Every year in November about 10 million straw-coloured fruit bats gather in Kasanka National Park in Zambia to feast on fruit delicacies such as musuku, mufinsa and mangos. These flying mammals darken the skies and trigger a feeding frenzy for Kasanka’s birds of prey and other opportunistic predators. This is the largest mammal migration on planet earth and attracts significant attention from a tourist perspective – as well it should! However, beyond that, few people really give the bats of Africa much consideration. Caught somewhere between being thought of as a rodent and a bird, they are viewed as a pest by many and as terrifying by an unfortunate few. The most attention they’ve received recently has been in reference to zoonotic diseases. Yet hidden in the intricacies of their tiny facial features, over-sized ears and paper-thin membranous wings, is a creature perfectly suited for its ecological niche and, even more importantly, one which plays a vital role in ecosystem health.
Flocking straw-coloured fruit bats in Kasanka, Zambia
There are 321 bat species in Africa – equating to a quarter of global bat diversity – divided into fructivores and echolocating insectivores. Quite aside from providing food for numerous predators, they perform vital services for the ecosystem – including the agricultural industries.
While bees are finally being recognized for their role as pollinators, bats are also pollinators of about 528 plant species worldwide, of which 450 are of commercial/agricultural importance. These include baobabs, sausage trees, mangoes, avocadoes, banana plants and African locust beans. The mechanism behind this pollination process is straightforward to understand. In essence, the bats feed on the plants (fruit or nectar) and transport the pollen to the next plant they move to. In many cases, the flowers of these plants are pale-coloured and bell-shaped – designed to appeal more to bats than insects – and some of these relationships are so interdependent and exclusive that studies carried out on over 126 species have shown that if bats are excluded, fruit production reduces by up to 83%.
In an extension of their role as pollinators, bats also act as seed dispersers in a manner not unlike that of elephants, on a smaller scale. They digest the fruits they consume and then excrete the seeds far away from the parent plant in a pile of ready-made fertilizer (guano).
A red-billed hornbill making a meal of a bat in Manyeleti, Greater Kruger, South Africa
Bats also contribute to maintaining a balance in terms of insect numbers. Insectivorous bats can consume an average of 70% of their body weight in one night, including enormous numbers of mosquitoes and crop pests. Their exact impact on controlling mosquito numbers is still not thoroughly researched, but it is known that most microbats consume mosquitoes in vast amounts, making some researchers look into their role in reducing malaria cases. Quite aside from the ecological and health implications of this service, research conducted in North America estimated that the services provided by white-nosed bats in terms of pest control and crop protection equated to around $3.7 billion per year. Studies have also shown that bats in South Africa could be used to help macadamia farmers to save millions currently being lost to stinkbug damage.
An epauletted fruit bat holds her baby in the cooling breeze in Balule, Greater Kruger, South Africa
Those passionate about conserving bats have their work cut out for them. For a start, bats sometimes occupy human homes and cause a fair amount of mess and a relatively unpleasant odour – and they require professional removal. More so, a fair number of people have a kind of primordial fear of bats. This is only going to be exacerbated by the acknowledgement that bats are known carriers of coronaviruses. With all of this counting against them, 24 bat species are critically endangered, 53 are endangered and another 104 listed as vulnerable throughout the world. Yet protecting them is essential because, without bats, the world could, quite possibly, turn upside down.
Africa Geographic director Christian Boix with safari clients in Kasanka, Zambia, during the annual bat migration
Our Photographer of the Year 2020 is now in full swing. The overall winner, first runner-up, and second runner-up (along with their partners), will experience the ultimate private safari at Djuma Private Game Reserve, located in the Sabi Sand Private Game Reserve in the Big 5 Greater Kruger, South Africa. Read about the safari enjoyed by the 2019 winners here.
There are four galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 1, Gallery 2, Gallery 3
Our Photographer of the Year 2020 is now in full swing. The overall winner, first runner-up, and second runner-up (along with their partners), will experience the ultimate private safari at Djuma Private Game Reserve, located in the Sabi Sand Private Game Reserve in the Big 5 Greater Kruger, South Africa. Read about the safari enjoyed by the 2019 winners here.
There are four galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 1, Gallery 2, Gallery 4
Our Photographer of the Year 2020 is now in full swing. The overall winner, first runner-up, and second runner-up (along with their partners), will experience the ultimate private safari at Djuma Private Game Reserve, located in the Sabi Sand Private Game Reserve in the Big 5 Greater Kruger, South Africa. Read about the safari enjoyed by the 2019 winners here.
There are four galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 1, Gallery 3, Gallery 4
Our Photographer of the Year 2020 is now in full swing. The overall winner, first runner-up, and second runner-up (along with their partners), will experience the ultimate private safari at Djuma Private Game Reserve, located in the Sabi Sand Private Game Reserve in the Big 5 Greater Kruger, South Africa. Read about the safari enjoyed by the 2019 winners here.
There are four galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 2, Gallery 3, Gallery 4
Authors: Jamie Paterson (science editor) and Simon Espley (CEO) of team Africa Geographic
South Africa is a long-standing and respected leader when it comes to farming wild animals. Yes, there are instances of bad and biodiversity-damaging behaviour (which we condemn via focussed articles), but as an industry, the South African wildlife industry does earn its keep and its kudos, and it maintains sizeable swathes of land for wildlife, and away from intensive crop and livestock farming. But recent moves by the South African government suggest that the game is about to change, and not for the better.
In 2019, the Ministry of Agriculture in South Africa quietly (and without public consultation or scientific research) passed a “minor amendment” to the Animal Improvement Act that reclassified 33 wild animals as farm animals – including lions, cheetahs, several antelope species, giraffes, zebras and both black and white rhinos. Now, the government plans to revise the Meat Safety Act of 2000 by expanding the list of animals to which the Act applies for slaughter, consumption, import, export, and sale. The intent was published in the official government Gazette on 28 February 2020. New animals added to this list now include impala, bushpig, warthog, giraffe, elephant, buffalo and rhinoceros. Is the plan to intensively manufacture our rhinos and elephants (and others) into burgers, kebabs and pâté?
To be clear at the outset, we offer no blanket objection to all sustainable uses of wildlife, especially where these uses are legitimately environmentally sustainable and beneficial to local communities. Instead, this opinion editorial is about the degree to which these activities are pursued, against a backdrop of demonstrated failure by government to enforce existing legislation designed to protect biodiversity and human public health. For example, there is a clear difference between venison/game farming and subsistence hunting on the one hand, and intensive farming to achieve a maximum yield on the other. The South African government has been incrementally promoting the ‘sustainable use’ of wildlife for many years – expressing this approach as a guiding principle behind several policy decisions. That seems to be a reasonable strategy on a continent with an abundant biodiversity resource. That said, these latest proposed amendments to the Meat Safety Act suggest the intention to stretch South Africa’s wildlife laws to include the large-scale farming of wild animal species specifically for consumptive purposes. This is where the comparison to China’s journey with wildlife farming becomes highly relevant.
Proponents of the ‘sustainable use’ ideology argue that it is a conservation tool; by permitting the captive breeding of wild animals, the products of these animals (meat, horn, skin, scales) can be used to supply the market – thereby dropping the prices and reducing the pressure on the animals in the wild. This is the basis of the argument used for both canned and other trophy hunting and the trade in lion bone. It is also the fundamental approach of Chinese wildlife laws. The term ‘sustainable use’ is now often underpinned by the term ‘if it pays it stays’ – which surely has an altogether different meaning.
China’s Wildlife Protection Law (WPL) is the basis of the legal framework of wildlife protection in that country. Since it came into effect in 1988, the WPL has been revised four times and the 2016 revision centred around whether or not the law was about “protecting” wild animals or “using” them. Ultimately, “regulated use” was cemented into the law and made clear that wildlife is to be considered a “resource”, one of the principle purposes being for domestication and consumption. The Chinese government has actively promoted the farming of wildlife over the past three decades – designating it as a key strategy for rural development and resulting in a convoluted industry that was valued at US$74 billion by the Chinese Academy of Engineering in 2017.
It was this approach that has led directly to the current coronavirus pandemic and catapulted China’s wildlife markets onto international news screens, ultimately resulting in a temporary ban in the trade in wildlife products. While scientists have yet to confirm which species carried the virus and passed it on to humans, there is no rational doubt that the disease is zoonotic in origin. This is hardly without precedent – the 2003/4 SARS outbreak that killed at least 774 people in 29 different countries was traced to farmed civets, though experts believe that they were an intermediate carrier and that the virus was transmitted to them in one of the meat markets. China implemented a temporary ban on civet farming, but by the end of 2019, government bodies in China were promoting the farming of civets once again.
Quite apart from the zoonotic implications exacerbated by the unsanitary farming conditions and markets, farming wild animals in China has failed in its purported conservation agenda. There are believed to be over 200 tiger farms in China, with over 5,000 tigers farmed for their bones, skin and teeth to feed the enormous traditional medicine market. Yet in the three decades of tiger farming, wild tiger numbers continued to plummet, and there are now believed to be fewer than 50 wild tigers throughout China – despite extensive conservation efforts. Tiger parts sourced from tigers poached in other parts of Asia also find their way into China to feed the demand of the largest market in the world. And African lion bones (farmed and poached) are also finding their way into the Chinese tiger bone market. The same applies to multiple pangolin species both within China and throughout the rest of the world.
Given that tigers and pangolins are theoretically species with the highest levels of legal protection in China, why then is this the case? The answer given by critics such as the Environmental Investigation Agency is that allowing trade in animal parts for ‘traditional medicine’ reasons (permitted under Chinese law even for the most endangered species) makes it impossible for authorities to determine which animal products are legal or illegal, farmed or wild. Their investigations indicate that the legal trade has created the perfect opportunity for the laundering of illegal wildlife parts.
Could this be the model that South Africa is destined to follow? Will South Africa (and Africa by implication because South Africa is a known transit point for continental wildlife trafficking) see its threatened species go down the same road of intensive farming while wild populations crash? To better understand the risk of this happening, let’s dig deeper, to compare the situation in China and South Africa.
It could be argued that South Africa could use this model to learn from China’s mistakes, to create a much more coherent way of controlling the trade in wild animal parts. The Chinese legislation has been criticised as being piecemeal and ambiguous, operating through loopholes without any centralised authority, based on the premise that the Chinese government promotes farming and consumption of wild animals. To avoid this situation, South Africa would need clearly communicated and concise laws with an effective method of certification for legal farmed animal products.
Yet so far, the South African government’s approach has been anything but clear and concise. The 2019 amendment was met with widespread condemnation and criticism for its lack of clarity on the ramifications of such an amendment, particularly with regard to the lion bone farming industry. Indeed, one author of this opinion editorial requested clarity in mid-2019 from Minister Barbara Creecy, South Africa’s Minister of the Environment, on how many wild rhino this country has left, when Ms Creecy requested scientific input to an application to CITES to reduce the protection afforded to white rhino. The Minister, unlike her predecessor, refuses to divulge rhino population statistics against a backdrop of misleading proclamations of reduced poaching, and yet here she was expecting valid scientific input while keeping us all in the dark about the most important starting point for such scientific input. Once again, the announcement of the proposed amendment of the Meat Safety Act to include rhinos offers no real clarity except to point out “this scheme includes animals that are listed as endangered species…and therefore their slaughter for both human and animal consumption must be in line with the most relevant conservation indications”. What is meant by “most relevant” remains to be seen…
In addition to unambiguous laws, South Africa would need a centralised authority to manage the certification and oversee the movement, trade and disease-control of farmed wildlife products. There would also need to be strong law-enforcement procedures in place to ensure vendors do not sell illegal products alongside legal ones.
Like many Chinese people, the majority of the South African population has strongly engrained cultural beliefs surrounding the medicinal values of animal parts, as evidenced by the flourishing muthi markets in main cities such as Johannesburg and Durban. These markets continue to sell illegal wildlife products such as baboon skulls, skinned monkeys, vulture heads, pangolin scales and leopard pelts – and the rare police raids do little to stem the tide. Despite extensive efforts from both government and private initiatives, challenges in the forms of rhino poaching, bushmeat trade, vulture poisoning and black-market abalone trade all cast dark shadows of doubt over South Africa’s capacity to successfully police a legal trade in wild animals.
