanging in the balance, so he rushed to the park reception to report the situation. By sheer coincidence, crews from ifaw Africa and Wild is Life were in Mana Pools to dart and assist another distressed elephant. They were joined by a group of Czech visitors and local lodge staff as everyone rushed to aid the stricken animals.
Both of the elephant calves suffered from bites to the trunk and ears, probably from opportunistic hyenas. One baby’s tail was bitten clean off. The rescue operation of the babies took a few hours, under the debilitatingly scorching summer sun. They were successfully extracted from the mud and once efforts were made to stabilise their fluid levels, they were flown to a rehabilitation centre to join other young elephants with similar stories. The intention is to release the elephants into the wild once they are rehabilitated and old enough to join a herd.

The adult mother, presumably the mother of one of the babies, was not so lucky. She was successfully extracted from the clawing mud but was too far gone to recover. We will share her story in the weeks to come.
Jens attributes this successful rescue to cooperation from Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority (ZimParks), Wild is Life crew members Dr Mark Lombard, Cathrine Jennings and January Gweshe, as well as Steven Bolnick, Dave McFarland and Garth Prichard. Ifaw Africa funded the rescue operation.

The following uncaptioned images speak for themselves.

WATCH: a video of the rescue here.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR, JENS CULLMANN

Jens Cullman is a German nature photographer. “It takes a lot of passion to capture one magical moment in the wild. Sometimes I wait for many hours in oppressive heat and have no luck. At other times the patience is rewarded during a split second of magic. But being ready at all times for that split-second is what makes the difference. Along the way, on this incredible journey, I have gained massive respect and love for wild places, and to accept nature’s ways. The golden hour of the sun, dust in the sky, animals in action right in front of you – this is where I always want to be.”

There’s a cheetah on the roof – when wildlife viewing crosses the line

There's a cheetah on the roof © Kaido Haagen — © Kaido Haagen

With ever-growing competition within the safari industry, the pressure to provide up-close and personal cheetah and other big cat sightings have increased. Within most of the popular safari destinations, the wildlife has become so habituated to the presence of vehicles that they largely ignore them, allowing visitors to admire the beauty of these animals at close proximity. But how close is too close?

In East Africa, there are countless videos and photographs on the internet depicting safari vehicles with cheetahs clambering over them, sometimes even into the vehicle itself, in-between the guests. A once-in-a-lifetime experience for those guests and something that is on the wish list for many a novice safari-goer – with the added bonus of the footage or photographs going viral. The practice is unethical for several reasons and puts the cheetah’s life at risk. Also, this is against established rules and condemned by cheetah conservation programs,

These car-climbing cheetahs are almost all found in the open habitats of East Africa, and they probably do it for the same reason they might climb a tree or a termite mound – it provides a useful vantage point and a high point to scent-mark. With younger individuals that learn this behaviour from their mothers, there is almost certainly an element of curiosity as well. It comes with significant risk, and there are incidents of cheetah injuring themselves climbing onto or jumping off vehicles and, as with any wild animal, injury can have dire consequences.

There's a cheetah on the roof © Mara Meru Cheetah Project — © Mara Meru Cheetah Project

As the smallest of the big cats of Africa, the cheetah is generally a timid animal that is unlikely to pose a threat to humans, which has led to a certain amount of complacency around them. However, they are still big predators and can injure a human being if provoked (and have done so in the past). The cheetahs that climb vehicles have lost their natural caution around humans, and that inherently makes them potentially more dangerous. In a closed environment in such close proximity to people, any sudden movement or noise from a guest could provoke a defensive or aggressive response from the cheetah, which will inevitably result in injury. This is even likely when there are children in the vehicle (human children are prey-size, and they often squeal similarly to a distressed prey animal) or when the guests provoke the cheetahs for a better photo – not to mention the possible diseases and parasites tourists could be exposed to. In most cases, when a wild animal injures a human, the animal will pay the price in one way or another.

This increased comfort with humans could also spell disaster for cheetah for a different reason – one of the biggest threats facing cheetah populations is conflict with people, and these cheetahs are less likely to go out of their way to avoid encountering humans.

The exploitation of wildlife is a hot topic and “wildlife selfies” are pervasive, despite the token (and mostly meaningless) efforts of social media websites to curb the tide. Allowing cheetah to climb onto cars falls on the wrong side of this line, and with changing attitudes towards interaction with wild animals, tourists need to be aware of this. Cheetah make their intentions clear when they approach the vehicles, and all that is required to prevent them from jumping up is for the guide to move the vehicle slowly away, especially if that individual cheetah is known for that behaviour.

cheetah on the roof © Suhaib Alvi — © Suhaib Alvi

Dr Femke Broekhuis, who is currently a senior research associate with the Wildlife Conservation Research Unit at the University of Oxford and has extensive experience in cheetah conservation throughout Africa, suggests that tourists too have a responsibility in their enjoyment of wildlife. Firstly, by not pressuring or encouraging their guide to allow the cheetah too close, and secondly, by not propagating the popularity of this practice by sharing or supporting the photos and videos of these sightings. She writes, “Cheetahs already face a kaleidoscope of threats that are causing significant declines. Let’s not add additional stress to these animals. We can all play a role in cheetah conservation by respecting these felids in peril”.

Painted wolves (African wild dogs) released after rescue

Painted wolf (African wild dog) release with Africa Geographic

Ten painted wolves (African wild dogs) were successfully released a few days ago onto the 5,500 ha Rietspruit Game Reserve on the outskirts of the bushveld town of Hoedspruit near the Kruger National Park. This follows the recent release of 5 lions into the same reserve. Those lions were to play a significant role during the painted wolf Lycaon pictus release – more about that later.

The pack (two adult females and eight yearlings born in April 2019) are thought to be from the Thornybush area in the Greater Kruger but roam over a large area that includes private land outside of the protected area. They were captured in late 2019 and placed into a boma on Rietspruit for safekeeping, after landowners in the Guernsey area (outside of the Greater Kruger) complained that the canids were killing wildlife. The original plan was to relocate the pack to Gorongosa in Mozambique, to join a pack of 15 relocated there in 2018, but paperwork delays led to the decision to release the pack into Rietspruit Game Reserve.

It is almost impossible to restrict painted wolves to fenced reserves (they crawl under the fences through holes made by aardvarks and warthogs, as do leopards, hyenas and other species), and so it is likely that this group will reunite at some stage with remaining members of the pack (6 males and a female) that were last seen in a private game reserve bordering Rietspruit.

The monitoring of resident painted wolf packs (there are five in the Hoedspruit area alone), and stepping in to ensure safety from negative human influence when required, is a 24/7 operation that demands significant financial and other resources. In charge of the collaring and release operation was Grant Beverley, the Lowveld regional coordinator for the carnivore conservation program at the Endangered Wildlife Trust – a busy man. Packs roam over vast distances and encounter many man-made dangers such as bushmeat snares, intolerant landowners, livestock farmers, speeding vehicles and exposure to disease from domestic dogs. Helping Grant during the collaring of the female and subsequent release of the pack was Joel Alves of Wildlife Vets.

Speaking of lions

At a crucial stage of the release, when nine of the ten painted wolves had exited the boma to feed on an impala carcass, three large male lions appeared on the scene. Attracted by the excited chatter of the painted wolves and the smell of meat, these pride males were here to spoil the party. They barged in, scattered the pack and claimed the carcass. The lions eventually left the scene, and the tenth painted wolf left the boma safely. All ten pack members were seen the following day.

Lion with Africa Geographic — This large male lion steals the impala carcass after scattering the painted wolves © Simon Espley

Who paid for this collaring operation?

Meet Michelle Campbell, a Hoedspruit resident and owner of Wild Wonderful World, who stumped up the R30,000 required to collar the painted wolf. Heroes like Michelle and Stephanie make an enormous contribution to painted wolf conservation. Be like them, donate here or email Grant Beverley.

Africa Geographic — Michelle Campbell, sponsor of this painted dog collar © Simon Espley

Further reading about painted wolves (African wild dogs):

What’s in a name? Dogs or wolves, painted or wild?

10 Interesting facts about painted wolves

Photographer of the Year 2020 Weekly Selection: Week 11 – Gallery 2

Our Photographer of the Year 2020 is now in full swing.
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here: Gallery 1

? A male lion in the tall grass. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Arlette Magiera

? A juvenile male gelada monkey (also known as a bleeding-heart monkey), huddles with the rest of his troop in the cold, thick drizzle of the rainy season. Guassa Community Conservation Area, Amhara region, Ethiopia © Bing Lin

? Two spotted hyena and a buffalo carcass. Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa © Darren Donovan

? A pool of water mirrors a male lion as he walks by. Ndutu, Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania © Diego Occhi

? A sleepy cheetah cub. Serengeti National Park, Tanzania © Diego Occhi

? An African darter catches a fish. Zibulo Colliery, South Africa © Gerbus Vermaak

? A red-billed teal taking off while being chased by a red-knobbed coot. Zibulo Colliery, South Africa © Gerbus Vermaak

? A crocodile makes a dramatic splash as it enters the river. Chobe National Park, Botswana © Guy Scott

? Three black-backed jackal feast on a fresh kill. Mara North Conservancy, Kenya © Jacques-Andre Dupont

? A lioness carries her young cub to a safer location. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Lennart Hessel

? Maasai warriors at sunset. Maasai Mara, Kenya © Manuel Nagele

? A female leopard gets low as she stalks a warthog. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Matrishva Vyas

? Hundreds of wildebeest become entangled during a river crossing. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Nicolas de Vaulx

? A Cape cobra in a tree cavity. Tswalu Kalahari Game Reserve, South Africa © Thilo Beck

? A pair of orange-bellied parrots searching for the ideal nesting site. Samburu National Park, Kenya © Tim Nicklin

? A rescued eastern green mamba hatchling emerges from its egg. All seven hatchlings and their mother were released back into the wild. Pennington, South Coast, KwaZulu Natal, South Africa © Tyrone Ping

? A family of cheetah huddle together in the rain. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Xavier Ortega

Photographer of the Year 2020 Weekly Selection: Week 11 – Gallery 1

Our Photographer of the Year 2020 is now in full swing.
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here: Gallery 2

? Four lions on the move at sunset. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa © Margie Botha

? A pod of hippos panic during a wildebeest crossing. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Nicolas de Vaulx

? Two northern carmine bee-eaters make a simultaneous catch. Selous National Park, Tanzania © Yochi Levanon

? Two sleepy hyena cubs at sunrise. Liuwa Plain National Park, Zambia © Andrew Macdonald

? A young male lion standing proud as he scans the plain. Liuwa Plain National Park, Zambia © Andrew Macdonald

? Silhouetted fishermen in a mokoro at sunset. Chobe, Botswana © Corlette Wessels

? A brown hyena feeding on a poached white rhino carcass. Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa © Darren Donovan

? A cheetah grips tightly onto its prey after a successful hunt. Serengeti National Park, Tanzania © Diego Occhi

? Two lionesses at play, honing their predator reflexes in the process. Serengeti National Park, Tanzania © Diego Occhi

? Cheetahs in the rain. Ndutu, Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania © Diego Occhi

? Two sub-adult male lions face an oncoming dust storm. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa © Ed Aylmer

? A young flap-necked chameleon sheds its skin. Lusaka, Zambia © Esme Tenner

? A foraging black-winged stilt. Zibulo Colliery, South Africa © Gerbus Vermaak

? An arrow-marked babbler enjoys a refreshing bath. Chilwero, Northern Botswana © Innocent Samunzala

? An eastern lowland gorilla gazes up into the rain. Democratic Republic of the Congo © Jacha Potgieter

? A Maasai warrior looks out over the Mara plains at sunrise. Mara North Conservancy, Kenya © John Piper

? A little bee-eater pair. Samburu, Kenya © Leon Marais

? A blood-soaked black-backed jackal and carcass. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa © Margie Botha

Bangweulu – where the water meets the sky

The dense, swirling column of Abdim’s and open-billed storks above us pulsed like a sardine bait-ball before dropping to the shallow lake in a g-force-defying stoop, accompanied by an ear-buffeting swoosh to join boisterous pelicans working the fertile fishing grounds.
This is the dry season zenith in north-eastern Zambia’s remote Bangweulu Wetlands, just days before the annual monsoon rains arrive to transform the landscape into a vast inland ocean where the water meets the sky. After a long, hot and dusty day locating a shoebill in dense wetland papyrus beds, I was enjoying a cold beverage on the steps of Shoebill Island Camp, deep in contemplation. The storks were doing their fighter jet thing overhead while fires smouldered on the hazy horizon behind herds of grazing black lechwe, and fishermen plied their trade in the shallows.

You see, this is a different kind of protected area. The owners live here and eke out living fishing, hunting and gathering natural resources – as they have done since before the safari tourism industry was born. And they do so sustainably, albeit with assistance from an exceptional organisation. More about that later.
My travel companion was my close friend and colleague Christian Boix. Christian had dropped off clients in Lusaka after their safari of a lifetime, before joining me. With us in Bangweulu were two siblings, a retired Australian banker and his South African sister. All of us thoroughly enjoyed our brief sojourn to this special place; this was precisely what we were after – responsible tourism in its purest form.

Bird’s-eye view

Bangweulu Wetlands consists of floodplains, seasonally flooded grasslands, woodlands and permanent swamps fed by the Chambesi, Luapula, Lukulu and Lulimala rivers. The area has been designated as one of the world’s most important wetlands by the Ramsar Convention, and a BirdLife International Important Bird and Biodiversity Area.

9,850 km² (985,000 hectares) – total size	6,000 km² (600,000 hectares) – Managed by African Parks in partnership with Zambia’s Department of National Parks and Wildlife (DNPW) and six Community Resource Boards
430 migratory and resident bird species rely on the wetlands	350 shoebills (6 monitored shoebill nests)
50,000 endemic black lechwe	50,000 owners (6 chiefdoms)

The Story of Bangweulu Wetlands

Bangweulu Wetlands is owned by over 50,000 community members across six chiefdoms

Bangweulu, meaning ‘where water meets the sky’, is home to about 50,000 people who retain the right to harvest its natural resources sustainably and who depend entirely on those resources for their survival. But things were not always as balanced as they are now. Decades of rampant poverty-driven poaching had driven wildlife and fish stocks to the edge, and the community realised that they needed assistance to protect their food sources. They signed a long-term agreement in 2008 with African Parks and Zambia’s Department of National Parks and Wildlife (DNPW) and committed to sustainably managing the wetlands to benefit wildlife and people. Since then, bushmeat poaching has been contained, and the endemic black lechwe populations have increased from 35,000 to over 50,000 (estimated carrying capacity is 100,000). Large mammal species such as zebra, impala and buffalo, previously almost exterminated by poaching, have been reintroduced and show steady population increases. Limited quantities of black lechwe, sitatunga and tsessebe are sustainably harvested yearly, earning much-needed revenue (annual target revenue of US$300,000) and protein for local communities. Local community members now guard shoebill nests against the illegal live bird trade because they realise that shoebills are a crucial driver of tourism numbers to this region. Fishermen are adhering to seasonal fishing bans lasting three months to allow stocks to recover, resulting in annual increases in fish stocks, better catch rates and improved economic benefits for communities.

Bangweulu Wetlands is the largest employer in the region, healthcare is being delivered to community members, and 60 schools are supported.
African Parks’ management priorities for Bangweulu are preventing illegal resource harvesting, overfishing, community education and enterprise development to improve livelihoods and build sustainable revenue streams. Their core deliverables revolve around these issues. Managing an area as remote and vast as Bangweulu Wetlands is not easy, and there are ongoing challenges relating to expectation management and law enforcement. Still, compared to the situation before 2008, Bangweulu Wetlands is a shining example of balancing the needs of the people with the preservation of wildlife.