There would also need to be extensive legal guidelines for the welfare of these farmed animals. In China, it took years before the outrage regarding the process of bear bile farming had any impact on animal welfare legislation, and even so, there are farms where those practices are still commonplace. Intensive farming is known to result in animal welfare atrocities, and as money and maximum yield become the motivating factors, the same would apply to a wildlife context. There is a theory that allowing trade would create income to enable these farms to improve the living conditions – this is not born out in reality, as can be seen in the farming of domestic livestock. As we know from feedlot farming of livestock, this level of commercial intensification at the expense of moral and health standards becomes common-place when it is permitted. A case in point is that once South Africa legalised the farming of lions for bones the cases of horrific under-nourished, overbred lions crowded together on lion farms throughout South Africa sky-rocketed. Quite aside from the horrendous ethical implications, the cost to the country’s conservation reputation and subsequent loss of revenue from tourism would undoubtedly be enormous.
For 20 years, the venison industry in South Africa has been left to interpret the regulations of the Meat Safety Act without any government assistance, and this has resulted in warnings from meat safety consultants about potential safety problems. Humans have been fighting to keep domestic livestock diseases under control since intensive farming became an industry, and yet disease outbreaks still occur that result in enormous losses. Wild animals carry diseases. Some of these are capable of mutating and jumping the species barrier. In a natural environment, a system of checks and balances keep these diseases under control. But through intensive farming, these diseases have the potential to spread like wildfire. This recent article in Farmer’s Weekly emphasises the importance of venison as an industry and source of nutrition but warns that South Africa’s meat safety regulations are poorly understood and implemented and that the many zoonotic diseases historically found mainly in livestock are now increasingly common in wildlife. These diseases, therefore, pose a growing risk to human health.
The point is this. The South African reality right now is far removed from that of China’s; we are far from having a multibillion-dollar wildlife farming industry with wildlife markets offering anything from bats to tiger bones. But the South African government is relying on the same reasoning, the same justifications to push through legislation without proper disclosure, consultation and scientific input. “Sustainable use” is becoming a convenient catch-all phrase, a cover for the creation of an industry that is being pushed by those who would benefit tremendously by it. Both South Africa and China have a demonstrated lack of transparency in their manoeuvrings, and both seem unable to enforce their own environmental and public health regulations.
The South African government and policymakers need to take a long hard look at China’s conservation history, their role in the current Coronavirus pandemic and their increasing pariah status. And they need to honestly assess whether they have what it takes to avoid going down that same disastrous road when ‘sustainable use’ goes very wrong. When China treated wild animals as livestock, the animals paid the price, and now, the world is paying an even greater price. Is that a model that South Africa wants to emulate?
Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing.
The overall winner, first runner-up, and second runner-up (along with their partners), will experience the ultimate private safari at Djuma Private Game Reserve, located in the Sabi Sand Private Game Reserve in the Big 5 Greater Kruger, South Africa. Read about the safari enjoyed by the 2019 winners here.
There are four galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 1, Gallery 2, Gallery 3
Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing.
The overall winner, first runner-up, and second runner-up (along with their partners), will experience the ultimate private safari at Djuma Private Game Reserve, located in the Sabi Sand Private Game Reserve in the Big 5 Greater Kruger, South Africa. Read about the safari enjoyed by the 2019 winners here.
There are four galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 1, Gallery 2, Gallery 4
Our Photographer of the Year 2020 is now in full swing. The overall winner, first runner-up, and second runner-up (along with their partners), will experience the ultimate private safari at Djuma Private Game Reserve, located in the Sabi Sand Private Game Reserve in the Big 5 Greater Kruger, South Africa. Read about the safari enjoyed by the 2019 winners here.
There are four galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 1, Gallery 3, Gallery 4
Our Photographer of the Year 2020 is now in full swing. The overall winner, first runner-up, and second runner-up (along with their partners), will experience the ultimate private safari at Djuma Private Game Reserve, located in the Sabi Sand Private Game Reserve in the Big 5 Greater Kruger, South Africa. Read about the safari enjoyed by the 2019 winners here.
There are four galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 2, Gallery 3, Gallery 4
A group of hippos – Hippopotamus amphibious(amphibious water horses) – kicking up clouds of dust
Take, for example, the Cyclocephala nodanotherwon, which is a type of rhinoceros beetle in the scarab family that was described by Ratcliffe in 1992. Unless you are a scientist or particularly observant, go back and read the species name (the second word) again and enjoy Ratcliffe’s sense of humour in the knowledge that by the time it was described, 290 other members of that genus had already been identified. “Not another one” – get it?
It became very clear from very early on in our forays into the world of biological and scientific study that living creatures come in distinctive shapes and sizes and that it would be necessary to find a way to convey both similarities and differences between species through naming. With the help of Gaspard Bauhin and, more famously, Carl Linneaus, the system of scientific names gradually evolved to the point we have reached today. Binomial nomenclature is essential to our understanding of where each species fits into the great taxonomical hierarchy and works, in theory, to ensure certainty within the biological community.
A defassa waterbuck – Kobus ellipsiprymnus defassa (antelope with a circle on its rump)
Every mammal, bird, plant, fish, frog, algae, fungi (and so on) is designated both a capitalised generic name referring to its genus and a specific name/epithet that identifies which species it is. Now governed by a strict code, this naming system relies mostly on Latin and Classical Greek words to create a descriptive basis for each given name and it is in these meanings that the secret gems of the scientific naming system can be found. Small references to the biology of the animal can be a useful way of remembering the scientific name, but there are also tantalising glimpses into history and, on occasion, insights into the scientists doing the naming.
These days, people generally don’t throw scientific names into casual conversation unless they either work in a particular industry or are contriving to be as pretentious as possible, but understanding the etymology behind a name adds an entirely different dynamic.
Human – Homo sapiens:
Starting with the basics, “homo” literally translates from the Latin as human and “sapiens” as wise – a useful reminder that scientific names are not always necessarily accurate.
The Big 5
African bush elephant – Loxodonta africana
From the Greek word “loxós” meaning slanting, or crosswise, and “odoús” meaning tooth – referring to the grooves in an elephant’s molars. The africana part is relatively self-explanatory (though those interested should read up about the fascinating debate around the history of the name “Africa”)
White rhinoceros – Ceratotherium simum
“Cerato” meaning horn, “thorium” meaning wild beast and “simum” meaning flat-nosed – all come together to describe a horned wild beast with a flat nose.
Black rhino – Diceros bicornis
Named by Carl Linnaeus himself in 1758, there is some historical confusion as to how it came about, but it is believed that he based his classification on the skull of a (single-horned) Indian rhinoceros with an added artificial horn. He was clearly very taken with the idea of two horns, as the scientific name of the black rhino literally translates as “double horn” “double horn”. Imagine Linnaeus’ reaction had he not turned down a visit to South Africa on the basis that he didn’t really like the heat…
An impressive black rhino – Diceros bicornis (double-horn double-horn) – stares out across the plains
Lion and leopard – Panthera leo and Panthera pardus
There is some disagreement as to the etymology behind the word Panthera – it is most likely derived from a Sanskrit word meaning pale yellow but may also have been a reference to the hunting nets used by Roman soldiers.
Cape Buffalo – Syncerus caffer
“Syn” meaning together and “keras” meaning horn – together refers to the shape of the base of the buffalo’s horns (the boss). The species name refers to the Latin meaning from, or of, “Caffraria”, the name given to the African continent.
The ‘boss’ clearly evident in this drinking Cape buffalo – Syncerus caffer (together-horns from Africa)
Honourable mentions
Plains zebra – Equus quagga
The scientific name of the plains zebra was changed from Equus burchellii to Equus quagga after a scientific study confirmed that the extinct quagga was genetically close enough to other plains zebras to be considered to have been the same species. This forced a change in name due to the Principle of Priority – the quagga was classified first, and therefore that name must be applied.
Fortunately, this has not significantly dishonoured the memory of William John Burchell. The English explorer and naturalist had a multitude of animals (and an entire plant genus) named after him thanks to his meticulous exploration of South Africa during the early 19th century when he covered more than 7,000km, collected 50,000 specimens and kept meticulous records.
Woodland kingfisher – Halcyon senegalensis
The genus name of the Halcyon kingfishers is a reference to the word the Ancient Greeks used to refer to kingfishers. According to Greek legend, the kingfishers nested on the sea and that either the nests themselves or sympathetic gods calmed the winds and seas so that the eggs might survive. Hence the expression “halcyon days”.
A performing woodland kingfisher – Halcyon senegalensis (mythological bird from Senegal that calmed the rough seas)
“Narrow-mouthed” frogs – Mini genus
Described in 2019, a new genus of frogs with three separate species was discovered by researchers in Madagascar. The frogs, all under 15mm in length, have been named Mini mum, Mini scule, and Mini ature.
The above examples are just a small sample of the many secrets hidden behind what might be considered to be quite a boring scientific necessity. Given the spectacular variety of African fauna and flora and combined with our intricate history, the scientific names associated with our wildlife and plants tend to be intriguing and, at times, potentially highly amusing.
Our Photographer of the Year 2020 is now in full swing. The overall winner, first runner-up, and second runner-up (along with their partners), will experience the ultimate private safari at Djuma Private Game Reserve, located in the Sabi Sand Private Game Reserve in the Big 5 Greater Kruger, South Africa. Read about the safari enjoyed by the 2019 winners here.
There are three galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 1, Gallery 2
Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing.
The overall winner, first runner-up, and second runner-up (along with their partners), will experience the ultimate private safari at Djuma Private Game Reserve, located in the Sabi Sand Private Game Reserve in the Big 5 Greater Kruger, South Africa. Read about the safari enjoyed by the 2019 winners here.
There are three galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 2, Gallery 3
Our Photographer of the Year 2020 is now in full swing. The overall winner, first runner-up, and second runner-up (along with their partners), will experience the ultimate private safari at Djuma Private Game Reserve, located in the Sabi Sand Private Game Reserve in the Big 5 Greater Kruger, South Africa. Read about the safari enjoyed by the 2019 winners here.
There are three galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 1, Gallery 3
Over 2,000 vultures (updated from 1,000 as previously reported) have reportedly died in various incidents across Guinea-Bissau, due to poisoning related to belief-based use. The situation now amounts to the biggest ever mass vulture mortality event in the world. Information provided by the Vulture Conservation Foundation.
Editorial update 21 April 2020:
The latest estimate of critically endangered hooded vultures to have died from poisoning across Guinea-Bissau is in excess of 2,000. Evidence collected during the field missions organized by the authorities suggests that the vultures have been killed deliberately using poisoned baits. Reports from witnesses corroborate that vultures were poisoned intentionally, using poison baits placed around villages so that vulture parts could be collected for belief-based use (ritual use), with demand related to the country’s political instability. In some parts of Africa, some communities believe that possession of vulture heads is thought to bring good fortune or even special powers. In Guinea-Bissau at least 200 of the poisoned vultures have been found without their heads. Additionally, there have been reports that high demand for vulture body parts from neighbouring countries may have played a role.
To help confirm the cause of death, vulture carcasses have been collected and sent to Lisbon with one of the last planes that flew out of Guinea-Bissau before the global lock-down imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic and toxicological analysis are now being carried out in Lisbon university.
Editorial update 6 March 2020: The number of vulture mortalities is now nearing 1000 individuals throughout Guinea-Bissau – an unprecedented and disastrous blow to the already plummeting populations of vultures in West Africa. The dead vultures have generally been found in groups on the outskirts of towns spread throughout the country, with numbers around 300-600 in Bafatá, 400-493 in Gabú, 40-96 in Bambadinca and 23 in Quebo. As was initially the case, most of the vulture casualties appear to be hooded vultures and the carcasses were incinerated immediately to minimise the potential contamination. Disconcertingly, the cause remains unidentified, though poisoning is still a distinct possibility, and the situation has been made all the more challenging due to political instability throughout Guinea-Bissau.