Find out about Zambia for your next African safari. We have ready-made safaris to choose from, or ask us to build one just for you.

Bangweulu Wetlands’ continued survival as a sustainable ecosystem depends on its owners deriving lasting benefits whereby they recognise conservation as a viable land-use choice.

Focus on black lechwe

Bangweulu is the only place in the world where you will find wild black lechwe Kobus leche smithemani.
This medium-sized antelope grows to about 1 meter in height and weighs 60 to 120 kilograms (males are 20% larger than females). Only the males have horns. The hindquarters are noticeably higher than the forequarters, and the hooves are elongated and widely splayed – all adaptions to life on soft ground and in water.
Like red lechwe Kobus leche leche and Kafue lechwe Kobus leche kafuensis, black lechwe are slow runners but excellent swimmers and are often seen grazing shoulder-deep in water. Their greasy coats act as waterproofing but also give off a distinctive odour. Black lechwe are classified as vulnerable by IUCN.

Black lechwe are endemic to the Bangweulu region

Focus on shoebill

The shoebill (Balaeniceps rex) looks like it belongs in the prehistoric age. Found in the marshes of East Africa, the shoebill is classified as vulnerable and is a bucket-list sighting for any avid birder.

Sadly, this iconic species is severely threatened by habitat loss and the illegal bird trade, as the demand for their eggs and chicks places considerable pressure on wild populations. Thankfully, around 350 of these quirky giants find sanctuary in Zambia’s Bangweulu Wetlands, where Yoram Kanokola and other African Parks staff work with dedicated local community members known as ‘Shoebill Guards’ to protect and safeguard nests, ensuring that chicks can safely fledge. Over the last few years, these efforts have helped protect more than 30 fledgelings – ensuring the preservation of the species for generations to come.
For more information about shoebills, read Shoebill – 7 reasons to love this dinosaur of birds.

The shoebill is an iconic species that has high tourism status and value

Explore and stay

Bangweulu is open all year round – but accessibility by road and access to game drive tracks varies depending on water levels.

Shoebill Island Camp was opened in 2018 to generate photographic tourism revenue for Bangweulu Wetlands. Four luxury tents and an impressive open-plan common area nestle under a grove of trees on an island that is reached by boat during the flood season and by a four-wheel-drive vehicle at other times.

Bangweulu also offers self-catering campsites. Nsobe Campsite has six sites for tents, and is located between the Chimbwe woodland and the edge of the swamps.

DID YOU KNOW that African Parks offers safari camps (lodges and campsites) where 100% of tourism revenue goes to conservation and local communities? Find out more and book your African Parks safari.

Bangweulu Wetlands is best included in a safari that includes other Zambian destinations such as Luangwa Valley and Kafue

ABOUT THE AUTHOR, SIMON ESPLEY

Simon Espley is an African of the digital tribe, a chartered accountant and CEO of Africa Geographic. His travels in Africa are in search of wilderness, real people with interesting stories and elusive birds. He lives in Hoedspruit with his wife Lizz and two Jack Russells, and when not travelling or working, he will be on his mountain bike somewhere out there. His motto is ‘Live for now, have fun, be good, tread lightly and respect others. And embrace change.’.

Simon Espley (right) and colleague Christian Boix.

Black honey badgers spotted in Gabon

A camera trap photograph of four melanistic (black) honey badgers was captured by researchers in an area near Ivindo National Park in Gabon. The camera traps were placed there as part of a survey conducted by Panthera, who has been tasked by Gabon’s park authorities Agence Nationale des Parcs Nationaux (ANPN) to assess and document local wildlife to ultimately establish a protected reserve. The four black honey badgers captured on camera are most likely related to each other – honey badgers are typically solitary apart from mothers and their one or two offspring, but they are occasionally seen together in small groups.

Dr Philipp Henschel, West and Central Africa Regional Director for global conservation NGO Panthera, explains that in his 21 years of working in Gabon, he has never seen a honey badger there and that up until the more widespread use of camera traps, conservationists had no idea that there were honey badgers in the deeply forested areas of Gabon. When the first camera trap picked up a melanistic honey badger in 2003, the indistinct image had the researchers wondering if they had discovered a new species and it was only a year later that the image of two black animals helped researchers connect the dots and conclude that it was a melanistic form of honey badger (Mellivora capensis).

Nowadays, camera traps are more common across Gabon, and scientists believe that around 50% of the honey badgers in the Gabon forested areas are melanistic. Melanism is a recessive genetic trait that causes excess production of the pigment melanin in the skin or fur, resulting in animals appearing almost black. The expression of melanism is a genetic trait that is not affected by environmental conditions, but the environment can determine the success rate of melanistic individuals, both in terms of survival as well as reproduction. Melanism does not occur in all animal species – there are no melanistic lions, for example (despite the edited images floating around the internet). Still, it does occur in felid species such as leopards and jaguars. Given that melanistic cats are more common in moist rainforests (like Gabon), scientists believe that there is an adaptive advantage to this colouration. Though the mechanisms are less well understood in mustelids (the family which includes badgers, otters and wolverines), the assumption is that the evolutionary mechanisms are the same.

Recent camera trap surveys, initiated by a Panthera field team and since 2015 led by Christopher Orbell, have yielded other significant surprises apart from the black honey badgers, including a melanistic civet. Perhaps even more ecologically important is the record of spotted hyena, a species considered locally extinct in Gabon. Camera trap photos have revealed two adult individuals that appear to have become resident in the mineral-rich forest clearings.

Normally-coloured honey badger© Katja Voth

The images also prove that the naturally saline area under survey has an important population of elephants as well as leopards – these numbers of rare wildlife are unusual in an unprotected area given the risks of poaching or mineral resource extraction. The area is the caldera of an ancient volcano and is known to contain rare earths but, so far, the Gabonese government has prevented any industrial use. Dr Henschel praises the philosophy of the president of Gabon, as well as the Minister of Forests and Environment, for the “visionary” plans for Gabon’s park authorities to designate it as a formally-protected area, “which will assure that future government leaders who may be less visionary and environmentally-friendly are held to protect this unique site.”

The death of ‘Julian’, one of Africa’s last great tuskers

The magnificent elephant bull, nicknamed “Julian”, was believed to be well over 50 years old and had lived out his life in the Rukinga region of Kenya that lies between Tsavo West and East National Parks. He was well known to conservationists of the area and his enormous tusks that brushed the ground as he walked made him instantly recognisable. His carcass was found on 14^th January 2020 after it was spotted by a gyrocopter pilot who reported it to authorities. We reported last week that the famous tusker ‘Tim’ died last week, also of natural causes.

A tusker is the description given to an elephant with tusks that touch the ground, and there are very few remaining tuskers in Africa – some estimates suggest that there may be less than 40 individuals remaining on the entire continent. Their numbers have been decimated through decades of indiscriminate hunting and ivory poaching. The Tsavo area is known for its spectacular big tuskers.

The announcement was made by Wildlife Works – a REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) project development and management company responsible for establishing the Kasigau Corridor in the Rukinga region. Julian was regularly seen within the project area, and officials estimated him to be approximately 50 years old. Wildlife Works aerial surveillance team started to officially keep an eye on him during the Kenya poaching crisis in 2014 when he was the second-largest resident bull. The only bull larger than Julian died during the 2017 drought in Tsavo.

Julian’s carcass was spotted from the air © Wildlife Works

Wildlife Works described Julian as one of the more mobile bulls on the ranches; he would move right down to northern Tanzania’s Mkomazi Game Reserve, and Kenya’s southeastern ranches Koranze and Lungalunga. He would often not be seen for several months at a time, making much of his life a mystery. He would, however, always return to Rukinga ranch to socialise with the large herds, often accompanied by other bulls – almost acting as his bodyguards. Locals say that he would often hide his tusks in bushes when aircraft flew overhead, as if he knew he was a target for poachers.

Julian was not known as an aggressive bull, vehicles or rangers never had to be cautious around him, nor was he known as a crop raider. He had a scar on his right side, a possible attempt on his life from a poisoned arrow of a poacher.

He was found on 14th January 2020 under a tree in the long grass of Rukinga ranch, eyes closed as if he went to sleep peacefully. His death was deemed to be as a result of natural causes.

Lightning kills 4 mountain gorillas

Gorilla Doctors reported that on the 3^rd of February, lightning struck during a severe storm and killed four endangered mountain gorillas from the Hirwa group in Mgahinga Gorilla National Park (MGNP). Three females and one new-born infant were killed. One of the females, Gikundiro, was pregnant and a second, Kahatwa, left behind an infant son only 14 months old. The Hirwa Group, formerly resident in Rwanda, crossed to Uganda in August 2019, now number 13 gorillas and are led by a silverback named Munyinya.

The cries of the remaining group members and the chest-beating of the males were heard by an MGNP tracker who immediately reported it to the relevant authorities. The incident was investigated by an international response team led by the Greater Virunga Transboundary Collaboration (GVTC) with representatives from the Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA), Rwanda Development Board, MGNP, Bwindi Impenetrable National Park and Gorilla Doctors. The health of the remaining members was of paramount importance: fortunately, all were cleared as being in good health. However, Imbanzanbigwi (Kahatwa’s surviving son) will be closely monitored as he had only just started eating solids and was still suckling. Post-mortems were also conducted – yielding the expected results that preliminary cause of death was fatal electrocution resulting from the lightning strike.

According to Gorilla Doctors, this has been a particularly challenging time for the Hirwa group as they have faced multiple health issues, including their lead silverback being treated for a respiratory infection.

Mountain Gorilla numbers have increased recently, but their small population remains under pressure, and their reproductive cycle is slow, meaning that the loss of any individuals is a setback. The loss of three adult females is not only tragic; it also means the loss of their reproductive potential.

Photographer of the Year 2020 Weekly Selection: Week 10 – Gallery 1

Our Photographer of the Year 2020 is now in full swing.
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here: Gallery 2

? A tiny foraging field mouse. Serengeti National Park, Tanzania © Alice van Kempen

? A leopard in dappled light. South Luangwa National Park, Zambia © Alice Péretié

? Mating lions. Etosha National Park, Namibia © Alessandro Belloni

? A leaf-tailed gecko at night. Saha Forest Camp, Madagascar © Ben Price

? Back-lit baby vervet monkey. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Gareth Thomas

? A pangopup rescued by @africanpangolinconservation and cared for by @johannesburgwildlifevet. Undisclosed location © Gareth Thomas

? A little grebe surfaces from a dive for food. Zibulo Colliery, South Africa © Gerbus Vermaak

? A dazzle of zebra gallop across a dry lake. Lake Magadi. Kenya © Gurcharan Roopra

? A nesting pair of marabou storks put on a display. Moremi Game Reserve, Botswana © Irene Amiet

? A spotted hyena chews on a zebra leg. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

? A pack of painted wolves (African wild dogs) take down a helpless eland calf. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

? A colourful juvenile boomslang. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Jeroen ten Haaf

? A gelada baboon (also known as a bleeding-heart monkey) exposing an impressive set of teeth. Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia © Josef Kastner

? A chameleon catches and devours a mantid. Madagascar © Kirill Dorofeev

? A humpback whale breaches out of the waters of St Helena. Island St Helena, Madagascar © Kirill Dorofeev

? An endless road to beautiful landscapes. NamibRand Nature Reserve, Namibia © Marta Nieto Aicart

? A red bishop clings to a bulrush. Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa © Peter Reitze

? A herd of elephants at sunset. Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa © Rupert Bridgman

? A clan of muddy spotted hyena scavenge on a hippo carcass. Mara North Conservancy, Kenya © Tommy Mees

? A wet female baboon and her infant. Maasai Mara Game Reserve, Kenya © Tommy Mees

? An aerial view of sandy desert dunes at sunset. Namib desert, Namibia ©Vanessa Thorimbert

Lion cub petting & captive wildlife interactions: what tourists need to know

In past years, tourists have been grossly misled by certain commercial captive wildlife facilities masquerading as sanctuaries or rehabilitation centres. Gullible holidaymakers are attracted to such facilities, as paying day-visitors and voluntourists, who pay to work at the facilities. Also hoodwinked are kind souls who donate money to such facilities in the belief that they are ‘saving’ animals. Growing awareness of the false marketing being used, and changing ethical attitudes mean that it is incumbent on tourists and donors to ask the right questions of the places that they wish to visit and support. So how does one go about deciding which wildlife facilities to visit and support?

The South African Tourism Services Association (SATSA) has released a handy guide to help visitors make these decisions and, to simplify even further, there are a few activities that SASTA now recognises as ethically unacceptable and therefore to be boycotted – regardless of what you are told:

if you can touch or play with the infants (lion or cheetah cub petting for example);
if you are allowed to touch any predators or cetaceans (dolphins, whales or porpoises);
if the facility has performing animals or if you can ride the animals (such as elephants);
if the facility breeds lions or tigers.

You need to consider whether or not the facility is a true sanctuary or rehabilitation facility, and to answer that, you can look at the following aspects:

There is no breeding of animals;
They do not trade in animals;
No animals are performing for entertainment
There are no tactile interactions and no walking with the animals;
The animals are in captivity because they were sick, injured, orphaned, rescued, donated and/or abandoned;
The animals will have a home for life or will be relocated back into the wild as part of a recognised conservation initiative;
And the facility is compliant with all relevant legislation and is transparent in its operations and marketing collateral

If the facility you are looking at visiting fulfils ALL of the above criteria, it is recognised as a sanctuary, and you can support it or visit with a clear conscience. If not, you need to dig deeper into the practices of the facility you wish to visit, or walk away.

The full flowchart is included below, and you will see that the guide also raises relatively obvious points such as not supporting a facility where the animals end up at canned hunting operations or where their body parts are traded. Naturally, this may be difficult for an unsuspecting visitor to discern. Captive wildlife facilities that are involved in unethical practices are unlikely to be upfront about their true colours, so visitors are advised to make sure that they are fully informed and have done their research beforehand. The SATSA guideline are a good place to start.

Evaluating captive wildlife activities. Source SATSA

The full report, including the history and guiding principles behind this chart, can be found here.

Photographer of the Year 2020 Weekly Selection: Week 10 – Gallery 2

Our Photographer of the Year 2020 is now in full swing.
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here: Gallery 1

? A crowned eagle tucks into an unlucky water monitor. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Brandon Huntley

? A female meerkat keeps a watchful eye out for danger as her three pups get up to mischief. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa © Brandon Huntley

? Spotted hyena cubs at play. Khwai, Botswana © Didier Couvert

? A tsessebe is pinned down by three hungry lions. Pilansberg National Park, South Africa © Ilna Booyens

? A flamboyance of flamingo. Sandwich Harbour, Namibia © Jandre Germishuizen

? A Kenyan sunrise. Samburu National Park, Kenya © Jane Gross

? A tiny four-striped grass mouse. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa © Jenny Andersen

? A rare sighting of greater-painted snipe. Intaka Wetlands, South Africa © Johan Mocke

? A hunting rock monitor lizard. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Joschka Voss

? A young spotted hyena cub seeks comfort from its mother. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Karen Blackwood

? A young cheetah practices its hunting skills on a wildebeest calf. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South-Africa © Karen van der kolk

? Three-headed giraffe. Maasai Mara, Kenya © Karen van der kolk

? A black-backed jackal framed by elephant legs. Senyati, Botswana© Margie Botha

? An aerial view of Scorpion Dune. Sossusvlei, Namibia © Miguel Bruno

? The wild eye of a male lion through a buffalo carcass. Okavango Delta, Botswana © Panos Laskarakis

? A view of Cape fur seals from below. Seal Island, Millers Point, South Africa © Peet J van Eeden

? A striped skink carries off its centipede meal. Londolozi Private Game Reserve, Sabi Sands, South Africa © Rod Watson

? A group of black herons displaying their hunting technique. Moremi Game Reserve, Botswana © Sandy Hickey

? A spotted hyena feeds among vultures. Maasai Mara, Kenya © Thorsten Hanewald

? The big eyes of a Natal forest tree frog. Durban North Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa © Tyrone Ping

? A group of great white pelicans. Awasa Lake, Ethiopia © Vittorio Ricci

? A bright green flap-necked chameleon. Bushmanland, Namibia © Wynne Cilliers

RIP: Tim the iconic elephant dies

Tim with Mount Kilimanjaro in the background ©Dean Bricknell

Tim, the iconic super-tusker who roamed the Amboseli area of Kenya, has died of natural causes. He was 50 years old.

Tim was an enormous bull elephant, with massive tusks that touched the ground. His fame catalysed many conservation programs, and he was a popular photographic subject for tourists, who would travel from across the world to see him. He is Africa’s most photographed elephant.

Tim captured the hearts of people around the world because of his gentle demeanour. He is an ambassador for his species, as his legend will live on.

Tim narrowly escaped death in 2018 when he got stuck in a waterhole before being rescued.

We celebrate his life with these images, which were submitted by entrants to our Photographer of the Year

Latest rhino poaching stats: shades of grey

Yesterday South Africa’s government released the 2019 rhino poaching statistics via an update to the website of the Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries (DEFF).

We interrogate the stats, with revealing graphs and intriguing questions.

During the time of former Minister of Environmental Affairs Dr Edna Molewa (now deceased), the department used to hold several press briefings a year, allowing us to study the stats and ask questions directly to the Minister and her assembled panel of experts and ministers from the security cluster. The rhino poaching crisis isn’t just for DEFF to handle; our government has defined rhino poaching as a trans-national crime, requiring all aspects of enforcement to be involved.

These press briefings do not happen anymore. Now, all we get is a brief press release surreptitiously loaded onto the DEFF website. And so, in the absence of direct communications with relevant experts, we are forced to ask questions in this manner and to speculate about what is going on. Amanda Watson, who has been reporting on rhino matters for The Citizen for many years, wrote an article outlining how serious this speculation has become. Simon Espley, CEO of Africa Geographic, expressed a similar sentiment last year when he publicly challenged Minister Barbara Creecy to reveal how many rhinos we have left. She did not reply.

It’s probably uncomfortable for DEFF to address some of the issues at play; but that is the role of the media industry – to get to the real story. This press release was dropped on us with no warning and, predictably, most news media have chanted praise for the perceived success of a “decline” in rhino poaching. Sipho Kings, editor of the Mail & Guardian recently sent out tweets criticising news outlets for just printing press releases as news, and he’s right… some digging needs to be done.

It’s unfortunate that DEFF’s brief press release, which is meant to be a thorough analysis of the past year, omitted several significant developments. Examples include concerning politics surrounding rangers, dismissal/disciplinary hearings of seemingly competent senior members of SANParks staff, the loss of the RhODIS contract, the possible closure of the Skukuza Court, a growing impatience from rhino farmers threatening to sell their horn stock and international gatherings like CITES that took place.

And so, let’s do some digging…

Does the ‘decline’ in poaching reflect success?

“A decline in poaching for five consecutive years…” – Minister Barbara Creecy, DEFF Press Release

Official rhino poaching statistics put the number of rhinos poached in South Africa in 2019 at 594. This is a decline from 769 in 2018. BUT without the census results from the Kruger National Park (home to the largest number of rhinos in the world), we cannot be sure what this means. When Bonné (de Bod) phoned the DEFF spokesperson yesterday to ask about the latest rhino population figures, she was directed to SANParks, who said they would check and get back to us. We know from years prior that SANParks cannot release the results without the Minister’s approval. And let’s not forget that we are still waiting for last year’s census results.

So just to be clear, we have not had population stats since the 2017 census – which we actually filmed, to obtain footage for STROOP! So complicated is the rhino counting procedure in Kruger that we ended up not including our footage in the film, but witnessing the process was humbling. Counting rhinos from the air is hard work, and a dedicated team is performing this tough task. However, something is getting lost from the effort on the ground to the paperwork on the department’s desk. Rumours abound that two recent counts have been done in Kruger National Park and that results reflect a halving of the 2017 numbers. So we did some searching through scientific journals to find Kruger’s white rhino population figures and actual white rhino poached numbers from the last few years of official results to find out whether the reported decline in poaching has any validity.

What do the Kruger white rhino numbers tell us?

Looking at the above graph, the downward spiral in Kruger southern white rhino populations is apparent. Note that DEFF has refused to date to issue figures for 2018 and 2019. The more than 50% decline in our southern white rhino numbers in Kruger over 6 years (10,621 in 2011 to 5,142 in 2017) is massive, and we cannot slow down or pat ourselves on the back.

The above graph tells us that the proportion of rhino poached each year, as a percentage of the remaining population, is increasing. This reality is in stark contrast to the ‘good news’ from DEFF that nominal rhino poaching numbers are down. The DEFF press release ascribed the reduction in rhinos poached to several factors, but failed to mention what is arguably the main reason – that there are fewer rhinos left to poach.

The above graph really highlights the crisis at hand and points to another damaging factor – “collateral damage”. Collateral damage is the knock-on effect of losing a cow to poaching. One rhino cow not only removes her from the population but also all potential future rhinos birthed by her – which could be as many as a dozen. Births of Kruger southern white rhinos are estimated at over 900 per anum for 2013 and 2014; by 2017 they are down to just above 300 … That’s a dramatic drop and an indicator surely that things do not look good. If you factor in the drought that has plagued the region, and the impact that will have had on rhino births and natural deaths, we suspect that the current figures would shock us if they were revealed.

Does releasing rhino numbers benefit poachers?

A senior SAPS officer pulled us aside after a STROOP screening last year and pleaded with us to stop asking for the census results to be released. This person said that census results would educate poachers, and that information like this is, therefore, not for public consumption. Trust us, we get that, and we left a LOT out of STROOP for that very reason. But we also know what convicted poachers tell us – that the poaching syndicates have their tentacles stretching way into government’s bureaucratic system – they have full knowledge of how many and where the rhinos are. Also, it’s absurd to think that the public shouldn’t know living rhino numbers for safety reasons, because the IUCN’s African Rhino Specialist Group publishes living rhino numbers every three years and so do scientific journals on the internet, which is where this information is from.

“Rhino conservation targets are set around rhino population sizes and growth rates; it is important to survey populations frequently to detect statistical changes… and assessing the effectiveness of current management.” – Dr Sam Ferreira, Large Mammal Ecologist, SANParks -read more here.

What concerns us is the general perception that the DEFF announcement attempts to create and that major news media outlets and social media commentators broadcast without any research – that we can ease off the accelerator now that we are “winning the war on poaching”. We most certainly are not winning; the above graphs make that obvious.

We need to support the real heroes who risk life and limb every day of their lives to keep our rhinos safe. Our rangers, police, prosecutors, vets, private owners, orphan rehabbers deserve more than this.

Kruger National Park census from helicopter ©Susan Scott

Baboon kidnaps lion cub

The baboon was seen grooming the cub © Kurt Safari

Baboon sightings in the Kruger National Park in South Africa are always entertaining but visitors watching one particular baboon troop experienced far more than expected when they realized that one of the baboons was clutching a tiny lion cub – no older than four weeks old. The male baboon carried the small cub around, climbing into a nearby tree and grooming and caressing the little cub as he might have done with a young member of his troop.

According to witnesses, the baboons were initially extremely excited about the presence of the cub. They fought over it for an extended period before the young male emerged victorious to play with his prize. It is a known fact that baboons are a potential threat to the offspring of most predators – lions and leopards included. Still, it is extremely unusual for these moments to be observed or photographed.

The male baboon carrying the lion cub © Kurt Safari

The photographs were captured by Kurt Schultz of Kurt Safari, who escaped his company office in Hazyview for some time spent with his camera in the Kruger National Park, unaware of the extraordinary experience awaiting him. He describes how in an area of large granite hills and boulders known to be a preferred spot for lion and leopard den sites, he encountered a troop of baboons and tourists in another vehicle informed him that they believed that there was a lion cub amongst the baboons.

He waited patiently until one of the baboons emerged with the cub, which he initially believed to be dead. As the male baboon carried it into the tree and moved from branch to branch, the cub stirred, and he realized that it was alive, albeit weak and exhausted. Although Kurt did not spot any visible injuries, he does not dismiss the possibility that the cub had internal injuries. What struck Kurt was how gentle the male baboon was with the cub and how he was grooming it. In his twenty years of guiding experience, he has been witness to baboons killing leopard and lion cubs but had never seen care and attention being given.

Pragmatically, Kurt acknowledges that the lion cub did not have a chance of survival. By 8 am it was 30 degrees Celcius and a lion cub that young would dehydrate quickly, even if the baboons did not harm it further.

Says Kurt, “This will remain one of my most interesting sightings. Naturally, one cares for the lion cub and would want it to grow up and live a wild and free life, but nature has its own ways, and we cannot get involved. We need to keep Kruger simple and wild – true to the wishes of Stevenson Hamilton: that nature should wander freely, and people remain in their vehicles.”

Kurt Safari offers one to five-day safaris into the Kruger National Park, operating mostly in southern and central Kruger. Based in Hazyview and operating mainly with Umbhaba Eco Lodge, they provide their clients with quality and educational safaris. With top safari guides from the local Hazyview community and a modern fleet of 23 vehicles, the company is rated number 1 on TripAdvisor for Kruger Park safaris.

Iona NP in Angola joins African Parks

The Angola Government and African Parks have signed a management agreement for the vast 15,200 km² (1,5 million hectares) Iona National Park, initiating their first partnership to ensure the long-term protection of one of the country’s largest protected areas. Iona is an iconic southern Angolan desert landscape, extending from its Atlantic coastline over dunes, plains and mountains.

“We are excited for what the future holds for Iona National Park, by partnering with African Parks to enhance park management and restore this landscape for the benefit of wildlife and people,” said Aristófanes Romão da Cunha Pontes, Director General of the National Institute of Biodiversity and Conservation Areas (INBAC). “Our vision is to showcase the natural wonders that Angola has to offer and for people to come from all over and experience this globally significant region of the planet”.

Situated in the Namib desert in the south-west corner of Angola, its stark 160-km shoreline abutting the Atlantic Ocean, Iona is one of Africa’s most sublime wilderness areas with rich terrestrial and offshore ecosystems. The sand and gravel plains at its centre are bordered by mountains reaching heights of 2,000 metres in the east and dunes that run the length of its coastline in the west. Fed by two bordering rivers, the Cunene and Curoca, the park contains extensive woodlands and is inhabited by cheetah and leopard, herds of Oryx, springbok and Hartmann’s zebra, ostrich, endemic reptiles and is the principal habitat to one of the world’s most ancient plants, Welwitschia mirabilis.

“This is a visionary step for conservation in Angola, and we are exceptionally proud to be partnering with the Government and helping them to manage this stunning national asset,” said Peter Fearnhead, CEO of African Parks. “This is a tremendous commitment from the Government”.

African Parks is grateful to The International Conservation Caucus Foundation for the catalytic role that they played. The ICCF Group acts as the private-sector coordinator for the Angolan Ministry of Environment, to attract private-sector investments in ecotourism and protected areas. Susan Lylis, The ICCF Group Executive Vice President, said: “We are thrilled to see this landmark agreement for the co-management of Iona National Park, which we believe will lead to transformational outcomes for community development and conservation, and allow Iona to become a shining model throughout the region”.

Iona National Park is regionally important, forming part of a trans-frontier conservation area (TFCA) with the Skeleton Coast National Park in Namibia. Historically, the park was inhabited by rhino and elephant, but both of these species have become locally extinct, and other wildlife have been depleted. Unregulated human activities from settlements on the periphery and within the park, including the grazing of livestock, are placing pressure on its ecosystems.

African Parks and the Government of Angola will work closely with the local communities, implement proper law enforcement, and restore wildlife to ensure the long-term ecological, social and economic sustainability of Iona. Its spectacular mountainous, desert and coastal topography make this trans-frontier area globally unique, giving the park enormous potential with sufficient investment to emerge as one of the continent’s most extraordinary landscape experiences. With adequate conservation and the optimisation of tourism and other sustainable revenue-generating activities, Iona will continue to support healthy terrestrial and marine ecosystems to benefit people long into the future.

About African Parks: African Parks is a non-profit conservation organisation that takes on the complete responsibility for the rehabilitation and long-term management of national parks in partnership with governments and local communities. With the largest counter-poaching force and the most amount of area under protection for anyone NGO in Africa, African Parks manages 17 national parks and protected areas in 11 countries covering 13.5 million hectares in Angola, Benin, Central African Republic, Chad, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Republic of Congo, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. For more information visit www.africanparks.org, Twitter, Instagram and Facebook

Photographer of the Year 2020 Weekly Selection: Week 9 – Gallery 1

Our Photographer of the Year 2020 is now in full swing and open for submissions!
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here: Gallery 2

? A leopard leaps between branches. Serengeti National Park, Tanzania © Alice van Kempen

? A male village weaver on the lookout for any potentially interested females. Mara North Conservancy, Kenya © Alison Mees

? A pangolin tastes freedom after being rescued from poachers and released. Malawi © Amanda Harwood

? Herding cattle creates a dusty sunset. Southern Tanzania © Andrea Kaucka

? A spotted bush snake digesting a frog. uMkhuze Game Reserve, South Africa © Arnaud Legrand

? A browsing gerenuk. Selenkay Conservancy, Kenya © Boone Thompson

? Mating pair of lions. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Boone Thomson

? Yellow-billed oxpecker and buffalo. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Boone Thomson

? Zebras backtrack after spotting a lion on the other side of the river during a crossing with wildebeest. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Boone Thomson

? Elderly Mursi tribeswoman. Omo Valley, Ethiopia © Bruce Miller

? Silhouetted Cape darter. Chobe River, Botswana © Cheryl Cranfield

? Bark mantid. Harare, Zimbabwe © Chris Sheppard

? Giraffe drinking at sunset. Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa © Darren Donovan

? A pale chanting goshawk plucking its francolin meal. Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa © Darren Donovan

? Black-backed jackal feeding on an elephant carcass. Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa © Darren Donovan

? An agitated white rhino bull. South Africa © Darren Donovan

? A water monitor resting on a tree. Chobe River, Botswana © Erwin van Liempd

? A little bee-eater tossing an insect into the air. Maputo, Mozambique © Eurico Dzivane

? A white-winged widowbird male displaying to a female. Maputo, Mozambique © Eurico Dzivane

? A gelada baboon (also known as a bleeding-heart monkey) yawning. Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia © Franciscus Scheelings

? An African black oystercatcher in flight. Eersterivier Beach, Eastern Cape, South Africa © Gerbus Vermaak

? A tiny leopard cub goes exploring. Mashatu Game Reserve, Botswana © Michael Heyns

? A tidal pool rich in life and colour. Bloubergstrand, Western Cape, South Africa © Peet J. van Eeden

Photographer of the Year 2020 Weekly Selection: Week 9 – Gallery 2

Our Photographer of the Year 2020 competition, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing and open for submissions!
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here: Gallery 1

? Scarface, one of the legendary lions of Africa. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Karen van der Kolk

? A southern red-billed hornbill with its bat meal. Manyeleti Game Reserve, South Africa © Katja Voth

? A female mountain gorilla with its infant. Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda © Kevin Dooley

? An impressive male lion surveys the area. Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania © Kevin Dooley

? A Knysna turaco coming in to land. Kenton on Sea, Eastern Cape, South Africa © Mike Pearson

? A view from the top of the Drakensberg Amphitheatre. Royal Natal National Park, South Africa © Raymond Graves

? A baboon spider strikes a pose. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Ryno Jones

? Male hippos fight for territory. South Luangwa National Park, Zambia © Sandy Hickey

? Black-backed jackal pups at the entrance to their burrow. Serengeti National Park, Tanzania © Sonja Metzger

? An African rock python takes a large, impressive yawn before disappearing into the grass. Amboseli National Park, Kenya © Tim Nicklin

? The famous coalition of five cheetahs, known as the Five Musketeers or Fast Five, take a stroll through the plains. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Xavier Ortega

? A crash of white rhino gathers for a drink around a waterhole, along with a black-backed jackal. South Africa © Zac Dykstra

? A southern carmine bee-eater. Okavango Delta, Botswana © Dave Richards

? A waterbuck at first light. Chobe National Park, Botswana © Erwin van Liempd

? A red-knobbed coot collects building materials for its nest. Springs, South Africa © Gerbus Vermaak

? Himba dancing beneath the Milky Way. Epupa, Kunene Region, Namibia © Ben McRae

? A spotted hyena catches an eland calf. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, Botswana © Hilda Le Roux

? Male lion takes down a buffalo cow. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Hilda Le Roux

? A warthog and red-billed oxpecker. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Hilda Le Roux

? A lion and the rising sun. Ol Pejeta Conservancy, Kenya © Jane Gross

? Crocodile reflection. Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania © Josef Friedhuber

? A hippo, fish and a crocodile. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Karen van der Kolk

Humans not always to blame for genetic diversity loss in wildlife

ZSL-led study shows genetic differences in African lions likely caused by ecological rather than human factors.