There have been no mortalities reported over the past few days which may be a positive sign, but the Vulture Conservation Foundation and the IUCN’s Vulture Specialist Group continue to offer their support to the local authorities.
Vulture poisoning is one of the main threats facing vulture populations throughout Africa, and incidents have been known to kill hundreds of vultures at a time. With further reports of dead vultures coming in from other regions of Guinea-Bissau, the reason behind the deaths remains to be established.
A quick response team was mobilised to incinerate the carcasses of the dead vultures to minimise the risk of spread of either poison or pathogen and the World Health Organisation office in Guinea-Bissau is involved in case there is a potential risk of a public health threat.
Africa’s vulture populations have already declined by an average 62% over the past three decades — with seven species crashing by 80%. Most of the afflicted vultures appear to be hooded vultures, which are considered to be Critically Endangered in West Africa, and this incident could have enormous ramifications for their population.
The Vulture Conservation Foundation and the IUCN’s Vulture Specialist Group have both expressed alarm over the incident in Guinea-Bissau and have stressed the urgency of the situation as well as pledging support to the authorities. So far, the reactions of the Guinea-Bissau authorities have been rapid, but the main priority now is to identify the cause behind these widespread vulture deaths.
A baby elephant was killed and eaten by spotted hyenas as its mother lay helplessly a few meters away – stuck in the mud of a rapidly-drying pan during the height of the 2019 dry season in Mana Pools, Zimbabwe. The mother died days later, probably due to dehydration, despite rescue attempts by park officials.
This gruesome display of how harsh life can be for Africa’s wildlife occurred just days before two baby elephants were rescued from a muddy pan – by the same photographer.
The mother and her baby elephant became stuck in the mud while trying to find water, and hyenas soon started circling. The hyenas attacked during the night and killed the baby by eating into the flesh via the spine – the only exposed part of the baby’s body.
This may seem ‘cruel’ to some observers, but reflects the reality for many individual wild animals that suffer a violent death. And the circle of life goes on – that clan of hyenas extracted the sustenance they needed to feed their clan members and to continue playing the essential role that they play as scavengers and apex predators. Read more about spotted hyenas here.
October 2019, and Mana Pools National Park was at the height of the dry season, after an extended drought. This is ‘suicide month’, and the mercury regularly rises to the mid-forties Celcius. The animals of Mana, already pushed to the brink of survival, must eke out an existence before the arrival of the rains.
Photographer Jens Cullmann, on his annual Mana Pools sojourn, was bushwalking when he came across the elephant cow and her calf stuck in the mud of a rapidly drying pool. The elephants, driven by their desperate thirst, had ventured too far into the sticky mud and as their strength deserted them, they had collapsed in exhaustion. Jens advised the park authorities of the situation, but was not permitted by strict park rules to take matters into his own hands, even if that were physically possible.
Jens, who was present during the daylight hours on either side of this horrible incident, had this to say:
‘‘I felt helpless as I watched this cruel drama unfold in front of me. When I shared some images on social media, some people asked me why I did not rescue the elephants; others accused me of not caring. Aside from it being illegal (for sound conservation reasons) to interfere with nature in a national park, the simple reality of the situation prevented me from assisting these elephants. Unfortunately, this is not as simple as digging with a spade and pulling them out. With a combined weight of more than five tons, stuck in thick mud, I would have needed a considerable team even to stand a slight chance. I witnessed several similarly distressing incidents during this stay in Mana Pools – all of them were gut-wrenching to witness. Life in nature has a cruel way of showing us that survivors aren’t always the strongest or the smartest – sometimes they are simply the luckiest. I mourned the death of all of these victims to drought, but also made sure to look for positives. Amongst this brutality, a clan of hyena gets to live for another week …”
Sometimes, words are inadequate to describe the harsh realities of what happens in nature. The following uncaptioned images speak for themselves.
ABOUT THE PHOTOGRAPHER, JENS CULLMANN
Jens Cullman is a German nature photographer. “It takes a lot of passion to capture one magical moment in the wild. Sometimes I wait for many hours in oppressive heat and have no luck. At other times the patience is rewarded during a split second of magic. But being ready at all times for that split-second is what makes the difference. Along the way, on this incredible journey, I have gained massive respect and love for wild places, and to accept nature’s ways. The golden hour of the sun, dust in the sky, animals in action right in front of you – this is where I always want to be.”
Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing.
The overall winner, first runner-up, and second runner-up (along with their partners), will experience the ultimate private safari at Djuma Private Game Reserve, located in the Sabi Sand Private Game Reserve in the Big 5 Greater Kruger, South Africa. Read about the safari enjoyed by the 2019 winners here.
There are three galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 2, Gallery 3
Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing.
The overall winner, first runner-up, and second runner-up (along with their partners), will experience the ultimate private safari at Djuma Private Game Reserve, located in the Sabi Sand Private Game Reserve in the Big 5 Greater Kruger, South Africa. Read about the safari enjoyed by the 2019 winners here.
There are three galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 1, Gallery 2
Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing.
The overall winner, first runner-up, and second runner-up (along with their partners), will experience the ultimate private safari at Djuma Private Game Reserve, located in the Sabi Sand Private Game Reserve in the Big 5 Greater Kruger, South Africa. Read about the safari enjoyed by the 2019 winners here.
There are three galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 1, Gallery 3
Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing.
The overall winner, first runner-up, and second runner-up (along with their partners), will experience the ultimate private safari at Djuma Private Game Reserve, located in the Sabi Sand Private Game Reserve in the Big 5 Greater Kruger, South Africa. Read about the safari enjoyed by the 2019 winners here.
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 1
Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing.
The overall winner, first runner-up, and second runner-up (along with their partners), will experience the ultimate private safari at Djuma Private Game Reserve, located in the Sabi Sand Private Game Reserve in the Big 5 Greater Kruger, South Africa. Read about the safari enjoyed by the 2019 winners here.
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 2
Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing.
The overall winner, first runner-up, and second runner-up (along with their partners), will experience the ultimate private safari at Djuma Private Game Reserve, located in the Sabi Sand Private Game Reserve in the Big 5 Greater Kruger, South Africa. Read about the safari enjoyed by the 2019 winners here.
There are three galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 2, Gallery 3
Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing.
The overall winner, first runner-up, and second runner-up (along with their partners), will experience the ultimate private safari at Djuma Private Game Reserve, located in the Sabi Sand Private Game Reserve in the Big 5 Greater Kruger, South Africa. Read about the safari enjoyed by the 2019 winners here.
There are three galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 1, Gallery 2
Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing.
The overall winner, first runner-up, and second runner-up (along with their partners), will experience the ultimate private safari at Djuma Private Game Reserve, located in the Sabi Sand Private Game Reserve in the Big 5 Greater Kruger, South Africa. Read about the safari enjoyed by the 2019 winners here.
There are three galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 1, Gallery 3
Ten years ago, 194 state signatories to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity committed themselves to the Aichi Biodiversity Targets – ambitious goals to conserve biological diversity. In particular, by 2020, they aimed that at least 17% of terrestrial and inland water, and 10% of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, are effectively and equitably conserved and integrated into the wider landscapes and seascapes.
What constitutes ‘protected land’?
Assessing what constitutes a protected area is no small feat and translating this definition into quantitative values is fraught with difficulties. This task falls to Protected Planet – a joint initiative of the UN Environment and the IUCN which uses submissions from governments, non-governmental organisations, landowners and local communities to update the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA). The WDPA is the most comprehensive data set on protected areas in the world and is updated monthly to reflect ever-changing conservation realities of different countries. Protected Planet’s live digital report can found here.
The IUCN defines a protected area as “a clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values.” This broad definition can encompass anything from strict nature reserves where no human activity beyond scientific research is permitted to conservation models that allow for the sustainable use of land, such as conservancies. Of the latter, many such areas form a fundamental percentage of Africa’s protected terrestrial spaces.
The 2020 Targets
According to the latest update by the WDPA (March 2020), the terrestrial protected areas across the globe cover 20,4 million km² – which equates to 15.1%, below the 17% target. The protected marine areas also fall short of the 10% goal – only 7.4% of the world’s oceans are protected. The WPDA world map of comparative percentages of protected terrestrial land can be viewed below.
Image (Map) Source: UNEP-WCMC and IUCN. March 2020. Protected Planet: The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA), March 2020 version, Cambridge, UK: UNEP-WCMC and IUCN.
African countries by percentage of protected area
Country
Overall protected land percentage
Effectively managed protected land percentage
Republic of Congo
42
10
Zambia
41
16
Tanzania
38
12
Namibia
38
16
Guinea
36
6
Benin
30
10
Botswana
29
19
Togo
28
7
Zimbabwe
27
6
Senegal
25
6
Côte d’Ivoire
23
6
Malawi
23
12
Gabon
22
11
Mozambique
22
5
Chad
21
12
Equatorial Guinea
19
12
Ethiopia
18
3
Central African Republic
18
6
Niger
17
16
Guinea-Bissau
17
16
Uganda
16
7
South Sudan
16
9
Ghana
15.1
1
Nigeria
14
2
Democratic Republic of Congo
14
7
Egypt
13
8
Kenya
12
5
Rwanda
9
9
Mali
8
8
South Africa
8
5
It is imperative to note the distinction between total protected land and the percentage considered by the WDPA to be effectively managed, which puts certain percentages into perspective. This is not necessarily an indictment on the management of the protected areas because an area is only counted as being effectively managed if “management effectiveness evaluations have been reported as being undertaken”. Also, the statistics used by the WDPA often differ from those officially reported by the countries themselves.
The 2020 deadline – now what?
There have been numerous meetings and workshops scheduled for the build-up to the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity – planned for October 2020 in China.
1,967 sites in Africa have been identified as Key Biodiversity Areas; that is, areas that “contribute to the global persistence of biodiversity, including vital habitat for threatened plant and animal species.” Of these sites, 38% fall under some form of protection. Africa, as a whole, has made significant strides over the past ten years towards increasing the amount of protected terrestrial areas. While there are inevitable challenges and setbacks, African countries are guardians to some of the earth’s most vital ecoregions. Most importantly, the future of these protected areas – both existing and planned – hinges directly on the support of the tourism industry.
Hand over hand we crawled up the jagged rocks of Mutumbe, determined to summit the highest point in Zambia’s Kafue National Park before dark. We had started our climb on a gentle slope but quickly found ourselves scrambling over boulders and sharp rocks with our skin soaked in sweat. No one we knew had ever attempted the climb. Now we understood why.
With steep-sided iron ore ridges, Mutumbwe rises 300 meters above the surrounding plains, looking from above like a knife’s edge slicing through the terrain. Cresting a vantage point, we realized we were merely climbing a large cliff rather than a route to the top; Mutumbwe’s perilous summit would elude us that day. Instead, we sat back, cooled off, and drank in the consolation prize: a 360-degree view of an African wonder.
Find out about Kafue for your next African safari. We have ready-made safaris to choose from, or ask us to build one just for you.
Mutumbwe-Ridge and the view south across KafueIt was August, the end of the chilly Zambian winter. Hours before, with our backpacks loaded in the back of a truck, we had bounced down a dirt road toward the eastern end of Kafue, the sun rising in front of us. We stopped to pick up Lipoko and Yuram, our Zambia Department of National Parks and Wildlife anti-poaching rangers, guides and protection for the next few days. Arriving at our kick-off point, we hoisted our gear, filled our water bottles, and took our first steps into this vast wilderness.
At almost 100 years old, Kafue is one of Africa’s oldest and largest parks, and at 24,400 km² (2,400,000 hectares), is as big as some countries. Kafue’s stunning beauty includes miombo-woodland covered hills, thick savanna grasslands, extensive marshes, and sinuous evergreen forests guarding the banks of the Kafue River. And yet the grandeur can distract you: Kafue is a park in danger.
The route across the northern sector of Kafue National ParkYuram preparing nshima (maize meal)
For myself, a life-long outdoorsman and conservationist, and for Phil Jeffrey, an experienced Zambian wildlife guide and the co-owner of Musekese Conservation, this was more than just a walk in the park. We were on a 160km journey-for-a-cause through Kafue’s little traversed northeastern tier. Our mission: to boost public awareness of the emergency created by poaching and encroachment on a vast array of wildlife.
Naturally, we set out for the adventure too, but the real motivation was to raise badly needed money for ‘Saving Kafue National Park One Step At A Time’ – our effort to strengthen wildlife conservation in the park.
The remains of a poached elephantA painted wolf (African wild dog) encountered during the walk
The next day, after an early start, to avoid the heat, we soon saw signs of bushpig, warthog, aardvark, elephant, and various antelope. Following a lone elephant bull’s trail, we pushed our way through 2m-high grass that gradually transitioned to miombo woodland.
As the days passed, we saw signs of illegal activity: trees downed for honey harvesting, snares, empty poachers’ camps, bicycle tracks, and a broad, well-used foot trail that originated beyond the park’s eastern boundary. A three-legged hyena, an injured zebra, and the skeletal remains of a sable antelope with a snare around its horns confirmed our suspicions. Further on, we found a recently poached elephant and the skeletons of two other pachyderms that Lipoko and Yuram estimated were killed sometime in the past two years.
Phil Jeffrey and an elephant herd
Musekese Conservation is collaborating with National Parks to mitigate the effects of increased poaching and human encroachment pressure on Kafue National Park. Musekese recently built an anti-poaching unit that comfortably houses 12 rangers and supervisors, and has a first-in-Kafue central communication centre to facilitate faster scout communication and coordination during emerging situations.
On day four, moving along the Kafue River, we saw a python, at least 4 meters long and 20-25 centimetres wide, with a swollen belly two to three times the girth of the rest of its body – probably filled with a bushbuck or other small animal. While digesting, this impressive snake was resting safely under thick bush close to the river. Being careful not to scare the python and cause it to regurgitate its food and flee, we watched quietly from a safe distance.
African rock python resting after a large meal
Our walk took us to traditional, hand-made community fishing weirs, permitted by the original park agreement with the indigenous tribes. These effective weirs are wood and thatch dams spanning the Lafupa River, routing water to trap fish into baskets made from reeds that grow along the banks of the Kafue. One at a time, we picked our way across the rickety structures, keeping a wary eye out for nearby hippos and crocodiles. We celebrated a successful crossing with a restful night in Busanga Plains – an area in the far north of the park with extraordinary beauty and abundance of wildlife due to the lush vegetation created when the Lufupa River overflows into the adjacent plains. The Busanga Plains is a park highlight for the diversity and quantity of big game.
Lipoko crossing the Lufupa River over a fishing weir
On our last night, we made camp near an old river channel on a raised clearing area next to a large termite mound, shielding us from animals on one side. Exhausted, we lay in our sleeping bags watching the constellations roll by. Nearby, a leopard growled, elephants grumbled, and hippos splashed and grunted as they marked their territories and socialized. Early the next morning, I woke to a hyena whooping not thirty meters away.
Late on the eighth and final day, still in the Basunga Plains, we arrived at our endpoint. Tired, with sore feet, and weighing a few kilograms less, we dropped our packs and celebrated. We had just walked 160 km across Kafue National Park!
After being isolated and disconnected from our techno-existence, methodically placing one step at a time and listening to nature’s entertainment around me, I was reminded that to truly experience life, you have live it. Soul-awakening moments happen when your heart races, you taste the dust and sweat after a long day in the bush, and sit in darkness, a bit of fear encased in awe, listening to the distant roar of a lion, knowing that you are part of its world.
Aerial view of a mineral spring in Kafue National Park
Camera traps set up by researchers in DR Congo have revealed 43 secretive forest species such as giant ground pangolins, African golden cats, leopards, cusimanses (a species of mongoose), bonobos, forest elephants and the endemic Congo peafowls.
Researchers in the 3,6 million hectare Salonga National Park (Africa’s largest tropical rainforest reserve) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo set up 160 camera traps in 743 locations and used a new method of analysis known as “camera trap distance sampling” to estimate animal abundance in this, one of Africa’s richest biodiversity habitats.
Camera traps have revolutionised wildlife research in allowing data to be collected on specie’s distribution, density, abundance, behaviour and social structure without the presence of a human observer. They have proved to be an indispensable tool, particularly in challenging environments such as dense rainforests or in dealing with shy, elusive or even dangerous animal species. Their value has been clear for many years but only recently have scientists found ways to use them to evaluate actual population data accurately. These population and density estimates are, in turn, crucial in evaluating the conservation status of individual animal species and ensuring that the correct measures can be implemented for their protection.
In a study published in the Journal of Applied Ecology, biologists describe how they covered 17,127km2 (1,712,700 hectares) from September 2016 to May 2018, systematically placing camera traps between 70 to 90cm above the ground. These produced more than 16,000 video clips with over 170 hours of animal footage that revealed the secretive species.
In the past, camera trap footage and images could only be used to estimate populations of animals with distinctive markings such as leopards, where individuals could be identified and recognised in future images. For animals with more obscure or indistinct individual markers, it was far more challenging to avoid counting the same individual twice at different locations. This study focused on using camera trap distance sampling – subdividing the time the cameras were active into “snapshots” where at a specific and predetermined moment, one individual animal could only be in one location at one point in time.
The results of this method allowed this study to provide the first-ever estimates of the population sizes of species such as the Congo peafowl and giant ground pangolin. For the peafowl, the results of the study were positive – the numbers seem to be far higher than previously thought. For the giant ground pangolin, the researchers concluded that the population estimates are far more concerning, with fewer than 1,000 individuals in an enormous and, presumably vital, portion of their natural distribution.
Most importantly, the methods utilised by the researchers show that camera trap distance sampling is an essential survey method to provide valuable information on wildlife density and abundance. Previously, conservation efforts aimed at the protection of elusive species like the African golden cat or four-toed sengi (a type of elephant-shrew) were mainly based on educated guesses as to their numbers, but this study has provided a concrete way of estimating their actual wild abundance. According to the authors, this in turn “gives an insight into the complex and delicate equilibrium of the rainforest community and the threats to its survival.”
Full report: Drawn out of the shadows: Surveying secretive forest species with camera trap distance sampling, Besson M et al., 2020, published in the Journal of Applied Ecology.
‘Elephant down!’ came the raspy bark over the vehicle radio, and the crew leapt into action as we all converged on the fallen behemoth. In the dust storm kicked up by the hovering helicopter, wildlife vet Dr Joel Alves jumped from the helicopter skids like Tom Cruise – a freefall of some three meters! I kid you not; the man who shot the dart from the helicopter was first on the scene – all in a day’s work.
Within minutes Hendrik, the sizeable male elephant, was being collared, measured and sampled by teams of experienced professionals accompanied by willing helpers. Each had a list of tasks, and they set about accomplishing those with ruthless efficiency, awash with dollops of excitement, wonder and curiosity.
? The scramble to get to Hendrik, the bull elephant, as he went down
There are some fantastic mutually beneficial goings-on here:
1. An elephant collar is being replaced, to enable ongoing research into his movements;
2. Tourists enjoy a unique, hands-on safari experience that goes way beyond game drives and sundowner drinks;
3. A donor gets to enjoy experiencing his donation being put to work.
‘Would you like to stick your arm up the elephant’s rectum to extract a dung sample?’
The question hung in the air as I felt the need to study my mobile phone screen intently. ‘Um, no thanks, got work to do’ I muttered as I shuffled away. Seconds later, this rite of passage (who knew?) was grabbed by another member of the group who donned surgical gloves and got stuck in.
As I worked the scene, shooting images on my iPhone and making mental notes for this story, I took the time to stand back and observe. This visceral experience is an immensely primal one, and certainly emotional. I wish more people could experience this intense scene firsthand – it’s an ideal family safari activity. Up close to the helpless slumbering giant, I ran my fingers over his thick, coarse skin and felt his belly gently rise and fall as he explosively snore-breathed through his trunk, a stick propping it open at the end so that he could breathe. With all of this going on, I pondered the ‘why’ of this process.
? The crew gets to work collaring, measuring and sampling
WHY COLLAR ELEPHANTS?
Elephants are a big deal for Africa. Crucial ecosystem engineers, they benefit biodiversity in so many ways that ecosystems deteriorate when elephants are removed. And they are massive tourism drawcards, generating hard currency for cash-strapped economies. BUT, it’s also true that confining too many elephants into the diminishing available elephant rangelands can impact negatively on trees and on humans living in those areas. The more we understand about how elephants utilize ecosystems, the better we can deal with the increasing pressures resulting from too many humans. And so, Elephants Alive collars and monitors elephants in the Greater Kruger area and further afield. Their research is used to fine-tune elephant management in the region. On this day they collared their 170th elephant!
? Hendrik recovers from the anaesthetic
MINING AND ELEPHANTS
In this instance, we were collaring elephants in the grounds of the Palabora Mining Company (PMC) bordering the town of Phalaborwa, an active copper mine and a significant source of employment in the region. PMC has a private game reserve that shares unfenced borders with the Greater Kruger and Kruger National Park, and elephants and other creatures, great and small, wander in and out of the mine area freely. In fact, says Dr Michelle Henley of Elephants Alive, elephants congregate in significant numbers on this property because of the higher concentration of minerals such as phosphorous compared to the neighbouring areas. Valuable nutrients are continually being brought to the surface during the mining process, and these are present in the forage growing in the area, as well as the water sources. This nutrient-rich area allows elephants to have smaller ranges here than in neighbouring areas.
? The wanderings of elephants Hendrik and Ignite plus the two collaring sites for Hendrik (recollaring) and Tangles (first collar). Compiled by Anka Bedetti of Elephants Alive.
TWO ELEPHANTS AND THE ONE THAT GOT AWAY
Hendrik’s recovery from the opioid & morphine-based anaesthetic was rapid. Moments after the reversal was administered, he rocked to his feet before casting us a dismissive look and ambling off, seemingly unperturbed. We also collared a cow that day, one with a small calf in tow. The helicopter pilot skillfully split the herd and shepherded the cow to an open area before she went down. We watched from a nearby hill and sped to the scene when the call came through. This time the collaring and sampling was completed sooner, because of her having a young calf. I watched with fascination as Michelle milked the cow, squirting a small sample into a test-tube, and as fellow Elephants Alive crew member Ronny Makukuleclipped those huge elephant toenails and pulled out a few tail hairs. This cow was named Tangles, after the Tanglewood Foundation, run by retired businessman Peter Eastwood, who donated both collars for that day.
? Bird’s-eye view of the scene as Hendrik is collared
If things had run as they were planned, the second elephant collaring would have been of the celebrated elephant cow Ignite (click here to see her being collared in this 2016 video), but she dropped her collar days before and disappeared off the radar. The Elephants Alive crew have been gleaning valuable data from Ignite’s movements for four years, and losing her was a setback for the project.
I spoke to Carla Geyser of Blue Sky Society Trust, who sponsored Ignite’s collar in 2016 and was here with some of her 2016 crew, to see Ignite recollared. She was stoic about the loss of the collar, saying “This is Africa, and these are wild elephants – and that unpredictability is why we love what we do. Ignite has gone off-radar for a while, and hopefully, she will be recollared sometime in the future and be ‘re-ignited’? ” Since Ignite’s collaring in 2016 Carla has led various expeditions spanning Southern and East Africa with like-minded conservation warriors. She continued: “ In a world filled with so much doom and gloom, it’s so nice to be able to focus on something good for a change. Mama Africa is a special place, and elephants embody everything good about Africa and family. The way the matriarch leads her herd with great strength and confidence is inspiring. They are empathetic, compassionate and supportive creatures who grieve for their dead and rally to protect each other; something that humans could learn from. The bond between sisters, mothers and calves is magnificent to watch.”
? Hendrik’s foot
SCIENCE DRIVES THE NEED
The most crucial point to understand about elephant collaring exercises is that they are driven by science and the need for data. Collarings are never performed on request from donors or tourists. Entities such as Elephants Alive try to cover their costs by reaching out to donors and to cause-based entities such as Blue Sky Society Trust to provide a handful of paying guests, but those donors and guests do not influence the timing or process.