DECODING SCIENCE by Zoological Society of London

Conservationists should be wary of assuming that genetic diversity loss in wildlife is always caused by humans, as new research published today by international conservation charity ZSL (Zoological Society of London) reveals that, in the case of a population of southern African lions (Panthera leo), it’s likely caused by ecological rather than human factors.

Published in Animal Conservation today (28 January 2020) the study saw researchers from ZSL’s Institute of Zoology and Imperial College London analyse the genetic diversity of 149 African lions in the KAZA (Kavango–Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area) in northern Botswana between 2010 to 2013.

While human impacts are the leading cause of genetic diversity loss in many cases, scientists studying the lions found that diversity loss across the population was instead caused by the lions’ need to adapt to differing habitats.

They identified two genetically different populations of lions in the region, each adapted to living in a distinct habitat type; the so-called ‘wetland lions’ residing in the wetland habitat in the Okavango Delta and a ‘dryland lions’ group living in the semi-arid habitat of the Kalahari Desert.

If a separate population is created but cut off from its original source group due to ecological or human barriers, over time there will be less gene flow from lack of breeding between the populations. While a larger more connected population would generally have greater genetic diversity, small amounts of movement between them can maintain diversity while preserving adaptations that allow them to thrive in two different environments. Though not different enough to be classified as separate sub-species and still having slight genetic movement between the populations, it suggests a phenomenon called phenotypic plasticity – animals adapting in various ways to suit the environment they’re in.

Ensuring wildlife conservation managers understand how a population becomes genetically fragmented is important in order that decisions regarding protection are well-informed and consider animals’ true needs.

Dr Simon Dures, lead author and ZSL Researcher explained: “The findings have important applications for wildlife managers across Africa. It means translocations of animals, post human-wildlife conflict for example, need to be carefully considered with regards to their genetic predisposition to their new environment.

Map fo KAZA and lion populations © simondures.com ZSL

“The distinct ‘wetland lion’ populations living in the Okavango are incredibly well adapted to their environment. They’re strong swimmers and seem to thrive in water chasing buffalo down for a kill – which is the opposite for other lions in Africa, which would not typically hunt in water. Moving these animals into a semi-arid environment could be detrimental to their survival.

“Animals need to be able to move freely in order to maintain a level of genetic diversity that builds resilience to changes in their environment caused by climate change, and we think this ecologically-induced separation of the lions pre-dates western Europeans colonisation of southern Africa, so has likely been developing for a long time; way before people came with their fences and hunting.

“Although we didn’t find humans to be the driving force here – it doesn’t mean to say they aren’t having any effect. Impacts such as persecution or increased development could lead to exacerbating inbreeding and threatening the future of these specially adapted lions.”

Full Report: S. G. Dures, C. Carbone. V. Savolainen, G. Maude, D. Gotelli, Ecology rather than people restrict gene flow in Okavango-Kalahari lions. 2019. Animal Conservation

To find out more about ZSL’s Institute of Zoology research, see www.zsl.org/science

Understanding Malaria

Malaria is a parasitic disease that attacks red blood cells and is usually spread by the female Anopheles mosquito. Although the implications of being infected with malaria can be severe, the likelihood of tourists in Africa being infected is extremely low if good advice from travel experts is followed, and simple precautions are taken.

Introduction

Malaria is a mosquito-transmitted infectious disease caused by parasites belonging to the Plasmodium genus. The female Anopheles mosquito transmits these single-celled organisms into the human bloodstream where they begin their full life and reproductive cycle, first in the liver and later in the red blood cells. ‘Uncomplicated’ malaria symptoms include high fever, headaches, body aches, nausea and diarrhoea (though not always), and a feeling of extreme fatigue, but ‘severe’ or ‘complicated’ cases can result in coma, seizures and death.

P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale and P. malariae are the most common species of Plasmodium mosquitos that cause malaria in humans, and medical professionals must confirm which species has been responsible for the infection. Typically, P. falciparum and P. vivax are considered to be more dangerous, but all malarial infections should be treated as a medical emergency. While many people consider cerebral malaria to be a different type of malaria, it is typically caused by a severe infection of P. falciparum that has gone untreated for an extended period.

Which African countries are high risk?

Malaria is present in the majority of African countries, but its geographic distribution is complicated by several different factors, meaning that malaria-free and malaria-risk areas can occur in close proximity and risk levels can be seasonal. The highest risk areas tend to be around the equator, as warm and humid temperatures in high rainfall areas favour transmission. As per the CDC, malaria transmission does not occur at very high altitudes, in deserts away from oases and in areas where eradication programs have successfully eliminated the risk. In temperatures below 20˚C, the parasite cannot complete the necessary growth cycle in the mosquito before transmission.

Every year, the Malaria Atlas Project works in conjunction with the World Health Organization to produce the World Malaria Report with the necessary, updated information about the distribution of malaria and where outbreaks could be anticipated. An up-to-date and interactive map can be found here.

Avoid being bitten

It’s impossible to avoid every single mosquito bite, no matter how diligent you are, but there are a few tips to avoid being bitten wherever possible:

travel during low-risk seasons – the dry and cool months;
use insect repellent;
cover legs and arms with long-sleeved shirts and trousers, particularly at night;
sleep under a mosquito net in an air-conditioned or well-screened room and, if possible, sleep with a fan on;
avoid standing water that may breed mosquitoes.

Preventative Prophylactics

Due to the complexity of the malarial plasmid life cycle, there is no widely available or effective vaccine available against malaria, though there are vaccines at differing stages of clinical development and trial.

There are several prophylaxis medications available, and many different factors should be considered in choosing an appropriate one. Most important is to follow the advice of a doctor, who should be up to date on personal medical history, as well as which medications are more effective for different strains of malaria. All of these medications are to be commenced before the date of travel to a malaria area and continued after the traveller has returned.

Some of the more common options include:

Atovaquone-profuanil (Malarone) – must be taken daily at the same time of day;
Doxycycline – taken daily at the same time of day;
Mefloquine – taken once a week on the same day of the week;
Chloroquine phosphate or hydroxychloroquine sulfate (Plaquenil) – taken once a week on the same day of the week but effective only in certain areas.

As with any medications, these medications all have their potential side effects that should always be discussed with a doctor beforehand, including nausea, insomnia and photosensitivity (when taking doxycycline). Most side effects are infrequent and generally do not necessitate discontinuing the drug.

Pregnant women and parents of young children need to be particularly cautious if travelling to a malaria area and it essential to combine both the prophylaxis (some options are safe in both pregnancy and for infants) with active preventative measures.

Treatment

With malaria, early detection is critical. The disease typically presents with symptoms between one to three weeks after exposure, but in extremely rare cases, prophylaxis drugs have delayed symptoms for a few months. It is essential for anyone who has travelled to a malaria area to seek medical advice immediately if they display any malaria symptoms and fully explain their travel history. While home tests are available, it is essential to note that due to the complexity of the malaria life cycle, these tests can yield false-negative results. Even if a home test shows a positive result, it is still necessary to seek medical attention so that the species of malaria and seriousness of infection can be confirmed via a blood test-particularly since certain strains of drug-resistant malaria require specific treatment. It is also critical to complete the course of medication prescribed to avoid the risk of reinfection, regardless of whether or not symptoms are still present.

Akagera NP (Rwanda) tourism revenue up 25%

The success story of Akagera National Park continues as this year, Rwanda’s only Big 5 reserve reported a 25% growth in revenue for 2019 – $2.5 million. A successful partnership with the non-profit conservation organisation African Parks, secured in 2010, has seen the number of visitors to the park grow each successive year. 2019 saw 49, 000 visitors to Akagera and, as in previous years, 48% of these visitors were Rwandan citizens.

As with any National Reserve, any growth in revenue is significant and Akagera Park management report that the revenue received accounts for 90% of their annual visitors. $525,000 of the 2019 revenue was directed back into the local communities, either through staff salaries or through local purchases.

It is not just visitor numbers that have increased over the years – monitoring programs and aerial counts have shown that animal numbers are on the rise as well, with overall numbers rising from 12,000 in 2017 to 13,500 in 2019. Seven lions were reintroduced to the park in 2015, having been relocated from South Africa and eighteen black rhinos were moved from South Africa to Akagera in 2017. Four months after the relocation of the rhino, the birth of first rhino calf in the wild in over a decade was recorded, and the arrival of the rhino completed Akagera’s “Big 5 status”. A further five rhino arrived from a zoo in the Czech Republic in 2019, increasing tourist interest in the park.

Sarah Hall, who is the Tourism and Marketing Manager at Akagera National Park, told Rwanda’s The New Times that increased revenue meant several improvements including a tar road from Kabarondo to make access to the reserve easier for the guests. She also noted that the reserve had seen an increase in visitors from Francophone countries.

For a relatively small country with a complicated history, the success of Akagera National Park under the management of African Parks is a triumph of conservation efforts and, as the wildlife benefits, so will the local communities.

Lions have been re-introduced to Akagera © Jytte Fredholm Ferreira

Photographer of the Year 2020 Weekly Selection: Week 8 – Gallery 1

Our Photographer of the Year 2020 competition is now in full swing and open for submissions!
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here: Gallery 2, Gallery 3

One of the male lions that forms part of a coalition that dominates the Ngwehla area. Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe © Riaan Olivier

? This male lion is a member of a coalition that dominates the Ngwehla area. Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe © Riaan Olivier

A gathering of elephants. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Kevin Dooley

? A gathering of elephants in. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Kevin Dooley

? Serra da Leba mountain pass near Lubango, Angola © Evan Naude

? Black mamba catching the morning glow of the sun before setting off on her morning hunt. Maun, Botswana © Mark Flatt

? Southern ground-hornbill with a caterpillar. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Robert Holmwood

An impala attempts to jump away from a painted wolf (African wild dog). Moremi Game Reserve, Botswana © Fabio Vegetti

? An impala leaps high to escape a painted wolf (African wild dog). Moremi Game Reserve, Botswana © Fabio Vegetti

? “There is danger in the mud”. A crocodile opens its eyes while resting in a muddy pool. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

? Leopard brothers playing on the rocks. Samburu National Reserve, Kenya © Trish Hennessy

? On the crater’s rim. Mount Nyiragongo, DR Congo © Susana Silvestre

? Up close of a leopard’s paw and claws while it holds down an impala. Mashatu Game Reserve, Botswana © Zaheer Ali

? Two elephants crossing paths create an intriguing visual effect. Etosha National Park, Namibia © Jeff Harrisberg

? A purple heron with a gecko. Lake Panic, Kruger National Park, South Africa © Leon Heyes

Detailed shot of a zebra's nose and mouth. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Dominique Maree

? Detailed shot of a zebra’s muzzle. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Dominique Maree

? Lions fight over an impala carcass. Chobe National Park, Botswana © Francis Bompard

? Backlit shot of a spotted hyena as it moves in to feed on a zebra carcass. Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa © Rupert Bridgman

? Elephants heading towards the water. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Sophie Brown

Battersby green snake coming down a palm tree in Karura Forest. Nairobi, Kenya © Tim Nicklin

? Battersby’s green snake (Philothamnus battersbyi) descending a palm tree in Karura Forest. Nairobi, Kenya © Tim Nicklin

? Spotted hyena cub emerges from a den into the golden light. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Willem Kruger

? Maasai man gathering wood in a desolate landscape, near Serengeti National Park, Tanzania © Alice van Kempen

? A scenic flight above the ‘Eye of Sahara’. Chinguetti, Mauritania © Miguel Bruno

Baby elephant resting between its mother's feet. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

? Baby elephant resting between his mother’s feet. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

? Exploring the dunes in Sossusvlei. Namib Desert, Namibia © Chanèl Rossouw

? The magical spectacle of light and colour at sunset at the Avenue of the Baobabs. Madagascar © Kim Paffen

? Cheetah brothers look out into the valley. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Yarin Klein

Photographer of the Year 2020 Weekly Selection: Week 8 – Gallery 2

Our Photographer of the Year 2020 competition, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing and open for submissions!
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here: Gallery 1, Gallery 3

? A spotted hyena attempts to get her cub into the den. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Anna-Carina Nagel

? A purple-crested turaco in flight. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Dave Pusey

? An endless sea of wildebeest during the Great Migration. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Ross Cooper

? White-backed vulture. Chobe National Park, Botswana © Tanya Nadauld

A very young elephant calf attempt to suckle from its mother. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

? A very young elephant calf suckling from his mother. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

? Lioness and cub feeding. Central Kalahari Game Reserve, Botswana © Eben van Heerden

A yellow-billed hornbill displays a perfect reflection at a waterhole. Indlovu River Lodge Private Game Reserve, Greater Kruger, South Africa © Braeme Holland

? A yellow-billed hornbill displays a perfect reflection at a waterhole. Indlovu River Lodge Private Game Reserve, South Africa © Braeme Holland

? Buffaloes in the dust at sunset. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Willem Kruger

? Cheetah feasting on a wildebeest kill. Ndutu, Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania© Matrishva Vyas

? Dark silhouettes of dead trees against the light of sunset in Deadvlei, Namibia © Linda Klipp

? Up close with a southern ground-hornbill. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Kyle Lewin

? Boomslang (tree snake) makes a surprise visit to a garden at a holiday resort on the KwaZulu-Natal South Coast, South Africa © Leon Heyes.