SPONSORING AN ELEPHANT COLLAR
Sponsoring an elephant collar is about covering the costs incurred by the research-based entity, in this case, Elephants Alive. Current costs are US$5,000 for the collar plus R35,000 (approx US$2,000 at today’s exchange rate) for local costs such as vets and the helicopter.
? Collar sponsor Peter Eastwood reverses the anaesthetic administered to Hendrik, supervised by vet Joel Alves
ATTENDING AN ELEPHANT COLLARING
Attending an elephant collaring is without question a top-drawer experience. BUT …
Elephant collaring cannot ever be a mainstream tourism experience – there are too few bona fide elephant research and monitoring projects in existence. And, of paramount importance, the logistical and legal requirements and the necessity for highly experienced crew translate into this being a waiting-list experience for tourists. Cautionary: With so many pop-up wildlife encounters on the tourism scene these days (think lion cub petting and elephant-back riding), you should select your wildlife encounters carefully.
If you wish to attend an elephant collaring exercise, my advice is that you contact an ethical, cause-based entity such as the Blue Sky Society Trust. Carla Geyser is in constant touch with research-based entities across Africa and is well-placed to give the best advice.
? Pilot Gerry McDonald and Elephants Alive crew member Ronny Makukule
• Permits & logistics. – Tertius Hofmeyr, Johann McDonald, Mark Surmon and Sasha Muller from Palaborwa Mining Company
• Provincial permits – Dirk de Klerk of Limpopo Department: Economic Development, Environment and Tourism (LEDET)
• Neighbour permissions – Kruger National Park, Foskor, Phalaborwa Military base & Klaserie Private Nature Reserve
• Vets – Dr Joel Alves, Dr Hamish Currie and Hayley Hooper (intern)
• Helicopter pilot – Gerry McDonald
• Sponsor – Peter Eastwood from Tanglewood
• Photos/videos – Thorge Heuer and Kevin MacLaughlin
• Video compilation – Aïda Ettayeb (Douda Aïda)
• Game viewer vehicle – Derik Scorer from Nissan Hoedspruit
WATCH THISfantastic video of the elephant collaring day described above (2.13 minutes)
? The collaring crew with Tangles, who was collared for the first time.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR, SIMON ESPLEY
Simon Espley is an African of the digital tribe, a chartered accountant and CEO of Africa Geographic. His travels in Africa are in search of wilderness, real people with interesting stories and elusive birds. He lives in Hoedspruit with his wife Lizz and two Jack Russells, and when not travelling or working, he will be on his mountain bike somewhere out there. His motto is ‘Live for now, have fun, be good, tread lightly and respect others. And embrace change.’.
Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing.
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 2
Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing.
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 1
OPINION EDITORIAL by Simon Evans, Anglia Ruskin University
There will be few positives to take from coronavirus. But the global pandemic may yet prove to be an important moment in the attempts to address the illegal wildlife trade.
The media has generally concentrated on effects rather than causes, in particular the global implications for public health and economies. But it is also vital to unravel the timeline of the pandemic and categorically determine its initial cause.
What we do know to date is that the epicentre of the disease was in the Chinese city of Wuhan, an important hub in the lucrative trade in wildlife – both legal and illegal. The outbreak is believed to have originated in a market in which a variety of animal-derived products and meats are widely available, including peacocks, porcupines, bats and rats. It’s also a market where regulatory and welfare standards are rudimentary at best.
Some of this trade is legal under Chinese domestic law but the existence of a parallel illegal trade – often within the very same market or stall – allows some traders to launder illicit wildlife products into the system. This situation is very difficult to regulate and control.
We are also reasonably certain that the spill-over event involved the crossover of the virus from animals to humans, similar to the situation with previous contagions like the Ebola and SARs viruses. In each of these cases, the existence of large, unsanitary and poorly-regulated wildlife markets provided an ideal environment for diseases to cross over between species. In a country like China, where wildlife consumption is so deeply embedded in culture, such contamination can, and did, spread rapidly.
The Chinese government has long advocated a “sustainable utilisation” approach to the country’s wildlife. It nonetheless responded to the current crisis by enacting a temporary ban on such markets, effectively closing down a significant sector of its domestic wildlife trade.
Biosecurity, public health and economic impact
In the longer term, the pandemic may provide the impetus to properly address the issue. This is because, while the illegal wildlife trade was once criticised almost purely in terms of conservation, it is now also being considered in relation to broader themes of biosecurity, public health and economic impact.
It is only in the wake of the COVID-19 outbreak that the full scale of China’s industry is emerging, with the temporary ban covering some 20,000 captive breeding enterprises and 54 different species allowed to be traded domestically. A report by the Chinese Academy of Engineering estimates the wildlife farming industry is worth around US$57 billion annually. These breeding centres are allowed to operate under loopholes in Chinese domestic law, arguably against the spirit of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.
The parallel illegal trade is less easy to quantify, but globally it is valued by the UN at around US$23 billion. Given the resulting pandemic could cost as much as US$2.7 trillion, even on purely economic grounds there is a strong case for increased regulation.
There are compelling arguments for dismantling the trade anyway: animals are kept in abject conditions, and the trade hastens their demise in the wild. But in China the temporary ban remains just that – temporary. Critics argue that we have been there before with SARS and once the dust settled on that particular outbreak, China resumed business as usual.
What would seriously tackling the wildlife trade actually mean in practice? First, breeding centres for endangered species like tigers or pangolins would be permanently closed. This would make it much harder for their products to be laundered through legal channels and sold as more valuable “wild-caught”. Enforcement agencies currently need to monitor these centres closely to check against laundering, and shutting them down would free up resources to disrupt the supply of illegal products entering China from outside.
Such a move would also help reduce demand. Public education campaigns tell people about how the wildlife trade (both legal and illegal) harms endangered species, but the message is mixed: the presence of a parallel legal market still provides such products with legitimacy and sends a message that it is OK to purchase them, thereby increasing rather than decreasing demand.
In any case, the new Chinese ban excludes products such as tiger bones that are used in traditional medicines. Some conservationists and activists are concerned that this exemption will lead to legalised trade under the assumption that better regulation will protect against future outbreaks. This argument is extremely difficult to validate, and most conservationists continue to favour blanket trade bans.
Another worry is that, given humans have short memories, once the danger has passed, public concern will turn to the next big problem. COVID-19 clearly represents an unparalleled opportunity to combat the wildlife trade and ensure that animal-borne diseases do not mutate and cross over to humans. But only time will tell whether this opportunity will be taken or put off once again until the emergence of the next – perhaps even more virulent – pandemic poses an even graver global threat.
While in recent years lion numbers have plummeted throughout Africa, the lion populations in the Greater Kruger have done relatively well. The sizeable open system available to them has created the perfect backdrop to allow for their fortunes and catastrophes to play out mostly undisturbed by anthropogenic influence. Lion coalitions and prides have come and gone, and some have achieved celebrity status.
Throughout the years, these lion coalitions and prides have been named by the assorted guides, trackers and researchers that have spent time with them. Most of these names are in some way a reference to the area associated with the pride or the territorial region of the males, but some extend to slightly more imaginative references. Given the tendency of humans to name things this is hardly surprising, but less expected was how social media has created fans across the globe who follow, research and adore certain lion coalitions and prides, most often from afar.
Here are just a handful of examples of these lion celebrities – some living, some legend and some teetering on the edge of survival.
Mapogo Male Lions
No article on famous lions would be complete without mentioning one of the most famous lion coalitions of all time (certainly in South Africa). Born to the Sparta/Eyrefield pride of the Sabi Sands around 2001/2, the Mapogo male lions, six individuals in total, have become something of a legend to the point of inspiring their own movie – Brothers in Blood. Named after a security company known for using somewhat brutal methods, the Mapogo boys: Makhulu, Rasta, Pretty Boy, Kinky Tail and Satan/Mr T, began their reign of terror in 2006 as they set out to claim domination over a massive portion of land on the western edges of the Greater Kruger.
Like all legends, the lines between fact and fiction have blurred over time. Tales of their brutality have been exaggerated by many, but they were known to have killed at least 40 (if not more) other lions, including females and cubs.
Their fortunes changed in 2010 when the first of the coalition was killed and, though they stayed dominant, their territory diminished until the oldest remaining members of the coalition were inevitably pushed out by younger, stronger lions in 2012. The last remaining individual was seen in 2013.
Initially a coalition of six male lions, the Matimba males ruled over the Manyeleti Game Reserve and surrounding areas in 2010 before splitting into two groups after the death of the oldest coalition member. The Southern Matimba coalition consisted of two individuals named Hairy-Belly and Ginger that initially established themselves in the southern portion of the Sabi Sands.
Quite apart from their extraordinary good looks, these two consummate survivors were exceptionally good at knowing when to fight and when to back down. As they aged, and whenever they found themselves outmatched, they shifted territories and set up in a different section of the Sabi Sands, somehow always managing to find themselves an area with limited competition. Ginger died in 2019 after contracting a severe mange infestation, but Hairy Belly continues to patrol his territory and mate, despite his advanced age.
The Ximhungwe Pride
The story of the Ximhungwe pride is a perfect example of how the fate of a lion pride can be inexorably linked to the changes in male lion dynamics. Initially the Castleton pride, their numbers boomed in 2006, and the pride numbered over 20 at one stage. The arrival of the Mapogos spelt disaster for this once massive pride – their numbers were decimated, and a combination of disease, bad luck and bad timing meant that the pride never managed to recover.
In 2015, the last adult lioness was killed in a clash with a rival lion pride, leaving behind young lions barely old enough to survive on their own. Two of these young lionesses survived by remaining as secretive as possible for years before finally managing to establish themselves in Manyeleti where they remain around Dixie Dam, far from their natal home range.
Named after the Styx River of ancient Egyptian mythology due to their efficiency in dispatching prey to the afterlife, the Styx Pride have been consummate survivors despite facing considerable challenges. Chronic mange infestation has claimed the lives of many of their cubs and worsens every dry season. With the death of their oldest and most experienced pride member in 2019, and with new males posing a threat to their cubs, the pride became nomadic before finally seeming to settle (for now) around the Sand River towards the western edge of the Sabi Sands.
The Birmingham Pride currently roams the Ngala Private Game Reserve and Timbavati regions under the watchful eye of the Ross Male. This impressive and successful pride of 14 currently has two of the three wild white (leucistic) lions in the world – a young male of 18 months and a little female not quite a year old. Their arrival caused a buzz of excitement but, like all wild lion cubs, their survival depends upon the care and skill of the pride, the continued dominance of the Ross male and no small amount of luck.
Leucistic colouration is a rare recessive trait and not a separate species or sub-species. With only one exception, the Timbavati region is the home of the white lion gene pool, and it seems to flow strongly through the Birmingham Pride female line.
The Orpen Males
Junior and his coalition mate are perfect examples of how male lions are not necessarily particularly fussy when it comes to choosing coalition mates. More often than not, lion coalitions are formed when young male lions from the same pride – siblings and cousins – move away from their natal prides together. But this is not always possible. In Junior’s case, he was the only young male within his natal pride, when the Birmingham Males moved into the area and eventually forced him out.
During his nomadic wanderings, he encountered another young male, and the two found solace and support in each other. They are now the dominant males of a prime section of territory in Manyeleti Private Game Reserve and the Kruger National Park.
This is just a snapshot of some of the intricacies of lion coalitions and prides in the Greater Kruger. Unbeknownst to them, these lions have their own social media pages – with each individual’s photographs, movements and lineages documented with care and precision. This comprehensive, if somewhat piecemeal, record of their lives may not be good research material, but it certainly is a massive repository of information about the meta-dynamics of lions within the Greater Kruger.
Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing.
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 1
Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing.
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 2
A permit application to import 4,000 African grey parrots into the United States – around half of them wild-caught – could pose a significant risk to the wild population through fuelling trade, say multiple international conservation bodies. The application came from a Miami bird-breeder Paul Marolf and South African breeders Ray O’Neill and Jason Mitchell, and submitted under the auspices of the Wild Bird Conservation Act (US Fish & Wildlife Services).
African grey parrots are among one of the most trafficked species on the planet, and their populations have declined drastically in the wild, with more than 3 million parrots having been removed from the wild legally in the last 40 years to supply the pet trade. This figure includes birds that die during the capture and transport process. The illegal trade is likely to be far higher than that, but the numbers are impossible to estimate. CITES regulations govern legal trade in African grey parrots, but high levels of fraud and corruption have resulted in rampant trafficking of illegal parrots via CITES channels.
The permit application proposal is for the creation of a co-operative breeding programme where the breeding stock would be acquired from CITES-registered facilities in South Africa to create a “self-sustaining population of grey parrots in the US”. The applicants claim that although they intend that half of the intended imports would be wild-caught parrots, these birds have long been removed from the wild and therefore their proposal will not impact on wild populations. They also argue that due to improper management, the captive-bred population of African grey parrots in the US is no longer viable and will disappear without this intervention and that establishing the captive-breeding programme will be a “boon” to the continued existence of the species.
To place the South African grey parrot breeding industry into perspective, the chairman of the Parrot Breeders Association of Southern Africa (PASA) recently resigned his position after investigators raided his parrot breeding aviaries and found the decomposing bodies of about 300 parrots, and cages infested with rats and cobwebs. According to news media reports, PASA insists that a well-known parrot vet confirmed that there was no abnormal mortality rate at his aviaries.
Dr Rowan Martin of the African conservation program of the World Parrot Trust says that “South Africa’s parrot breeding industry had grown massively in recent years, partly on the back of cheap imports of wild-caught parrots as breeding stock, which has decimated some wild populations.”
The World Parrot Trust disputes the claims made in the permit application proposal and suggests that allowing this import into the US could pose potential risks to wild parrot populations. Conservationists argue that the proposal lacks detail regarding how the genetic diversity of the breeding programme would be managed or how it would contribute to wild parrot conservation. Before the transfer of African grey parrots to Appendix I of CITES (thereby ceasing all legal trade in wild birds), South Africa was the largest importer of wild-caught parrots in the world. The proposal seeks to import parrots of unknown origin, and the World Parrot Trust emphasizes that there is no clarity on the relationship between captive-bred production and demand for wild-caught birds. What is clear is that the recent uplisting to Appendix I has not ended the illegal trade in parrots.
The permit application proposal for the captive breeding programme proposes to donate a portion of the income to “grey parrot conservation projects in situ”. However, the World Parrot Trust suggests that there is a “notable lack of how this fund will operate”.
The Humane Society International, Humane Society of the Us and Humane Society Legislative Fund have added their voices against granting the permits, as has World Animal Protection. They all point out that the African grey parrots have been, and continue to be, harmed by the exotic pet trade and that commercial captive breeding is not a conservation alternative. Also disputing the claims in the permit application were the Association of Zoo and Aquariums (AZA), WCS, Species Survival Network, IFAW, Centre of Biological Diversity, Environmental Investigation Agency, Natural Resources Defence Council, Defenders of Wildlife, Animal Welfare Institute, Avian Welfare Coalition, Wagmore Foundation, the Federation of Animals Sanctuaries and more than 17 rescue centres for parrots in the United States.
In a strongly worded letter to the US Fish and Wildlife Serve, the Environmental Investigation Agency and Centre for Biological Diversity made their position clear that “seeking to create yet another breeding programme that requires the import of 4,000 highly imperilled African grey parrots – almost half of which are wild-caught – to non-existent facilities operated by a single individual in the US with no track record of being able to successfully care for and breed grey parrots in captivity cannot be condoned under the WBCA”.
So, repeated warnings from scientists about China’s wild animal markets have been ignored and, as a result, we all have to bear the consequences and pay the price.
The loss of human life to Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is already significant (and rising), and the economic costs are probably going to be staggering, across the board. Yet this reality was far from unforeseen – this well-written and easy-to-understand New York Times article about zoonotic diseases from as far back as 2012 spells out the public health and economic risks of these markets and the burgeoning wildlife trade.
I have always maintained that the battle to keep our wildlife and hardwoods safe from the evil ones will only be adequately addressed if and when all governments (including African) step up and take action. Real action – as in shutting down the industries that facilitate the trafficking and consumption of wild ‘product’, including those with parallel markets that are hijacked by illegal traders for laundering purposes. Until then we are all just ‘pissing into the southeaster’, as the saying goes. Government priorities dictate conservation success or failure, that much is clear.
Based on my observations, biodiversity conservation is only vaguely interesting to governments because it underpins the tourism industry, which generates significant employment and tax revenue. It seems short- and medium-term jobs and revenue from environmentally detrimental industries such as mining, farming and manufacturing are far higher on the list of priorities.
THE BIG QUESTION
Now that we know that the trade in wildlife poses a significant risk to public health and economies, will Africa governments treat the issue more seriously?
We know that 75% of emerging infectious diseases in people come from animals, and bats harbour a higher proportion of zoonotic viruses than other mammals. Bat faeces on a piece of fruit eaten by another animal can result in that creature becoming a carrier. The Ebola epidemic of 2014-2016 in West Africa, the consequences of which reverberated around the Globe, is one example of a zoonotic virus emanating from African country communities that consume bushmeat in areas with rampant poaching.
I am under no illusion that the recent move by the Chinese authorities to ban the trade and consumption of wild animals was for any other reason than the immediate need to control the outbreak and thereby minimise the damage to their economy and political capital. This isn’t the first time Chinese officials have passed a law to protect their citizens against zoonotic viruses. In 2003 large numbers of caged civets were culled and their sale as food banned after it was discovered that they likely transferred the SARS virus to humans. The selling of snakes was also briefly banned in Guangzhou after the SARS outbreak. Today, civet and snake are back on the menu. In any case, China already has laws in place to ban the trade or eating of many species (such as pangolin), all of which are openly flouted. Says the South China Morning Post: “But the political will and capacity to enforce those laws often lags, undermining global efforts to curb issues like wildlife trafficking, air pollution and climate change.”
The wet and dry wildlife food and traditional medicine markets are big business in China, and pulling the plug on them will have such profound consequences that it may be an impossibility. Tandem to those markets is the US 74bn wildlife breeding farm industry (more than 20,000 farms have been shut down since the outbreak), which produces product such as bear bile, tiger bones, pangolin meat and scales, and porcupine meat. Despite the farms, it’s always going to be cheaper to process wild-caught animals into food and medicine than farmed animals because of the inherent costs of running a farming enterprise – hence the massive poaching drain on Africa’s wildlife now that the Asian wild areas have been all but denuded of wildlife.
To give you a further idea as to the extent of government inertia behind wildlife conservation efforts, even the demonstrated link between wildlife and charcoal trafficking and terrorism does not spur governments to take wildlife crime seriously.
THE ANSWER
What is needed is for African governments to overcome their cultural and economic fears of angering the mighty Chinese economic machine and that they (African governments) make the brave move to shut down the illegal wildlife industries that are draining our wildlife resources. This will not be an easy process, not the least because the Chinese government is already bankrolling some African countries. It’s not going to get any easier, and the longer the status quo continues, the harder it will be to break.
To date, wildlife activist campaigns have mostly focused on the moral aspects of the wildlife trafficking industry, and the threats to biodiversity. Perhaps they should shift focus to the threat to human lives and livelihoods. Maybe then African governments (including my own) will take this matter more seriously.
Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing.
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 1
Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing.
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 2
Kafue National Park is the oldest park in Zambia and one of the largest in Africa, representing 36% of Zambia’s total national park coverage. Kafue is part of the five-country Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area – an unspoilt wilderness with an extraordinary diversity of wildlife. Mass tourism does not occur here, so the bush is pure and unexplored, infrastructure is sparse, and visitor numbers are low. With vast tracts of pristine bushveld, Kafue National Park is one of our favourite places, and this time we were set to explore Busanga Plains in the far north.
The wide-open spaces of Busanga Plains, veined by rivers
In the northern portion of the park, Busanga Plains is the jewel of Kafue. The Lufupa River flows into the Busanga Swamps and wide-open spaces flood during the rainy season, generating lush grazing for an array of wildlife. The vast mosaic of grassy seasonal floodplains stretches to the horizon – this is undoubtedly the best place for wildlife viewing in Kafue. The 720 km² (72,000 hectares) of floodplains are dotted with palm groves, papyrus reed beds, lily-covered lagoons, woodlands, open waterways, and riverine vegetation. As the plains drain after the rainy season, they attract large numbers of wildlife and fantastic birdlife, including huge herds of near-endemic red lechwe, as well as puku, massive herds of buffalo, blue wildebeest, Lichtenstein’s hartebeest, defassa waterbuck and more solitary grazers such as roan and oribi. Attracted by rich pickings, predator numbers are substantial. Lions, side-striped jackals, caracals, serval and genets are regulars, and you often find yourself being serenaded by hyenas at dinner.
Find out about Busanga Plains for your next African safari. We have ready-made safaris to choose from, or we can build one just for you.
Looking out over the flood plains
Being submerged for most of the year, these flooded plains are a magnet for birds. The water, islands of fig trees and floodplains make for superb birding, and more than 500 bird species have been recorded here. The plains are home to large flocks of open-billed and yellow-billed storks, as well as grey crowned cranes and their rarer relatives, the wattled crane. Keen birders can look out for Fülleborn’s longclaw and, for the more fortunate, the rosy-throated longclaw and the endemic Chaplin’s barbet.
Predators abound on Busanga Plains
We were at Busanga Plains Camp, a beautiful seasonal bush camp in the north of Busanga Plains. The camp overlooks the openness of the plains, interrupted only by tree-studded islands, where fig trees and wild date palms draw their nutrients from the remains of giant anthills. Our favourite part of camp was a wooden viewing platform on stilts tucked away up high in a majestic fig tree, with breathtaking views out onto the floodplain.
In the morning mist, as the sun peaked above the horizon, the plains were liberally dotted with herds of red lechwe of various ages and sizes, from newborn to battle-scarred grandparents, and every size in between. Many of the herds numbered in their hundreds. Amongst these herds, there was a sprinkling of wattled and crowned cranes, many with young in attendance. With their sharp, slim beaks and slender legs, wattled cranes are the largest cranes in Africa and the tallest flying bird on the continent. Listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, wattled cranes are often found with lechwe on the plains, and it is one of their few known breeding sites.
The floodplains ensure a wide range of species and experiences
Crowned cranes, with their crowns of stiff gold feathers, are regularly seen on the plains. Standing about a metre tall and with a wingspan of around two metres, these cranes are omnivores, eating anything from plants and seeds to frogs, small fish and even snakes. Stamping their feet as they walk, they flush out insects which they quickly catch and eat. They capitalise on feeding near the red lechwe by darting in and grabbing prey disturbed by the antelopes’ movements. Crowned cranes’ entire days are spent looking for food, but at night they roost in trees. These are the only cranes that can roost in trees because they have a long hind toe for grasping branches.
As the sun rose in the sky, we found a pride of eight lions – two females with their six cubs. The cubs were intensely curious, coming in close to sniff the wheels and then stretching out to relax in the shade cast by the vehicle. One youngster, clearly a little bored, took hold of a large round ball of elephant dung in his mouth and carried it off to play with. Despite his best efforts, he couldn’t interest anyone else in the game.
Busanga Plains Camp nestles on the edge of a date palm grove
In the afternoon, a goliath heron stood sentinel in a lagoon as Egyptian geese nibbled at the green grass in the shallows. A pied kingfisher, with its black mask, hovered with wings frantically flapping before diving time and again vertically into the water. A procession of buffalo, over a thousand-strong, stretched out for kilometres across the plains like a string of black pearls.
Moving on, we headed for the southernmost edges of the plains, to Ntemwa-Busanga Camp, a rustic bush camp of safari tents with open-air en suite bathrooms, each complete with the traditional safari ‘bucket showers’. Zambia is one of the few places where night drives are permitted in national parks, and Ntemwa has access to an extensive network of roads that spans the plains. The late afternoon and night drives were terrific here. Watching an idyllic scene of Egyptian geese, storks, cranes and various other water birds at a lagoon as the sun went down was a beautiful end to the day. As night fell, we saw a selection of nocturnal creatures on our drive, from a white-tailed mongoose rummaging in the undergrowth to genets whose eyes reflected in the spotlight, all accompanied by the eerie cries of crowned cranes as they settled in the treetops.