A spotted hyena cub looking after its sibling. Timbavati Game Reserve, South Africa © Tina Antrobus

? A spotted hyena cub looking after its younger sibling. Timbavati Game Reserve, South Africa © Tina Antrobus

? Wildebeest giving birth. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa © Hilda Le Roux

? Baglafecht weavers use colourful string from fisherman to build their nests. Lake Naivasha, Kenya © Deborah Hill

? Close-up of a green tree frog. Odzala-Kokoua National Park, Republic of Congo © Liam Charlton

A young baboon quenches his thirst at a waterhole. Indlovu River Lodge Private Game Reserve, Greater Kruger, South Africa © Braeme Holland

? A young baboon quenches his thirst at a waterhole. Indlovu River Lodge Private Game Reserve, South Africa © Braeme Holland

Male and female Standing's day gecko on a baobab tree. Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park, Madagascar © Kim Paffen

? A spotted hyena feeds on a buffalo. The buffalo was killed by lions, which where chased away by the hyenas. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

African rock python. Lephalale, Limpopo Province, South Africa © Ryno Jones

A leopard observes guests on game-viewing vehicle a few metres away from him. Sabi Sands Private Game Reserve, South Africa © Zaheer Ali

? A leopard observes guests on a game-viewing vehicle a few metres away from him. Sabi Sands Private Game Reserve, South Africa © Zaheer Ali

Lion cub resting in the late afternoon sun. Greater Kruger National Park, South Africa © Katja Voth

A juvenile pale chanting goshawk takes off with elephant dung, and attempts to extract worms from it. Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa © Braeme Holland

? A juvenile pale chanting goshawk takes off with elephant dung, which it was searching for worms. Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa © Braeme Holland

African hummingbird hawk-moth drinking nectar from a flower. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Morne Grobler

Elephant taking a swim. Mashatu Game Reserve, Botswana © Kevin Dooley

Photographer of the Year 2020 Weekly Selection: Week 8 – Gallery 3

An elephant family herd at a waterhole. Mashatu Game Reserve, Botswana © Kevin Dooley

A nomad in the Chinguitti Desert, Mauritania © Miguel Bruno

Bickering helmeted guineafowl. Karongwe Private Nature Reserve, South Africa, South Africa © Willem Kruger

A European bee-eater attempts to catch a moth for his meal. Cape Town, South Africa © Braeme Holland

Eye to eye with a scrub hare. Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa © Braeme Holland

A leopard focuses on a baby vervet monkey after it was accidentaly left behind by the mother after the troop escaped the big cat. Okavango Delta, Botswana © Thomas Retterath

? A leopard focuses on a baby vervet monkey left behind by the mother when the troop fled from the big cat. Okavango Delta, Botswana © Thomas Retterath

A spotted bush snake. Sabi Sands Private Game Reserve, South Africa © Rod Watson

? White-headed buffalo weaver lies in a defensive pose after a scuffle amongst the flock. Serengeti National Park, Tanzania © Matrishva Vyas

A mating pair of lions. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Manuel Nägele

Great white pelican preening. Walvis Bay, Namibia © Anthony Roberts

? A mother baboon drinks from the muddy water at Long Pool. The head of the baby looks like it is in the mud, but actually, there is a hollow of dried mud behind the water. Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe © Jens Cullmann

A spotted hyena walks through the plain after the first rains. Liuwa Plain National Park, Zambia © Daniela Anger

? Bull elephants in musth fight for dominance. This tussle lasted for over an hour. Mara North Conservancy, Kenya © Alison Mees

One of the four cheetah cubs rests after feeding on a large male impala that their mother killed. Mashatu Game Reserve. Botswana © Deborah Jordan

? One of the four cheetah cubs rests after feeding on a large male impala that their mother had killed. Mashatu Game Reserve. Botswana © Deborah Jordan

A muddy buffalo in the dying light of the day. Savuti, Botswana © Erwin van Liempd

Cape cobra (Naja nivea). Montagu, Western Cape, South Africa © Tyrone Ping

An elephant calf attempt to give itself a dust bath. Nxai Pan National Park, Botswana © Didier Couvert

A Malagasy giant chameleon crossing the street on a road along the Bay of Diego-Suarez in Madagascar © Kim Paffen

? A leopard cub under the watchful eye of its mother. Londolozi Nature Reserve, Greater Kruger National Park, South Africa © Willem Kruger

A tiger snake. Lephalale, South Africa © Ryno Jones

Wildebeest migration routes under threat – researchers

DECODING SCIENCE POST by AG Editorial

Researchers have conducted a lengthy pre-published study indicating that the lesser-known wildebeest migration patterns throughout East Africa are facing grave peril. The scientists point to population growth resulting in: range restriction, degradation and loss of habitats, agriculture, poaching and artificial barriers such as roads and fences. They highlight the necessity of urgent conservation measures and commitment from the governments of both Kenya and Tanzania.

The study examined migrations in 5 different ecosystems. 1 = Serengeti Ecosystem, 2 = Maasai Mara Ecosystem, 3 = Narok County, 4 = Athi-Kaputiei Ecosystem, 5 = Machakos County, 6 = Greater Amboseli Ecosystem, 7 = West Kajiado and 8 = Tarangire – Manyara Ecosystem © F. Msoffe et al

Understanding migration

The yearly Great Migration of over a million white-bearded wildebeest and zebra through the Serengeti and Maasai Mara ecosystems is perhaps the most renowned large mammal migration and generates enormous tourism revenue. Importantly, the study notes that these populations are not under threat, and their movements are mostly unrestricted. However, poaching is still a challenge for conservation authorities. Though by far the largest, this is not the only wildebeest migration in East Africa. The scientists emphasise that conserving smaller populations and migrations is essential for several ecological and socio-economic reasons.

Protecting a migratory route involves complex analysis of the context in terms of the human populations of the land. Integral to this study was research into historical wildebeest migration patterns as well as their current status. Researchers attained historical information through literature reviews, colonial-era records, maps, GIS databases, records of GPS collared wildebeest and interviews with residents and researchers alike. For current movements and status information, 36 wildebeest across the study range were collared, and their movement tracked for two years. Wildebeest population estimates used external data compiled by aerial surveys and various governmental, development and wildlife organisations provided the data on the anthropogenic aspects of the analysis.

Population trends of migratory wildebeest populations: a) Serengeti-Mara ecosystem, b) Maasai Mara ecosystem, c) Narok County, d) Athi-Kaputiei ecosystem, e) Machakos County, f) Greater Amboseli ecosystem, g) West Kajiado and h) Tarangire-Manyara ecosystem © F. Msoffe et al

Disappearing wildebeest

This approach was made all the more complicated by the fact that irreversible changes to the migratory populations and routes that occurred as early as the beginning of the 20th century. With this in mind, scientists examined the Serengeti-Mara, Maasai-Mara, Athi-Kaputiei, Amboseli Basin and Tarangire-Manyara ecosystems and came to the following conclusions:

Serengeti-Mara – as discussed, though the migratory routes have changed slightly, the numbers have remained stable (currently around 1.3 million animals) because the migratory pathways occur mostly within protected areas. Referred to by researchers as ‘southern migration.’
Maasai-Mara – during the dry season (July-October) as the Serengeti wildebeest move north into the Maasai Mara, wildebeest from the Loita Plains descend to the conservancies surrounding the Maasai Mara National Reserve. Their numbers have declined 80.9%, from 123,930 wildebeest in 1977-78 to less than 20,000 in 2016. Referred to by researchers as ‘northern migration’.
Athi-Kaputiei ecosystem – includes Nairobi National Park, Athi Plains and surrounding areas. This population has declined 95% from over 26,800 in 1977-78 to under 3,000 in 2014, leading to a “virtual collapse of the migration”. It is important to note here that researchers believe that many of these wildebeest have moved, rather than died in such enormous numbers.
Amboseli Basin – includes Amboseli National Park and surrounding pastoral lands in Kajiado County. The population of the Amboseli ecosystem declined 84.5% from 16,290 in 1977-78 to 2,375 by 2014.
Tarangire-Manyara ecosystem – incorporates both national parks and private conservancies in Tanzania. The population declined from 48,783 in 1990 to 13,603 in 2016 and shows no signs of recovery.

As can be seen from the above, four out of the five studied migrations are at the point of disappearing completely, particularly the Athi-Kaputiei population. As wildebeest numbers have dropped, the human populations have soared: a 673% increase in Narok County (including Loita Plains), 905% in Kajiado County (Incorporating the Amboseli Basin), and a 247% increase in Machakos Country – all from 1962 to 2009. Increased human numbers means increased agriculture, increased sedentarisation and settlement of formerly semi-nomadic populations, and more fences and roads that occlude grazing resources and routes. In Kenya, the increase of private land ownership has changed the game, and in Tanzania the Game Controlled Areas have been cultivated.

The study expressed frustration at what the researchers describe as “incoherent government development policies that promote incompatible land uses, such as promoting cultivation pastoral rangelands occupied by wildlife to combat food insecurity while also promoting wildlife-based tourism in the same areas”. In Kenya, landowners do not have access or user rights over the wild animals on their land and are often offered no compensation for the cost of supporting wildlife. While there are several changes in policy and legal framework, none of these has been adequately implemented.

Hope going forward

The study acknowledges the existing governmental and conservation efforts in both Kenya and Tanzania that have gone some way towards mitigating the effects of expansive population growth, particularly in the development of policies on corridors, dispersal areas and buffer zones to create habitat connectivity. The researchers highlight the system of conservancies within Kenya – private landowners (either individually or as an amalgamation) rent out large sections of land to tourism operators for game viewing. In Kenya, around 65% of wildlife occurs outside of protected areas, so the rapid growth in popularity of conservancies is a positive development. They do, however, require a sustainable tourism potential. In Tanzania, the creation of the Tanzania Wildlife Authority as well as the reorganisation of the entire wildlife sector into paramilitary-style organisations to intensify the fight against run-away poaching, have both been positive steps. However, these efforts need to be enhanced by economic incentives to communities.

“The Kenyan and Tanzanian governments need to strongly promote and lead the conservation of the remaining key wildebeest habitats, migration corridors and populations and more conservancies or management areas should be established to protect migratory routes or corridors, buffer zones, dispersal areas and calving grounds for the species.” The plight of the white-bearded wildebeest is one that represents a far more significant challenge facing the wildlife of Africa.

Full report: Wildebeest migration in East Africa: Status, threats and conservation measures
Fortunata Msoffe, Joseph Ogutu, Mohammed Said, Shem Kifugo, Jan de Leeuw, Paul Van Gardigen, Robin Reid, JA Staback, Randall Boone – hosted by bioRxiv

Who is who? Elephant identification tips and tricks

DECODING SCIENCE written by Dr Julie Kern from Elephants Alive

How many large-tusked bulls remain in the APNR? How socially connected are different population members? How successful are human-elephant conflict mitigation methods? These questions are all examples of key research objectives for Elephants Alive. If at first glance you think these questions have little in common, look again, and you’ll see they all rely on a key piece of information – who’s who.

Identifying elephant bulls falls under the umbrella of the ID Study and is Elephants Alive’s longest-running project, having begun in 1996. Since then, the team have identified almost 1,500 individual bulls. Identifying elephants requires excellent observation skills and the team pay special attention to any noticeable physical features which differ between individuals, from tusk configuration and body appearance to characteristic ear patterns, such as notches, tears and holes. Using photographs collected at each sighting, identikits are drawn for each individual elephant and subsequently used to identify the individuals seen in the field. If you’re keen to hone your detective skills, read on for our selection of top elephant-identification tips and tricks to use at your next sighting.

State the obvious

Many individuals have startling body features which can make their identification quick and simple. Look out for collapsed or folded ears, missing tails or trunk tips, and the location of scars or lumps.

Also, take note of the tusks – any birdwatchers will be familiar with the acronym ‘GISS’ or ‘general impression of size and shape’, a rule which also holds true in this case. Are they short or long, thin or thick, straight, splayed or skew? Are both tusks present, and if not, is one broken at the base or missing altogether? When missing entirely, the tusk socket is conspicuously empty (below far right).

Elephants with various tusk shapes — © Elephants Alive

Play it by ear

Once you’ve checked the more obvious features, it’s time to take a closer look at an elephant’s ears. If there are any tears, notches or holes, pay attention to their location, size and shape. Unfortunately, many individuals have few notches and holes in their ears, especially younger elephants, which makes them much harder to identify. In this case, you can often find a clue to their identity by noting venation patterns on the ears.

Elephants with ear identification — © Elephants Alive

The signs they are a-changin’

Once you’ve got the hang of it, it’s worth remembering that much like ourselves, an elephant’s physical features are likely to change over time as tusks break, another tear appears, or holes pull through leaving a notch in their place. Take Kierie-Klapper (below), a young bull first seen in 2005 and resighted in most years since. In 2013 a new hole appeared in his lower left ear, and earlier this year, another notch was added to the top of his right ear.

Elephants with ear changes over the years — © Elephants Alive

Elephants Alive has recently published an Elephant ID Guide in conjunction with Amarula, featuring 30 of the most iconic individuals in the APNR. If you’re interested in purchasing a copy or if you have photographs from your own sightings that you’d like to add to our Citizen Sightings database, please forward them to info2u@elephantsalive.org.

Trophy hunting: rural communities respond

Africa’s rural communities live with wild animals and should have a greater say in how wildlife is managed © Simon Espley

OPINION POST by Ishmael Chaukura and others

Below is a Communities Response letter by Ishmael Chaukura of the Masoka Community in Zimbabwe, along with a number of concerned parties from 4 southern African countries. It was originally published in Science Magazine in response to an article calling for trophy hunting bans and also references Amy Dickman’s answer to that same article. According to the representative of the Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) in Zimbabwe, it “is vital to ensure that discussions on conservation are informed by those who live with wildlife and that their livelihoods are protected, and rights upheld”:

trophy hunting — An elephant crosses the fence separating a northern Botswana national park and community land © Elephants for Africa

Dear Sir/Madam

A recent letter in Science by Dickman et al about trophy hunting unleashed passionate debate in the Western media. These discussions have involved over 400 conservationists, academics and animal rights advocates from the US, Europe and Australia, voicing strong, if divergent, opinions on effective conservation strategies.

Much of the discussion focuses on Africa, but with the notable exception of Dickman et al’s letter, key voices missing from the debate are those of rural people and governments who live with and manage African wildlife, and who will ultimately determine its future. As legitimate representatives of many thousands of people from key wildlife range states (Botswana, Namibia, Zimbabwe and Zambia), we would like to correct this and have our perspective and voices heard.

Sustainably managing megafauna is complex, and successful conservation must start with we who live directly with wildlife. Whilst many in the West view elephants, lions and other wildlife through a romantic, idealized lens, our daily reality of living with these magnificent and valued, yet often dangerous, animals requires more pragmatism.

We, who live surrounded by this wildlife, worry daily that our children may be killed on their way to school, or that our livelihoods will be destroyed. In Botswana, 36 people were killed by elephants in 2018. In Zimbabwe, at least 30 people were trampled by elephants in 2019. Every death is a tragedy, and often involves family breadwinners. Recently, two Zimbabwean siblings disappeared from their home. Only the dismembered head of the two year old was recovered from the suspected hyena attack, and the four year old has never been found. The harsh reality is that if wildlife is just a threat to us, and our incentives to conserve it are removed, its future will be as bleak as that of the wolves, bears and other carnivores of Europe and the US.

For centuries our people have lived with wildlife, and its value is deeply ingrained in our cultures. During colonial times our rights to manage and benefit from these resources were removed. This led to dramatic loss of wildlife and its habitat – a disaster for conservation, our traditions and our livelihoods. Following independence, our governments restored our rights and integrated wildlife into rural economies. This enabled the development of socio-economic incentives to live with and sustainably manage our wildlife. Whilst it varies nationally, up to 90% of these economic incentives are provided through sustainable, regulated hunting. This has led, in Southern African countries such as ours, to increasing wildlife populations and habitat, often even beyond formally protected areas, in stark contrast to most Western countries.

We acknowledge that banning wildlife trophy imports into foreign countries is within the right of those governments. We further recognize that regulated hunting may appear a counter-intuitive conservation strategy to many. Yet if your objective is conservation – not solely the recognition of individual animal rights – import bans are misguided and have important implications for our human rights. We are concerned that hundreds of millions of dollars have been gobbled up in misleading animal rights campaigns without any benefit for the custodians of African wildlife – African people. Banning trophy imports risks significantly reducing the value of our wildlife, reducing incentives to tolerate and manage wildlife as an integral component of our livelihoods. Imposing such disastrous policies on us negates our sound conservation record. Once again, wildlife numbers will plummet and our rights to sustainably manage our natural resources will again be undermined.