Ntemwa-Busanga Plains Camp offers rustic comfort in the middle of the wilderness
We didn’t have to leave the camp to find wildlife. At Ntemwa, hyenas came into camp at night to check out what was on the menu in the kitchen before leaving ‘empty-handed’ (fortunately)! One morning, as we headed from our tent to breakfast, we found a trail of lion footprints pressed into the sand along the footpath. There was clearly a sound reason why we were always escorted to our tents at night!
Serval, a regular sighting on Busanga Plains
Busanga Plains is one of those special places of low-density tourism, in a world where many ‘remote’ places are becoming overrun by travellers. Fortunately, due to its remoteness, inaccessibility and limited accommodation options, it’s likely to remain that way.
Poachers have killed the only known female white giraffe in Kenya, and her calf, at a remote community conservancy in Kenya. The celebrated white reticulated giraffes of Kenya have been dealt a devastating blow, as now only a bull giraffe remains of the group.
Conservancy manager Mohammed Ahmednoor said that a search team found only the bones of the two poached giraffes.
“This is a very sad day for the community and Kenya as a whole. Her killing is a blow to the steps taken by the community to conserve rare and unique species and a wake-up call for continued support to conservation efforts,” said Mr Ahmednoor in a statement.
The discovery of the white giraffes in 2017 put the remote community conservancy on the global map and had local community members, tourists and scientists flocking to see them. The female gave birth to a calf in August 2019, bringing the population of these white reticulated giraffe to three.
The white giraffes have a genetic condition called ‘leucism’ which inhibits skin cells from producing pigment. Leucism results in a partial or total loss of pigmentation – resulting in patches of white colouring in fur or feathers. Leucines, unlike albino animals, have normal-coloured eyes, and may or may not have normally coloured legs and beaks. Leucistic animals and birds do produce melanin (unlike albinos which produce no melanin), BUT the condition prevents melanin from being deposited in the fur or feathers. Read The Black & White of African Wildlife Explained.
“This is a long-term loss given that genetic studies and research which were a significant investment in the area have now gone down the drain. Also, the white giraffe was a big boost to tourism in the area. After this incident, only a lone bull remains,” Mr Ahmednoor added.
Giraffes are listed as ‘Vulnerable’ according to IUCN, which means that they are vulnerable to extinction in the near future. There are four distinct giraffe species in Africa, and two of these species have two and three subspecies respectively.
Reticulated / Somali giraffe (Giraffa reticulata) has brown-orange patches which are clearly defined by a network of thick and striking white lines. This species is found predominantly in central, north and northeastern Kenya, with small populations and range persisting in southern Somalia and southern Ethiopia. It has been estimated that about 8,700 individuals remain in the wild – down from an approximate 31,000 as recently as 1998. Read more about giraffes here.
Created as the brainchild of the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature) in the 70s, CITES makes environmental news headlines regularly, often with highly polarizing results. There are, however, several misconceptions surrounding this tool of the wildlife conservation industry and, as a result, its guiding principles tend to be lost beneath the layers of opposing conservation perspectives.
CITES founding philosophy
The treaty provides the following guidance as to its aim, operation, and how it should be interpreted:
Recognizing that wild fauna and flora in their many beautiful and varied forms are an irreplaceable part of the natural systems of the earth which must be protected for this and the generations to come;
Conscious of the ever-growing value of wild fauna and flora from aesthetic, scientific, cultural, recreational and economic points of view;
Recognizing that peoples and States are and should be the best protectors of their wild fauna and flora;
Recognizing, also, that international cooperation is essential for the protection of certain species of wild fauna and flora against over-exploitation through international trade; Convinced of the urgency of taking appropriate measures to this end;
CITES is a treaty, not an organization
CITES stands for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora; in other words, it is a multinational treaty of enormous scope that regulates international trade to avoid the over-exploitation of both animals and plants. As the name suggests, the ultimate intention behind the treaty is to protect endangered species, rather than control the actions of the member state, hence the Appendix listings (see below). At the time of writing, almost every sovereign state in the world is a party to the treaty, meaning that they have ratified the treaty and are, in theory, bound by its provisions. (A conversation around the nuances of international law is beyond the scope of this article).
It falls to the member states to use the treaty provisions and appendixes as guidance for creating their national laws and policies surrounding trade in animals and plants.
Not just about elephants and pangolins
When issues surround CITES surface and make headlines, they are almost always centred around the more contentious issues involving well-known animal species. The trade in ivory or rhino horn is a good example of this. While these issues rightly cause enormous consternation, the ambit of CITES goes far beyond these matters and provides a legal framework for the protection of more than 35,000 plant and animal species – meaning that it governs everything from the trade in furniture and musical instruments made from rare woods to trading in corals or caviar.
The Appendixes
CITES does not control all international trade in wild species – the basic starting point is that all trade is allowed unless an animal or plant is in some way threatened and is placed under one of three appendixes to the treaty.
Appendix 1 – species threatened by extinction or by trade, such as cheetahs, chimpanzees and pangolins. Trade in animals listed under Appendix 1 is almost entirely banned except under exceptional circumstances, and both export and import permits are required. Any captive-bred animals are treated under the auspices of Appendix 2.
Appendix 2 – species whose numbers could become threatened if subject to uncontrolled trade. Only an export permit is required for trading in animals and plants listed under this appendix.
Appendix 3 – species included at the request of a member state wanting the cooperation of other countries to control exploitation.
It is for the member states to issue export and import permits (these can be subject to CITES scrutiny), but they are under an obligation to ensure that the species was legally obtained and should issue permits only if doing so will not be detrimental to the survival of the species. Although not mentioned explicitly by the treaty itself, a quota system is used to control trade – the member states put forward their suggested quota number that is subject to CITES approval. As a brief side note – if an animal’s listing is changed (for example, due to declining numbers, it is moved from Appendix 2 to Appendix 1), a country may enter what is known as a Reservation – essentially meaning that they object to this classification for whatever reason and that they do not consider themselves to be bound by the reduced trade. This is what the Democratic Republic of Congo did in the case of the trade in the African Grey Parrot.
Conference of Parties
Every three years, the parties to the convention (the signatory countries) meet to review the implementation of the Convention. It is here that the Appendix listing of individual species is revised as an ongoing discussion as to their numbers and the success (or otherwise) of conservation efforts). The states can also make recommendations to improve the efficiency of the implementation of the treaty.
Three permanent committees support the Conference of Parties: the Standing, Plant and Animal Committees, created from representatives of the Parties that exist to deal with the day-to-day operation of CITES, creating a budget and standing groups as well as providing advice regarding species numbers. Only sovereign states are parties to the CITES treaty (some international treaties do include signatories from other international bodies), but the CoP events are attended by observers from non-governmental organizations involved in conservation or trade, as well as several UN agencies. These groups can participate in the meetings but are not allowed to vote in the proceedings. The next Conference of Parties will be held in 2022.
Limitations
Quite aside from the more philosophical debates about sustainable use, CITES has the inherent limitations of any instrument of international law. There is no central enforcement agency, so infractions of state parties must be dealt with through more political and economic measures. In theory, Parties to the statute are required to have both Management and Scientific Authorities; laws prohibiting any trade in violation of CITES; penalties in the case of such trade; and laws providing for the confiscation of specimens, yet many Parties face severe challenges in this regard. If a Party is found to be in contravention of the treaty, the CITES Secretariat can recommend that other state Parties suspend all CITES-related trade.
CITES is a treaty related purely to the regulations of trade – it does not extend to conservation issues relating to habitat-loss or socio-economic challenges of wilderness areas.
Final word
As mentioned, the philosophy behind CITES aside, CITES is an international treaty and should be viewed as such. Countries are not forced to enter into an international agreement – they chose to do so and must face the responsibilities that choice confers. This does not necessarily mean agreement with every decision or restriction but rather, using the existing frameworks to voice those disagreements, as well as working towards international cooperation to guard against the over-exploitation of animal and plant species. The full treaty text can be found here.
In a recent report, TRAFFIC highlights how corruption undermines the CITES processes and regulations, using specific examples of abuse of the documentation process. The study was part of the USAID-funded Targeting Natural Resource Corruption project aimed at strengthening anti-corruption knowledge and practices and recommends several ways of reducing the risks.
Regulated by CITES, the trade in fauna and flora species listed under the three Appendices requires various types of formal documentation including both export and import permits, certificates of various forms and notifications to the Member States. Permits and certificates are issued by the Management Authorities of specific countries and are, in theory, backed by the Scientific Authority that must confirm that the species concerned was not illegally obtained and that the trade will not be detrimental to its overall conservation. It is within this documentation process that the highest potential for abuse of the regulations arises.
Rather than focussing on illegal trade that seeks to avoid all formal forms of inspection (smuggling), the report examines situations where the trade masquerades as legal. Several reports and specific case studies were analysed to understand the methods behind the abuse of the documentation processes, as well as how corruption facilitates this practice.
TRAFFIC identifies several different methods of abuse of CITES documentation, including:
The intentional declaration of false information on the documents such as misleading information on specific species identification, quantities, the source of the species and the value of the contents.
Altered documentation such as using originally authentic permits but changing parts of the vital information to allow for the trade in species that might otherwise not have been issued a permit.
Unofficial payment for documents to officials at various levels
Counterfeit documents, often of a very high quality
Re-using or photocopying documents and the use of expired or stolen documents
The report includes specific examples where corruption has been exposed, and each provides different insights into the multitude of ways in which corrupt parties can manipulate the system. In 2011 in Guinea, permits were issued for the export of captive-bred apes despite the complete absence of any captive breeding centres in the country itself. This case eventually resulted in the arrest and prosecution of the head of the CITES Management Authority of Guinea. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, a permit was legally issued for the export of 100 red-fronted parrots but was then modified to allow for the export of 200 African grey parrots. In South Africa and Vietnam, an expose revealed corrupt practices regarding the trade in rhino horn. Corrupt professional hunters were alleged to have obtained permits under false pretences for “pseudo-hunting” – where the intention was always to trade the horn commercially. On the Vietnam side, the horn was seldom declared, and the CITES documents were consistently re-used until they expired.
In all illegal wildlife trade, corruption is identified as a key enabling factor, and while it is difficult to estimate the scale and reach, the abuse of CITES documentation processes is facilitated by corruption in various forms from junior right to senior management positions. The issuing of documentation places certain individuals in positions of power that could be subject to temptation or threats.
The report recommends several strategies to tackle the various forms of corruption, while also acknowledging the realities of the situations in different countries. The report emphasises that the prosecution of corrupt officials is vital not only to punish those responsible but to create an environment where corruption is not tolerated. Unfortunately, the report acknowledges that, at present, such investigations rarely result in the prosecution of a high-level government official. The report also calls for capacity building within the countries concerned, which includes ensuring that officials have adequate scientific knowledge and technical expertise to prevent and detect instances of abuse.
On a more immediate level, electronic permits and fraud-proof systems and technologies could go a long way to reduce the opportunity for corrupt interactions, as well as to make it more difficult to falsify permits. The eCITES initiative aims to streamline and automate CITES permit structures.
The report emphasises the need for comprehensive protocols, including checks and balances, to reduce the risk of corruption which undermines the integrity of the CITES system. However, this relies heavily on the commitment and capacity of specific countries.
The report was compiled by Willow Othwaite, who is the Research and Analysis Senior Programme Officer of TRAFFIC, and TRAFFIC itself is a non-governmental organisation working to ensure the maintenance of biodiversity and sustainability in the trade in wildlife and plant species. They work in strategic partnerships with CITES organisations and other environmental organisations to provide the necessary research and statistics to direct decision-makers and policy.
Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing. Here is this week’s selection:
A team of researchers based at the University of Helsinki Taita Research Station in Kenya have confirmed the survival of what they believe to be a scarce species of bushbaby – the Taita Mountain dwarf galago (Paragalao sp.). The first reports of this tiny, secretive primate living in Kenya’s Taita Hills were made in 2002, but at the time the scientists were unable to secure a thorough identification, though biologists recognised that they were most likely a new, undescribed mammal species.