We recognize and respect the rights of Western conservation scientists and animal rights advocates to discuss how best to manage African wildlife. However, we request that your discussions are informed by our voices as custodians of this wildlife. Discussions should acknowledge both our conservation successes and our communities’ right to earn a livelihood through the culturally appropriate, sustainable management of our resources for the benefit of our people. Any less is to deny our human rights.

Yours sincerely,

Ishmael Chaukura

CAMPFIRE Inter-ward Chairperson – Mbire District, Zimbabwe

Full Letter: RE. Communities Response in Science Magazine. Ishmael Chaukura (CAMPFIRE Inter-ward Chairperson Mbire District, Zimbabwe), Gakemotho Satau, Kutlwano Russel, Tumeleng Mogodu, S.K. Moepedi, Kerapetse Bantu Peter, Amos Ben Mabuku, Hilda N. Nathinge, Max Mayemburuko, Theo Naruseb, Brisetha Hendricks, Stein Katupa, Zaack Dirkse, Geoffrey Tukuhuphwele, Never Ncube, Delani Mabhena, Phillip Mpofu, Zoolakes Nyathi, Morning Manguba, Isaac Msebele, Land Ndebele, Innocent Mavunela, Patson Simango, Kumbula Jimmy, Naison Ndhlovu, K. Njanjeni, Nyalani Mgaduwi, Chief Shana, Sinikiwe Nyathi, Jabulani Ndubiwa, Promotion Dzomba, Sarudzai Goredema, Osca Marowa, Public Museruka, Ishmael Jack , Julius Chokubooka, Justin Mawachi, Cossam Chikondoma, Godfrey Ndlovu, Chief Tategulu, Chief Matupula, Chief Siphoso, Dr Rodgers Lubilo

Your Greater Kruger safari

The Kruger National Park has attained international renown, but the terms ‘Kruger National Park’ (KNP) and ‘Greater Kruger’ are often used interchangeably, despite their differences. The distinction between the two is important, to understand both the tourist experience and how this conservation model has impacted the wildlife of the area.

Find out about Greater Kruger or Kruger National Park for your next African safari. We have ready-made safaris to choose from, or ask us to build one just for you.

The ‘Greater Kruger’ refers to protected land to the west of Kruger National Park that provides a more substantial area for wildlife to roam freely. Private and local community property owners own this additional land, and most is utilised for commercial purposes.

There are no longer fences between these properties and KNP, providing the animals with an opportunity to roam, thereby reducing pressure on vegetation and bringing back historical local seasonal wildlife movements. Historically most seasonal migration was in an east-west direction, from the coastal areas of Mozambique to the slopes of the Drakensberg mountains, to take advantage of seasonal food and water. Fences and human pressure now prohibit that movement, and the north-south shape of KNP is not optimal for seasonal migrations.

Greater Kruger game drive — Leopard encounter during a game drive in Klaserie, Greater Kruger © Simon Espley

Luxury safaris
The Greater Kruger is utilised primarily for photographic tourism and is home to some of South Africa’s best-known luxury Big 5 lodges. Relatively high prices and strict access control results in low visitor numbers compared to the neighbouring KNP, and off-road driving (by experienced guides), night drives and bush walks guarantee fantastic wildlife encounters.

Wildlife industry
South Africa’s conservation strategy incorporates other wildlife industries such as hunting; a strategy that has resulted in large areas outside of national parks falling under some form of protection against livestock and crop farming and other forms of development not tolerant of wildlife. A small portion of the hundreds of landowners making up the Greater Kruger permit trophy hunting on their (non-tourism) properties, to fund their significant and increasing anti-poaching and other conservation costs. The limited trophy hunting quotas are subject to approval by the KNP, and hunting protocol strictly enforced by the management of the constituent reserves. That said, immoral or illegal behaviour by members of the trophy hunting industry does occur. Trophy hunting in most constituent reserves within Greater Kruger is gradually being squeezed out by the resurgent photographic tourism industry, and no trophy hunting is permitted in the KNP itself.

Properties making up the Greater Kruger

Sabi Sand Nature Reserve, MalaMala & Sabi Sand Game Reserve
The 65,000 ha Sabi Sand Reserve shares a 50km unfenced boundary with the Kruger National Park. When the Kruger National Park was declared in 1926, the landowners of the original Sabi Game Reserve were excised and had to settle for land outside of the national park. In 1948, 14 of these conservation-minded landowners met at Mala Mala and decided to join forces and create the first-ever private nature reserve in South Africa. The eastern fence of the reserve, bordering the Kruger National Park, was removed in 1993, making the Sabi Sand Reserve part of the Greater Kruger. The land is used for photographic tourism and private leisure. For your ready-made African safari to Sabi Sand Game Reserve, click here.

The Associated Private Nature Reserves (APNR)
The APNR is an association of privately owned reserves that removed fences bordering the Kruger National Park in 1993 after operating before that as livestock and hunting farms. The reserves (which in turn are made up of multiple smaller properties) included in the APNR are Timbavati Private Nature Reserve (53,396 ha), Klaserie Private Nature Reserve (60,080 ha), Umbabat Private Nature Reserve (18,000 ha), Balule Private Nature Reserve (55,000 ha) and Thornybush Game Reserve (14,000 ha). Land use varies from private leisure use to photographic tourism and trophy hunting on some properties.

Manyeleti Game Reserve
Founded in 1963, the 23,000 ha Manyeleti Game Reserve is sandwiched between the KNP, Sabi Sand and Timbavati, with no fences in-between. It also has an interesting and unique history. During the Apartheid years, it was the only reserve that welcomed people of colour, and after claiming back the land, the local Mnisi people now own and manage the reserve. Land use is exclusively for photographic tourism.

Letaba Ranch
The 42,000 ha Letaba Ranch Game Reserve, just north of the mining town of Phalaborwa, shares an unfenced border with the Kruger National Park. The reserve is owned by the local Mthimkhulu community and has historically been used mainly for trophy hunting. Future plans include hunting and eco-tourism, but current operations appear to be in a state of turmoil.

Makuya Nature Reserve
Makuya Nature Reserve is a 16,000 ha game reserve near the Pafuri gate in the far north of the Kruger, and also shares an unfenced border with the Kruger National Park. The reserve is owned by the Makuya, Mutele, and Mphaphuli communities and is used for both trophy hunting and limited photographic tourism purposes.

Greater Kruger walking safari — Walking safari in Balule, Greater Kruger @ Simon Espley

Despite ongoing challenges, the Greater Kruger is one of conservation’s greatest success stories and is the model underpinning KNP’s 10-year management plan. It is also the perfect safari destination for those looking for exclusive encounters with Africa’s Big 5.

Further reading: The History and Future of Kruger

Victoria Falls drying up? Fake news versus fact

Let’s address the recent international news-media claims that Victoria Falls is running dry

As the largest waterfall in the world, Victoria Falls needs very little in the way of introduction. Even to the uninitiated, the name conjures images of breath-taking vistas, lush and verdant vegetation, thrill-seeking and, of course, water thundering down into gorges releasing spray that can on occasion be seen kilometres away. The falls are also officially known as Mosi-ao-Tunya or “The Smoke That Thunders” in the Lozi language of the area – a name that perfectly captures the almost mystical atmosphere of this World Heritage Site.

Upstream of the falls, the Zambezi River flows across an almost flat basalt plateau in a shallow valley before reaching the fracture in the plateau with a vertical drop into First Gorge, around 100 metres below. At this point, the Zambezi is 1,708m in width, creating the largest continuous falling curtain of water in the world. From there, the river narrows through a series of awe-inspiring gorges. Geographically, Zambia lies on the northern and eastern side of the falls which is topographically higher, with Zimbabwe to the south and west. Naturally, the amount of water flowing over the falls is seasonally dependent on the amount of rain that falls into the catchment upstream – typically, the rainy season begins around November/December and continues through until April when the rest of the year remains comparatively dry.

The seasonal changes in Victoria Falls water levels inevitably impact the tourism experience and perceptions. The Falls are usually at their most dramatic from late February to May, when the highest amount of water tumbles into the chams below and a curtain of spray hovers over the Falls. The flip side of this is that there is a chance that the Falls may be partially obscured by the rainbow-lit spray. After months of dry weather, the falls begin to reduce in size and reach their lowest levels towards the end of the year when bare rock faces are clearly visible, particularly on the Zambian side. This, too, presents different opportunities for visitors, allowing them unobscured views of the falls and the opportunity to go rafting.

Over the past few years, there has been a degree of social media speculation and even panic as the dry season reaches its peak and the river levels drop, particularly because the topographically higher Zambian side often slows to a minimum and occasionally stops flowing in places. However, at the end of 2019, this story was seized upon by international news media that ran with alarmist headlines suggesting that the Falls was completely dry – pictures that were taken from the drier parts of the Zambian side were used to emphasize the seeming urgency of the situation. The Zimbabwe side of the falls, still flowing and still spectacular, was largely ignored and most media outlets initially neglected to mention the seasonal fluctuations of the river.

The narrative that the falls were in danger of drying up completely and were at their lowest-ever levels was far from being supported by facts. The Zambian River Authority monitors the water levels each day and has records that go back decades. While the water levels did come close to the low levels seen in 1995/96, the improvement was already being seen as the story gained international traction-a fact that was largely ignored. At the time of writing, the water levels have been steadily increasing and are now higher than they were at the same time last year. Records going back further showed that some of the lowest-ever recorded levels were seen in the early 20th century – yet no reference was made to this fact. Nor was there mention of the water that is diverted away from the eastern cataract to supply the power station below the falls.

Scientists have not ignored the anthropogenic impact on the flow of the Zambezi – in a 2012 report published by International Rivers, Dr. Richard Beilfuss examines the numerous factors affecting the flow of this river system, including hydroelectric power, seasonal weather changes and the potential impact of climate change. While the cause for concern is clear, he also notes that “[t]he Zambezi River Basin has one of the most variable climates of any major river basin in the world, with an extreme range of conditions across the catchment and through time.” The graph below taken from his report shows the average yearly discharge at the falls. Note that there have been at least three other examples of extreme lows: 1914, 1948 and 1995, often followed by years of high flow rates.

In an area where tourism is not just a vital part of daily life but essential to the survival of the surrounding communities, it does not take a massive leap of intuition to imagine the potential effect of the fearmongering of international news media. Several tourism operators reported cancellations (our own travel team had to council safari clients that were concerned about the reports) and, while the ultimate effect on tourist statistics remains to be seen, the furious response of Victoria Falls locals is easy to understand. Many took to social media to showcase their photographs or videos taken in front of the flowing falls and the hashtag #VictoriaFallsIsNotDry became a vent for their growing frustration. In a furious response to one particular news outlet, a well-known member of the tourism community in Livingstone, Peter Jones, wrote “[f]or those of us living at the Victoria Falls, both in Zambia and Zimbabwe, we are picking up the pieces after your whirlwind visit to incorrectly inform the world the mighty Victoria Falls was in danger of drying up…We have all lost bookings and business in some way as a result of your misinformation [and] some people’s lives have taken a very definite turn for the worse.”

The impact of such reporting is deeply regrettable, not only in terms of the impact it will inevitably have on tourism revenue, but in the effect it has in polarising already divergent views. In ignoring or glossing over the facts, the message loses all credibility and fails its conservation agenda. Most importantly, the very real threat facing the people of certain parts of Zambia and Zimbabwe struggling to sustain themselves after an extended regional drought has been lost in the social media hysteria and subsequent backlash. The impact of dams and irrigation on some of Africa’s main river systems, as well as the socio-economic demand for electric power, has been ignored in favour of the more attention-grabbing “climate change” headings.

In an official statement in response to the reports on the state of Victoria Falls, the African Travel and Tourism Authority noted that “[w]hilst we are cognisant that Climate Change [sic] is a growing concern on a global level, and that it is potentially having an impact on countries throughout the world, what has been lacking in the media reports is an insight into the historic seasonal patterns and the resultant changes in water flow which are vital pieces of information to ensure a clear perspective is maintained”.

Victoria Falls white-water rafting © White Water Magazine

Breaking: copper mine in Lower Zambezi NP cancelled

04 March 2021 UPDATE: The Court of Appeals of Zambia has dismissed an appeal to stop the proposed large-scale open-pit mine in Lower Zambezi National Park, upholding the High Court’s decision to dismiss the case.

18 January 2020:

The planned open-cast Kangaluwi copper mine in Lower Zambezi National Park WILL NOT proceed, says a minister in the Zambian government, in a dramatic turnaround of a recent announcement that the controversial mining project would indeed go ahead – based on a legal technicality.

Now, it appears, another legal technicality has come to the fore to reverse that ruling, as Tourism and Arts Minister Ronald Chitotela announced the project wouldn’t go ahead because an environmental impact report that was submitted by the environmental regulator has expired. “If this mining firm wants to go ahead with its project, we can advise them to submit a fresh report which will have to be scrutinized and approved by the government,” he explained in an interview.

As a cautionary subnote to Mr. Chitotela’s confident announcement, there has not yet been any confirmation about the cancellation of the mining permit from the office of Zambia’s president, and Africa Geographic has been informed that at least three additional prospecting permits are being considered, for mining inside the national park.

Elephants crossing the Chongwe River – a tributary of the Zambezi that borders the Lower Zambezi National Park © Sharon Gilbert-Rivett

This mining project has a long history of questionable maneuvres and governmental decisions. The Kangaluwi copper mine project was initially owned by Bermuda-registered Mwembeshi Resources, which was in turn owned by Australian company Zambezi Resources (renamed Trek Metals) before being sold to Dubai-based Grand Resources Limited, a company of dubious substance, but thought to be a front for Chinese investors. It would appear that the Zambian Mines and Mineral Development Act of 2008 does not contain any substantial provisions relating to mining in protected areas and that foreign investors who face more robust legislation in their own countries are targetting this weakness.

Read this post for a thorough analysis of the situation, including the views from various stakeholders and affected parties.

Kingdom of the Black Pharaohs

When we mention Sudan, most people don’t react positively, either because they don’t know much about the country, or they recall negative news reports about it. Ten years ago, when we visited the “kingdom of the black pharaohs” for the first time, there were very few tourists. Nowadays, fortunately, some prejudices have disappeared, and more foreigners (khwadja) have started visiting this northeastern African country.
Though most tourists tend to stay close to Khartoum and stick to the main routes, to visit the impressive Nubian pyramids at Meroë and remnants of ancient temples. There is so much more to discover in the country of the black pharaohs, so many more archaeological sites that tell stories from ancient times.

? Sudan boasts many temples and ancient remnants – the most famous being the Nubian pyramids at Meroë © Andrea Kaucká and René Bauer

The ‘tourist boom’ started in about 2012 when several archaeological societies began working in various locations to uncover treasures of long-forgotten civilisations. Every year we returned to Sudan on expeditions that zigzagged across the barren countryside, and every year we discovered new and interesting places.

? Left) The prayer hall at Khatmiyah Mosque in Kassala; Right) The pyramids at Meroë were built by the rulers of the ancient Kushite kingdoms that are known as the ‘black pharaohs’ © Andrea Kaucká and René Bauer

A nomad woman in Kassala, Sudan © Andrea Kaucká and René Bauer

ASK UNCLE GOOGLE

It was during one particular trip to Sudan that we found ourselves deep within the desolate Nubian Desert, on a quest to find an intriguing-looking rock with an even more interesting name: Jebel Magardi.
Our adventure started when we came across a large poster of this rock in the national museum in Khartoum. We questioned all of our Sudanese friends and their friends to help us find this mysterious Jebel Magardi in an area called Bir Nurayet – the massive rock no one had ever heard about. We ended up spending hours on Google Earth searching for the mysterious rock in the middle of the Nubian Desert and eventually pinpointed an approximate location close to the Egyptian border, deep in the desert.

? Clockwise from left: 1) Camping in the Nubian Desert; 2) Roughly 1 000 km of off-road driving was a fun experience; 3) Climbing to the top of the dunes provided some great landscape shots of the Nubian Desert; 4) Another beautiful desert camp, in the middle of nowhere and not a hint of civilisation. All images © Andrea Kaucká and René Bauer

We created a waypoint and started looking into how to get there and decided to approach the desert from the Red Sea coast so that we could find a lonely beach to rest up before the strenuous journey. We picked out routes that went through wadis (dry riverbeds), as this seemed like the easiest way through the Red Sea mountain range. In the comfort of our home, it only took us a few hours to find a route on the computer, but of course, the reality was somewhat different.

? Clockwise from top left: 1) A temple with lion statues at Musawarat – dedicated to Apedemak – a lion-headed warrior god; 2) Sudanese pyramids are smaller than their Egyptian cousins; 3) Statue of a ram. The ram is attributed to Amun, the god of the air; 4) The pyramids at Meroë are smaller than their Egyptian counterparts and were built between 2,700 and 2,300 years ago © Andrea Kaucká and René Bauer

MESSAGES FROM THE END OF THE WORLD

With our three off-road vehicles loaded up, we travelled from Khartoum to Port Sudan, and north towards the Egyptian border. In Mohammed Qol, they already knew who we were, because in the previous year we had been arrested at the police checkpoint. The officers had no idea what a tourist was and why we would want to explore Sudan and instead believed us to be CIA spies. Looking back, this misunderstanding was actually quite amusing…

Nubian desert, Sudan © Andrea Kaucká and René Bauer

? “We love the desert; one feels free there. For those who respect it, the desert is rewarding, but those who ignore its rules could face fatal consequences.” © Andrea Kaucká and René Bauer

About 50 km behind Mohammed Qol, we found a remote and quiet spot by the beach and made camp. There was no phone signal and, as we set off the next day, our careful planning was all we had to rely on to get us to our destination. Heading towards a towering mountain range in the distance, we followed a wadi of deep sand that wound its way into the mountains. What a mighty river this wadi must once have been!

We passed rocks of all different shapes and colours and now and then came across small villages along the route. Green acacias dotted along the wadi helped to break up the bleak-looking landscape of sand and rocks.
There were times when we were faced with a fork in the road, and I had to double-check the GPS and radio René (who was driving the lead vehicle) to discuss which route to take. Sometimes we took the wrong turn, ending up in a dead-end, and had to backtrack. On other occasions, we got hopelessly stuck in the deep hot sand, and the whole team had to dig and push – back-breaking work.

? Left) Beja tribesman with his camel; Right) Reaching an oasis in the desert. Both images © Andrea Kaucká and René Bauer

SUDAN’S GOLDEN VEINS

Travelling over the golden sands of the Nubian Desert, we felt like explorers of decades long past. Sometimes we met people along the way – mostly nomadic Beja – and the way they looked at us made us think that we must have looked like aliens to them.

Often we would take a break to take photos or because our Sudanese drivers had to pray. And it is was then that the emptiness of the landscape hit home. We would stand in awe, listening to the quiet around us. We could hear the wind blowing through the wadi and felt it on our skin, the sands slightly shifting below our feet. The ‘nothingness’ was broken only by the odd acacia tree, small village or occasional goat or camel.
We were seven hours into our adventure and had only covered a mere 150 km. On Google Earth, it didn’t look that far, but then we were spending quite a bit of our time stopping for photos because there was something worth photographing around almost every corner.

? The people of the desert, clockwise from top left: 1) A cotton picker; 2) A nomad with facial scarring; 3) A nomad tends to his donkeys; 4) In areas not conducive to farming, people (many of them nomads) support themselves by raising cattle, sheep, goats, or camels; 5) “The locals welcomed us with a smile”. All images © Andrea Kaucká and René Bauer

Finally, we reached Wadi Oko, the biggest wadi in the area. There was more traffic here, and a gold diggers town! Our Sudanese drivers were not too happy about it, but the locals welcomed us with a smile and even pulled out their smartphones to take selfies with us.
It was scorching, so we stopped for lunch and of course jebenah – a fantastic Sudanese coffee prepared in a specially-designed flask.

Drawing water from a well in Sudan© Andrea Kaucká and René Bauer

There are many more of these gold digger towns in the Nubian Desert and the Red Sea Hills. This is no huge surprise, considering that Nubia was the primary source of gold for ancient Egyptians. Descriptions of the precious metal appeared in hieroglyphs as early as 2600 B.C., and by 1500 B.C. gold had become the recognised medium of exchange for international trade. Pharaohs sent expeditions to Nubia to mine the quartz lodes for gold, which Egyptian goldsmiths transformed into vessels, furniture, funerary equipment and sophisticated jewellery. Even the name Nubia is considered by some to be a derivative of the Egyptian word for ‘gold’.

? Clockwise from top left: 1) Jebenah, Sudanese coffee, being prepared; 2) Freshly roasted coffee; 3) An ancient gravesite along the way to Bir Nurayet; 4) A qubba is an Arabic term for tomb structures, particularly Islamic domed shrines. These tombs were dotted along the way en route to Bir Nurayet. All images © Andrea Kaucká and René Bauer

LOST IN THE DESERT

Moving on from the gold-digging towns we found ourselves off-roading for about two hours when suddenly a green valley opened up before us, and as the sun started to dip below the horizon the golden light illuminated a majestic rock rising out of the valley ahead of us – Jebel Magardi! From afar, the rock looked like the head of a moray eel coming out of the ground, but in an archaeological context, Jebel Magardi represents a phallus symbol, an ancient sign of fertility. In its shadow, we found an area that the locals call Bir Nurayet to make camp.
It was quite late by the time we had set up camp. We sat around the crackling campfire and celebrated – not only because we had found Jebel Magardi, but also because it was René’s birthday. What better celebration could one wish for than sitting deep in the desert with absolutely no civilisation around us? It was just us and the desert that night.

? Left) Jebel Magardi and the contrasting cracked earth of the Nubian desert; Right) Camping at Bir Nurayet. Both images © Andrea Kaucká and René Bauer

The Sahara is a seemingly barren sea of hot sand, and yet a mere 13,000 years ago it was a thriving, lush landscape teeming with life. Wildlife such as giraffe, various antelope, elephant, ostrich and (later on) cattle once roamed this area, along with human hunter-gatherers. It is hard to believe what the desert once was, but thankfully there is evidence left behind by the ancient inhabitants, in the form of petroglyphs (rock paintings) of their life and the wildlife they encountered.
These petroglyphs are found in one of the biggest rock art galleries in the world. Discovered in 1999 by the Polish archaeologist Pluskot and his Dutch writer and photographer Baaijens during their camel caravan expedition, these petroglyphs depict scenes such as ancient hunts and cattle herding practices – lively proof of how the locals lived thousands of years ago.

Jebel Magardi, a huge monolith, rises out of the desert and towers above Bir Nurayet in Sudan © Andrea Kaucká and René Bauer

At sunrise, we used the golden hour to walk around Jebel Magardi, looking for these petroglyphs. The rock looked even more majestic when we stood at its base, and we wondered what it would tell us if only it could speak. In times of the old caravans and bushmen, Jebel Magardi was used as an orientation point in the desert, easy to see from far away and with a wellpoint next to it.
But even after walking all around the rock we couldn’t find any petroglyphs. Just nothing. Where were the petroglyphs? Opposite the rock there was a dry riverbed and behind were a few rocks and cliffs, one of which looked like a camel head… and something told us we should go over to investigate.

SURROUNDED BY ELEPHANTS

We entered a little valley in between the rocks and on every rock face there were drawings of hundreds of cattle, all with very long horns, side by side with herds of camels and humans. We made our way past all these rocks paintings, utterly fascinated. In between these petroglyphs, we found a scene of an antelope hunt, then, a few metres further, elephants walking along, and even further down, we recognised a leopard.

? Pastoralists using petroglyphs of longhorn cattle to communicate the ancient tradition of raising cattle © Andrea Kaucká and René Bauer

One can see what animals lived in this area when humans settled here for the first time. Some petroglyphs were very simple; others were very intricately engraved – a good sign of the progress of human art.
The art of Bir Nurayet is attributed to the Neolithic period and mostly depicts a fertility cult. We explored, discussed and imagined the stories for each drawing we saw. In the national museum in Khartoum, one can see 63 little statues and clay pots found at Bir Nurayet.

? Various petroglyphs found at Bir Nurayet, clockwise from top left: 1) Longhorn cattle; 2) Evidence that elephants once roamed the area; 3) A depiction of what is suspected to be a lion; 4) René getting a closer look at the ancient petroglyphs. All images © Andrea Kaucká and René Bauer

We were fascinated and happy to have found a place deep in the desert, which only a handful of people know of and have visited. We had accomplished our mission to see Jebel Magardi and its petroglyphs! Our state of delight made the two-day return journey to Khartoum a breeze, as we left ‘our’ discovery of the ancient hidden riches of Sudan’s Nubian Desert behind.

Pertroglyphs at Bir Nurayet of longhorn cattle, Sudan © Andrea Kaucká and René Bauer

? The main subject matters of the various petroglyphs at Bir Nurayet are longhorn cattle, camels, wild animals, and shepherds, hunters and battle scenes © Andrea Kaucká and René Bauer.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS, Andrea Kaucká and René Bauer

Andrea and René met in New Zealand in 2005. Since then they have worked and travelled in various places in Europe. Their biggest adventure was crossing Africa from north to south in their vehicle in 2008/2009. During this trip, they travelled through Sudan and knew that it wouldn’t be the last time. They return to Sudan every year to discover more places, especially in the Nubian Desert. They are both tour guides, conducting trips in Europe and Africa, and write regularly for magazines, as well as hold photo exhibitions and slideshow presentations.

Photographer of the Year 2020 Weekly Selection: Week 7 – Gallery 1

Thirsty elephants come to drink at a waterhole. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Hilda Le Roux

A giraffe bull gets some additional calcium by chewing a bone. Sibuya Game Reserve, South Africa © Peter Reitze

? Behati, a silverback mountain gorilla, takes a break while feeding. Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda © Tiffany Franks

A giraffe close up. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Jason Clendenen

An African darter catches a fish. Chobe National Park, Botswana © Cindee Beechwood

View of the Drakensburg Amphitheatre. Royal Natal National Park, South Africa © Gavin Duffy

A young baboon takes a leap in a tree. Chobe National Park, Botswana © Subi Sridharan

A Madagascar scops-owl. Kirindy Mitea National Park, Madagascar © Beverly Houwing

A dwarf beaked snake (Dipsina multimaculata). Northern Cape, South Africa © Tyrone Ping

A grey crowned crane. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Diana Knight

? A female vervet monkey carries her infant safely tucked underneath her protective arms. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Karen Blackwood

Lion pride with five cubs resting on rocks. Serengeti National Park, Tanzania © Kaido Haagen

Secretary bird looking for food. Serengeti National Park, Tanzania © Eduardo del Alamo

Hyena at sunset. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Ivan Glaser

Zebra herd up close. Ndutu, Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania © Patrick Hozza

Portrait of a painted wolf (African wild dog). Kruger National Park, South Africa © Licinia Machado

A herd of zebras running through the savannah. Lake Natron, Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania © Kirill Dorofeev

Spotted hyena with wildebeest calf. Ndutu, Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania © Kirill Dorofeev

Cheetah photographed against the evening sky. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Matrishva Vyas

Klaas's cuckoo being fed by a female malachite sunbird. Riebeek Kasteel, South Africa © Mary Walker

A purple grenadier. Maasai Mara National Reserve, Kenya © Dr Pravin Jawale

Photographer of the Year 2020 Weekly Selection: Week 7 – Gallery 2

Special moment between mother lion and her cubs. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa © Hilda Le Roux

Elephants and Mount Kilimanjaro. Amboseli National Park, Kenya © Kirill Dorofeev

Southern ground-hornbill snatches up a scorpion. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Karen Blackwood

? A mother spotted hyena and her young pup at the entrance to their den. Liuwa Plain National Park, Zambia © Beverly Houwing

Cape ground squirrel peeking out of its burrow. Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, South Africa © Daniela Anger

An adult desert-adapted elephant making its way along the Hoanib riverbed. Namibia © Wayne Marsh

? Mundari people gather together in huge cattle camps where about 5,000 cows converge at night alongside the Nile River. South Sudan © Mario Gerth

Giraffes at a small waterhole. Etosha National Park, Namibia © Jeff Harrisberg

Up close with a zebra. Nelspruit, South Africa © Peter Reitze

An elephant takes a swim. Chobe National Park, Botswana © Subi Sridharan

Serval hunting. Kafue National Park, Zambia © Eduardo del Alamo

Lesser flamingo striding through the shallows. Walvis Bay, Namibia © Michael Wessels

A female leopard makes very clear her displeasure at a male's advances. Mara North Conservancy, Kenya © John Piper

A lone zebra drinks at a waterhole. Etosha National Park Namibia © Owen Jason Kandume

Red-knobbed coot. Zibulo Bird Hides, Mpumalanga, South Africa © Tracey Graves

Vultures descend to make the most of a large giraffe carcass. Greater Kruger National Park, South Africa © Sophie Brown

Female leopard with impala kill. Kruger National Park, South Africa © Licinia Machado

Up close and personal with an elephant. Addo Elephant National Park, South Africa © Leon Heyes

Young cheetah with a Thomson's gazelle calf. Ndutu, Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania © Kirill Dorofeev

Rhino silhouette at sunset. Game reserve in South Africa © Zac Dykstra

Lion cubs suckling from their mother. Ndutu, Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania © Patrick Hozza

Saving the Northern White Rhino: Third Embryo Successfully Created

One of two females that hold the key to the survival of a subspecies © Justin Mott

A third viable northern white rhino embryo was created over December 2019 in a joint mission between Kenyan Government and scientists. In a press release, the Ol Pejeta Conservancy reported that the team had repeated the procedure performed in August 2019 on the two female northern white rhino, Najin and Fatu, on the 17^th of December 2019. With the support of Kenya’s Cabinet Secretary, Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife Hon. Najib Balala, the joint effort of the Kenya Wildlife Service, Ol Pejeta Conservancy, Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Avantea Laboratory and Dvůr Králové Zoo marks the next step in attempting to save the species from extinction.

31-year-old Najin and her 20-year-old daughter Fatu are the only living northern white rhino in the world and both were placed under anaesthetic in order to harvest nine oocytes (immature eggs cells) from their ovaries. These oocytes were then rushed to the Avantea Laboratory in Italy where they were matured before scientists attempted to fertilise them using a system known as Intra Cytoplasm Sperm Injection (ICSI). The procedure was successful on one of Fatu’s eggs and the resulting embryo was incubated using a highly advanced monitoring system before placed in liquid nitrogen with the previous two embryos created in the same manner.

Embryo development © Avantea-Cesare Galli

The team hopes to artificially inseminate a surrogate southern white rhino female from the Ol Pejeta Conservancy using procedures trialled by European zoos some time in 2020. If successful, it would mean the first northern white rhino born into the wild in decades.

The project is all part of the “BioRescue” research, a consortium comprising of internationally renowned institutions from Germany, Italy, Czech Republic, Kenya, Japan and the USA, with a comprehensive ethical assessment courtesy of the University of Padova and partially funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research. Hon, Najib Balala said of the achievement: “I urge scientists to continue digging deeper into technology and innovations to ensure that not only this concerned species does not go extinct, but other species that are faced with similar threats. The fact that Kenya is at the centre of this scientific breakthrough also makes me very proud. It’s amazing to see that we will be able to reverse the tragic loss of this subspecies through science”.

The process of oocyte collection © Ami Vitale

Communities delivering conservation impact & wildlife recoveries

Rangers in a vehicle with elephant herd in background — Conservancies and other local conservation areas play an increasingly important role in protecting populations of elephants and other wildlife © Honeyguide

OPINION POST by Fred Nelson, Maliasili

Driving on the road to Randilen Wildlife Management Area (WMA), the landscape changes dramatically from bare ground to lush waist-high grass as one crosses into the WMA from surrounding community lands. Herds of elephant wander calmly across the savannah woodlands throughout the 30,000-hectare WMA, accompanied by giraffe, herds of zebra, and rarer antelope such as fringe-eared oryx. Located adjacent to Tarangire National Park, in northern Tanzania, Randilen embodies a growing trend across eastern and southern Africa: community-managed conservation areas that are effectively managed and delivering conservation results equivalent to government parks and reserves.

Like other conservation initiatives across eastern and southern Africa that are managed by communities, WMAs originated in the late 1990s as a management response to the need in Tanzania to change the relationship between local communities and wildlife. During the 1980s and 90s, wildlife, including huge herds of elephants and nearly all the country’s black rhinos, were subjected to heavy poaching. Government agencies and foreign donors, including the US and German governments, worked to reform the conventional conservation approaches based on protected areas and anti-poaching enforcement, to also offer communities an economic stake in wildlife’s future. WMAs were intended to provide that by devolving rights to make management decisions and capture revenue from wildlife utilisation, including both photographic tourism and trophy hunting, on community lands adjacent to national parks and game reserves.

Northern Tanzania — Wildlife Management Areas in northern Tanzania help protect key wildlife habitats bordering national parks © Honeyguide

For many years, though, these WMAs languished, mainly due to the unwillingness of government agencies to devolve sufficient rights and control over wildlife revenues to the local scale. But within the last five years, there is new evidence that WMAs are finally beginning to make community-based conservation a reality in parts of Tanzania. Researchers published findings in 2018 showing that giraffe and other wildlife populations in Randilen had increased markedly following WMA establishment. More recently, another group of researchers published new findings showing that in the nearby Burunge WMA, which also borders Tarangire National Park, elephant and wildebeest populations increased from 2011 to 2018. They also found that wildlife densities between the WMA and Tarangire were overall similar, and that community conservation areas could support wildlife populations similar to national parks.

Zebras drinking at waterhole in northern Tanzania — Zebras in a community conservation area in northern Tanzania © Honeyguide

At the same time, these community conservation initiatives are delivering improved returns to local people from wildlife. Randilen’s tourism income increased by over 40% from 2016 to 2018, when it generated over $200,000 for the WMA’s management and member communities’ village governments.

Much more importantly for the future of wildlife in Africa, in the face of growing economic and demographic pressures, is that this kind of progress reflects wider regional trends in community-based conservation.

In Namibia, undoubtedly eastern and southern Africa’s leader in community conservation, the ‘communal conservancies’ that were first established in policy and legal reforms during the mid-1990s now cover nearly 17 million hectares across the country. The conservancies play a key role in Namibia’s conservation achievements including the widespread recovery of wildlife across the country over the past two decades, including the tripling in the country’s elephant population from around 7,500 to nearly 23,000 today. The scaling up of Namibia’s conservancies has also driven significant revenue to rural communities that, two decades ago, earned little or nothing from wildlife. Over 80 conservancies now capture around US$10 million in annual benefits from tourism, and other wildlife uses such as game meat while generating over US$60 million in total net national income for Namibia.

Elephant herd drinking at waterhole — Namibia’s communal conservancies have played an essential role in the tripling of the country’s elephant population since the mid-1990s © NACSO

Meanwhile in Kenya, a wide range of community conservation initiatives that had emerged on the local scale as early as the 1990s have more recently coalesced into a national conservancies movement that is now at the centre of the country’s conservation strategies. A key factor has been the 2013 Wildlife Conservation Act, which gave conservancies a legal definition in Kenyan law for the first time. It has led to more significant support for community-based approaches across government, NGOs, and communal and private landholders.

Conservancies in Kenya now cover over 6 million hectares, roughly doubling the country’s wildlife estate, and are also showing significant conservation impacts as well as a wide range of social and economic benefits. For example, researchers have found that in conservancies in northern Kenya, poaching levels were about one-third lower than in adjacent community lands. In Kenya’s second-largest elephant population in the Laikipia-Samburu system, where around 7,000 animals roam across community conservancies and private ranches, poaching rates declined by 53% between 2012 and 2015, while elephant numbers increased by 12% from 2012 to 2017. Other critically endangered species including black rhino, Grevy’s zebra, and the hirola, an endemic antelope, are all being supported by conservancies.

Hirola antelope in the wild communities — Conservancies in Kenya are playing a vital role in the conservation of endangered species such as the endemic hirola antelope © Kenneth Coe

At the same time, a new World Bank report on conservancies, titled ‘When Conservation Becomes Good Economics’, estimates that tourism income in conservancies as of 2017 was about $12 million, and concludes that “a strategic expansion of conservancies offers an opportunity to complement the government’s current focus [on national parks].”

The scaling up of community conservation – between Kenya and Namibia alone, community conservancies now cover nearly 23 million hectares, or an area roughly equivalent to the entire land area of Uganda – is one of the most important trends in African conservation over the past decade. As conservationists are faced with the urgent need to scale up effective conservation solutions further, this creates critically important opportunities to further expand the scope and impact of conservancies and similar community-based models. There are three key priorities to do this in the near-term.

First, most of the progress of community conservation is attributable to a growing cadre of talented African conservation organisations that often have emerged specifically to advance community-based approaches in different sites and countries. In Namibia, local groups such as IRDNC have played a key role in providing the vision, local facilitation, and long-term presence that has been critical to the development of conservancies. In Kenya, the Northern Rangelands Trust has pioneered conservancies in the northern part of the country. At the same time, newer community groups such as the Maasai Mara Wildlife Conservancies Association are now playing a pivotal role in other key landscapes. At the national scale, the Kenya Wildlife Conservancies Association plays a crucial role in engaging with government on significant policy issues.

Two Maasai warriors in Kenya communities — Community conservancies have spread across Kenya rapidly over the past decade, including in key regions such as the Maasai Mara © Kenya Wildlife Conservancies Association

Similarly, in Tanzania, the progress made by Randilen has been possible mainly due to the recent efforts of Honeyguide, a local organisation that has brought critical business development and professional management skills to the support of WMAs in the northern part of the country. Providing external support to these key local organisations is fundamental to strengthening and scaling up community-based conservation models.

Second, funding models are needed that provide long-term support to community conservation. Funding needs to be tailored to different stages of conservancy development, from early-stage seed funding to longer-term support through trust funds and similar mechanisms. For example, Namibia has recently established a Community Conservation Fund of Namibia to provide long-term sustainable financing of conservancies that are not yet financially self-sufficient and to provide other needed services.

People at Torra conservancy office communities — Namibia’s conservancies have played a key role in increasing local incomes from wildlife and improving natural resource governance institutions © NACSO

Lastly, conservation efforts need to continue to grow private sector investment as the core source of long-term financing for conservancies and other conservation efforts driven by communities. The growth of tourism investment in conservancies in Namibia and Kenya has been key to progress in those countries, as communities are gradually able to capture a growing share of the regional wildlife and tourism economy. But community conservation needs to move beyond an exclusive reliance on tourism as well. Significant efforts are underway to integrate livestock markets and trade with conservancies in Kenya, and to develop substantial flows from carbon credits derived from improved forest management in several community conservation areas in Kenya, Tanzania and Zambia.

As the new decade begins, conserving Africa’s wild landscapes faces unprecedented pressures from illegal wildlife trade, habitat loss, infrastructure development, and the effects of climate change. But conservation progress delivered by communities provides perhaps the most significant opportunity to expand the area of land under conservation, while dramatically broadening conservation’s local stakeholders. All efforts should be made to capitalise on this opportunity.

Fred Nelson is the Executive Director of Maliasili, a US-based organisation that supports leading African conservation organisations to increase their impact and effectiveness.

Killifish – suspended animation & shortest lifespan of any animal with a backbone

The tiny killifish lives in a state of suspended animation – until seasonal rains trigger the shortest known lifespan of any animal with a backbone. This rapid lifecycle has scientists scrambling to unlock secrets to our own ageing processes.

The turquoise killifish (Nothobranchius furzeri) lives in temporary pools of water in some semi-arid regions of Mozambique and Zimbabwe, and, when the water dries up, the adult fish die and their drought-resistant eggs and embryos are entombed in hard mud where they enter a state of suspended animation (diapause) until the next rainfall event – months or years away.

The arrival of precious rains triggers a frenetic race against time to hatch, grow to sexual maturity, mate and lay the next generation of eggs before their puddle dries up. After hatching, the turquoise killifish only lives for about nine to ten weeks in the wild before succumbing when the water dries up and has the dubious distinction of reaching sexual maturity sooner than any other vertebrate species – at about 14 days.

Killifish age cycle — Stages of killifish growth ©Dario R. Valenzano

Studies of captive turquoise killifish and a related species, Nothobranchius kadleci, show that their body length increases by up to a quarter every day in their first two weeks of life.

Killifish are predators, eating small crustaceans and aquatic insect larvae that co-exist in the same temporary pools of water. Captive juvenile killifish have been known to cannibalise on smaller killifish, but this has not been recorded in the wild.

Males are more colourful than females, with some species reflecting colour morphs (red and yellow morphs in the case of N. furzeri). Populations of wild killifish are female-biased, with the ratios increasing towards the end of the life cycle. Ratios of N. furzeri have been recorded as increasing from 1:2,7 at the beginning of the breeding season to 1:4,7 later in the season. The reason for the sex-bias is presumed to be that more males die due to their brighter colouration attracting a higher predation rate as well as aggressive competition amongst males for access to females.

The ways in which killifish disperse are unknown, but scientists assume that the fish are swept from their natal pools during flooding to settle into new pools and that eggs are transported between pools on the skin of large herbivores that drink and mud bath there. In his story about Gonarezhou National Park in Zimbabwe, Africa Geographic CEO Simon Espley described how it is possible that eggs are carried upstream by elephants, and that the reduction of elephant populations and restriction of their historical migration routes could conceivably impact on some killifish populations. Dario Valenzano, co-author of the attached report agrees: “I strongly believe that lack, presence, diversity and in general density of large herbivores can be key to killifish survival as a species.”

The killifishes reveal how animals can adapt to extreme environments by evolving extreme lifespans. Research on captive populations of killifish focuses on unlocking the secrets about growing old and, specifically, how to hold back the ageing process.

Full report: From the bush to the bench: the annual Nothobranchius fishes as a new model system in biology. Alessandro Cellerino, Dario R. Valenzano and Martin Reichard. Wiley Online Library.

Conservation needs diversified approaches – opinion

Elephants in Majete Wildlife Reserve, Malawi

Elephants in Majete Wildlife Reserve, Malawi nature — Elephants in Majete Wildlife Reserve, Malawi © Jason I. Ransom

OPINION EDITORIAL by Mucha Mkono, The University of Queensland; Jason I. Ransom, National Park Service; Katarzyna Nowak, University of the Free State, and Patrick O. Onyango, Maseno University

Conservationists don’t always agree about the best ways to reinforce the protection of nature. Debates about it can become confrontational.

But at the heart of the issue is how to include more people in nature conservation efforts. As a group of scientists, we believe it is important to steer the discussion towards a more diverse and inclusive blueprint for protecting biodiversity and ecosystems.

In a letter to the journal Science, we argue that the model of trophy hunting in Africa to finance conservation is neither sustainable nor equitable. We offer some alternatives. We suggest meeting the needs and values of a variety of stakeholders and local communities. Doing so involves empowering people to participate in decisions that affect them.

We support the following strategies for conserving natural landscapes and their ecological functions.

Connecting local needs with the wider world

One approach is to connect small and big investors directly to communities that are associated with wildlife wealth. This can be done through blockchain technology and carbon and biodiversity credits.

An example is GainForest, an app that aims to help maintain and restore forests. GainForest gets funding from the crypto community to provide finance to community members if they maintain their patch of land for an agreed duration. The GainForest team uses publicly available data from GlobalForestWatch to monitor and evaluate community success. It is also developing advanced artificial intelligence algorithms to help forecast future forest cover.

Another strategy is the United Nations programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) in developing countries. The programme encourages developing economies to lower their carbon emissions through a variety of habitat management schemes and is donor-funded. The United Nations supports partner countries to run REDD+ programmes and trains them in best practices. The Kariba REDD+ project in Zimbabwe is one example. The project has protected 785,000 hectares from deforestation and land degradation. This has helped prevent more than 18 million tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions.

Community-led sustainable practices

Conservation practices that generate direct financial benefits for local communities have also been successful. An example is a Tanzanian wildlife project which reduces the costs of living with wildlife. It assists livestock owners with constructing “living walls”, made of plant materials, to protect domestic animals from predation. The project also supports microfinance and community enterprises such as beekeeping and a bush camp.

Another approach is to reform land use in ways that meet the values and needs of local people. In Peru, Costa Rica, Canada, Kenya, Scotland and Amazonia, local communities have been granted land titles by national governments. This has been positive for livelihoods and for biodiversity conservation. For example, when the Indigenous Tsilhqot’in Nation in British Columbia, Canada, was granted title to traditional lands in 2014, they stopped public hunting based on their own wildlife management strategy.

Agricultural practices can be made more compatible with nature conservation, as has been achieved by It’s Wild in Zambia. Farmers and former poachers came up with certain conservation principles and agreed to follow them. Profits from farm products grown sustainably go directly back into conservation efforts. Women get empowered by selling their crops and acquiring accounting skills.

Reducing negative interactions between people and wildlife

It is important to find creative ways of avoiding or reducing negative interactions between people and wildlife. Lion Guardians in Kenya, Ecoexist in Botswana and the Southern Tanzania Elephant Programme are examples.

This positive coexistence happens through partnerships, participation, and fostering tolerance. The projects create incentives for wildlife-friendly actions that are rooted in science and rural economic development. Such “coexistence buffer zone” projects can promote awareness and tourism by being part of visits to national parks.

Zebras in Majete Wildlife Reserve, Malawi nature — Zebras in Majete Wildlife Reserve, Malawi © Jason I. Ransom

Tourism reforms and participatory approaches

Growing the domestic wildlife-watching market is a potential strategy. Compared with international tourism, domestic tourism can have a lower carbon footprint (through less travel), foster local interest in nature, and provide a more reliable income flow. Local hospitality in the form of homestays can help reduce the environmental footprint that big hotels leave.

A more diverse model will be environmentally respectful, promote local knowledge and cultural exchange, and encourage the participation of women. Bushcraft training is one example.

Participatory science and monitoring also have conservation potential. For example, the Grevy’s Zebra Warriors earn income by monitoring endangered zebra in Kenya and Ethiopia. The illegal killing of elephants has also been successfully monitored using participatory surveys. In addition to income, such programmes provide a means for exchange between traditional ecological knowledge keepers, local naturalists, scientists and conservation practitioners.

A mix of “alternative” ways of encouraging and sustaining conservation is urgently needed now. The way forward in conserving nature is through building grassroots domestic conservation actions with direct and positive socioeconomic outcomes. Contributions to shared, interconnected ecosystems that yield a strong sense of sustainable stewardship are ones that create value, foster lasting relationships and nurture deeper connections with the living world.

This article had inputs from our colleagues Phyllis Lee, Jorgelina Marino, Hannah Mumby, Andrew Dobson, Ross Harvey, Keith Lindsay, David Lusseau and Claudio Sillero-Zubiri.

Mucha Mkono, Research Fellow (Australian Research Council DECRA Fellow), Business School, The University of Queensland; Jason I. Ransom, Wildlife Ecologist, National Park Service; Katarzyna Nowak, Fellow, The Safina Center; Research Associate, University of the Free State, and Patrick O. Onyango, Lecturer, Maseno University

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.