The Taita Hills are part of the Eastern Arc Mountains and include several fragmented montane forests that are home to several endemic species. The fact that 98% of these forests have been destroyed due to the spread of agricultural land had researchers fearing for the survival of the Taita Mountain dwarf galago. During 2019, they set about searching the five largest remaining forest fragments and found small surviving bushbaby populations in two: the Ngangao and Mbololo Forests.
Certain dwarf or lesser galagos are notoriously difficult to observe and identify. In essence, they are cryptic and nocturnal, and most researchers use their calls to distinguish between species in the field (the alternative method of examining their unique genitals is more difficult to execute). In analysing their calls, researchers believe that the Taita Mountain dwarf galago is related to the Kenya coast dwarf galago – Paragalago cocos – which are only found at low elevations.
Bushbaby researchers were able to make some progress in observing the natural behaviours of the dwarf galagos – they were seen using tree hollows as sleeping spots during the day, as well as hunting insects around small trees. On three occasions, wood owls were seen hunting the galagos, and one of these attempts was successful.
Critically, the researchers call for urgent molecular analysis, ecology investigation and estimates of the population to assess the taxonomic classification of the species. This is vital to ensure it receives the correct IUCN Red List classification and the associated protection. The observed Nangao Forest population numbered less than ten individuals. The researchers stress the desperate need to protect the remaining forest fragments in the Taita Hills as these tiny galagoes, not even fully described, already seem to be on the brink of extinction.
Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing.
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 1
The spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) is one of the world’s most misunderstood animals. Public perception often tends towards scorn and even outright hate – they are reviled as cowardly, thieving, dirty, ugly, lazy…the list goes on. These impressions are embedded in human history and public consciousness then reinforced by mainstream media and films. Fortunately, though, more and more people are coming to appreciate hyenas for the fascinating creatures they are. Regardless, misconceptions about hyena abound. Spotted hyenas are extraordinarily complex: they defy most natural ‘rules’ and research that might apply to hyena in one part of Africa might not be born out in their behaviour elsewhere. They are so highly adaptable and varied that generalizations are inappropriate, especially given that certain aspects of their lives are still being researched and are are not fully understood. Quick facts:
– Social structure: a clan of anywhere from under 20 to over 100 individuals
– Mass: between 50 – 85 kg (East African spotted hyenas tend to be smaller than those in southern Africa.)
– Shoulder height: between 70-90cm (as above)
– Gestation period: 110 days
– Litter size: 1 or 2 cubs (3 rarely)
– Average life expectancy: debated, probably area-dependent but around 12 years in the wild, 20 in captivity
There are four extant species of hyena: the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), the brown hyena (Parahyaena brunnea), the striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) and the aardwolf (Proteles cristatus). Despite their dog-like appearance, all members of the hyena family (Hyaenidae) are more closely related to the genet (Viverridae) and mongoose (Herpestidae) families, as part of the Feliformia (cat-like) sub-order of Carnivora.
Spotted hyenas are the most abundant large predator in Africa, and though populations are fragmented, they are found in savannah and forest habitats throughout most of sub-Saharan Africa. They live in social units called clans of anything from a handful of individuals to over a hundred – consisting of several unrelated females and their offspring (matrilineal lines), as well as immigrant males from outside clans.
Despite their reputation as scavengers, they are able and efficient predators in their own right and in some parts of their range, they hunt over 90% of the food that they consume. Their large hearts relative to their body size allow spotted hyena the extra stamina necessary to exhaust their prey during a relentless chase. They adapt their strategy depending on the prey and use mud, rain, rocks or water to their advantage, either individually or in groups, which allows them to hunt and catch larger prey species. Spotted hyenas are also opportunists and will scavenge or steal from other predators. They are not alone in this – all predators steal from other predators if conditions suit them; lions often more so due to their sheer bulk.
The unusual genital structure of the spotted hyena is perhaps its most famous trait. Females have what is known as a pseudopenis – fused urinary and vaginal tracts and an extended clitoris. The outer labia are also enlarged, taking on the appearance of testicles. There are several theories as to the reasons behind this curious evolution, but no conclusive agreement.
The pseudopenis has to be retracted to mate – a process that can make the courtship lengthy and the act itself an exercise in dexterity, particularly for the male, whose aim has to be impeccable. Due to the anatomical restrictions, the male is forced to undergo an elaborate courtship to win the affections of the female. These courtships can be highly entertaining to observe as the male bows and scrapes the ground, tucking one front foot under the other – the picture of servile submission. This becomes even more amusing when the female disdainfully walks away, or worse, ignores him completely. The males have to be forward-thinking and often ingratiate themselves with females by playing with their cubs in the hope that their efforts might be remembered when it comes time to mate, months or years later.
If the mating process is tricky, the birthing process is difficult and often dangerous. The narrowed opening of the clitoris has to split to make space for the 1.5 kg cub(s), and it is common for at least one, if not both cubs, to die during a female’s first labour. The cubs are born with their eyes open and their milk teeth erupted and immediately engage in a savage battle for those critical early days as siblings look to establish which is dominant. The widespread belief that siblicide in hyena cubs is common is inaccurate – it is rare and generally only occurs when access to milk is restricted.
The first few weeks in a cub’s life are critical – they must learn from their mothers where their position lies in a complex hierarchy. Within a clan, whether it is large or small, each hyena occupies a level in the clan hierarchy. At the head of the clan sits the matriarch. Not all males in the clan are the lowest-ranked individuals because each cub inherits his or her mother’s status in the clan, slotting in directly beneath her position and above their older siblings. If a high-ranked female has a young son, he is automatically a high-ranked member of the clan unless and until he chooses to disperse. Not all males disperse from their natal clans, but if they do approach a different clan, they will enter at the bottom of the hierarchy. The females generally stay with the clan throughout their lives.
Naturally, higher-ranked positions within the clan are coveted because they mean better access to food and resources for both the females and their offspring. While hierarchies are strictly enforced regularly, lower-ranked individuals can rise up against those above them in something very close to what we would understand as a coup.
Intelligence
Behavioural ecologists who have studied spotted hyena believe that they rank among some of the most intelligent animal species on earth and that there is strong evidence of convergent evolution with primate intelligence – they learn quickly and are natural problem solvers, outperforming chimpanzees in certain aspects of cognitive tests. Like primates, each hyena recognizes every other clan member, and they show kin nepotism, even in situations where kin are generationally removed. Their notorious (and often feared) laugh-like vocalization is just one of the many sophisticated ways in which spotted hyena communicate. Studies of spotted hyena behaviour aim to reveal not only their secrets but to reflect some of our own as well, as they are the only apex predator on this planet with anything close to the complexities of our own social history.
So strong is the bias against hyena that even Jane Goodall, upon her arrival in Tanzania, did not expect to have any affection for them. However, like all those who spend time in the company of these peculiar mammals, they won her over. “Hyenas are second only to chimpanzees in fascination,” she wrote, “they are born clowns, highly individualistic.” In a rush to view the more beloved wildlife, tourists so often overlook Africa’s smartest predator.
The information included here was mainly sourced from the two long-standing hyena research programs: the Michigan State University’s Mara Hyena Project, and the Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research’s Ngorongoro Crater Hyena Project. Anything further comes from the IUCN Red List and personal observations of the writer, Africa Geographic scientific editor Jamie Paterson.
Our Photographer of the Year 2020, with a stunning safari prize provided by Djuma Private Game Reserve, is now in full swing.
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here:Gallery 2
Camera trap footage has confirmed what has long been suspected but never before proved – leopards raid the nests of southern ground-hornbills. The footage shows the predator climbing into a tree with an occupied artificial nest and, despite the best efforts of the adults, climbing into the nest. The footage can be viewed here – watch for the leopard hissing at the frantic adult birds:
Ground-hornbills are endangered within South Africa, and The Associated Private Nature Reserves (APNR) in the Greater Kruger has been home to a research project for the past 20 years. Run by the FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology (University of Cape Town) and funded through a National Geographic grant, the APNR Ground-Hornbill Project has been researching and conserving southern ground-hornbills in an attempt to increase our understanding of the species and help to slow and reverse their decline in numbers. The birds naturally nest in large tree cavities; however, habitat loss has resulted in a shortage of nesting sites within the region. One of the earliest tasks for the project was to install artificial nests throughout the reserves – to provide these large birds with the opportunity to breed. This aspect of the project has been a massive success.
One of the best ways to unobtrusively monitor which birds are breeding and what is happening at the nests is through the use of camera traps. These cameras provide vital information about the breeding of the birds and about which group members are contributing towards the incubating female and growing nestling. This ultimately provides us with a deeper understanding of the social structure within the species.
While cameras help us improve our knowledge, they also provide insights previously assumed, yet unconfirmed, such as the idea that predators take advantage of defenceless nestlings. Recently, a camera located inside Klaserie Private Nature Reserve caught one of the culprits – a leopard. The footage shows the agile and inquisitive leopard raiding the nest while the adult birds remain nearby alarm-calling and swooping past the nest, trying to distract the predator. It is not unusual for ground-hornbill breeding attempts to fail, and while it has always been assumed that leopards are one of the main culprits, the event has never been captured on camera and confirmed.
While this was obviously an unfortunate outcome for this endangered bird, it has provided us with some much-needed proof of what is preying on the species.
If you are interested in finding out more about the APNR Ground-Hornbill Project, check out the Facebook and Instagram pages. Otherwise, if you have any questions, contact them via email on nghututu@gmail.com. If you would like to contribute towards nests or cameras at the nests, please consider donating via their gofundme page.
Animals communicate in a variety of ways but the most obvious of these, to humans at least, is their body language. Anyone can learn to read the body language of animals to differing degrees – we spend our lives figuring out the complexities of human communication and animals are far less equivocal than human beings. With their complex social structure and high intelligence, not to mention their potential danger to humans, elephants are an excellent place to start. A little practice and some observational skills are all that’s needed to understand the basics. In turn, this understanding can add immeasurably to the enjoyment of an elephant sighting or ensure comfort for elephants and those viewing them.
Where to start
Are you looking at a breeding herd or a male or a group of males? This is important because different things can motivate bulls and cows. The older females of a breeding herd are the ones that will dictate what the herd does and how they respond to something, and their sole objective is to ensure the safety of their herd. The younger elephants can be playful, insecure or looking to establish their boundaries, so their signals are often misleading, meaning that it’s always a good idea to gauge the mood of the larger females first. The intentions of males can be harder to read or understand. The younger males that have left the security of their herds at puberty are often quite nervous, and this either translates into either moving away or attempting to intimidate a potential threat. Older males are the undisputed kings of all that they survey and should be treated as such – don’t block their routes or antagonise them, and most will behave like perfect gentlemen.
Believe it or not, the tail is the real key to reading elephant body language. Elephants are intelligent and often display what’s known as displacement behaviour – they sometimes pretend to feed, for example, while they figure out their next move in an uncomfortable situation. Their tail, however, gives them away. The tail of a relaxed elephant swings from side to side; the tail of an alert or uncomfortable elephant is held still, pointing downwards; and the tail of an upset, frightened or angry elephant is held out stiffly at right angles from the body.
Ears
An elephant that is flapping its ears isn’t angry, it’s hot and trying to cool down. They use wind cooling over the surface of their ears to lower the temperature of the blood and ultimately, their core body temperature. If an elephant is unsettled by something, they will raise their heads and spread their ears in an attempt to show off how large they are (this is mostly unnecessary, as anyone who has been close to an elephant will tell you). A headshake often accompanies this.
This is often something that older cows do close to vehicles and is their way of telling you not to try anything silly. You, in turn, can communicate your good intentions by staying still and quiet. If this movement from a female is accompanied by a few short running steps in your direction, it’s time for you to move off if you can – again calmly and as slowly as possible.
This complicated body part so unique to elephants often displays the nuances of elephant body language. An elephant uses its trunk for everything from eating and drinking to smelling and touching so it is continuously moving and interpreting its meaning can be quite complicated. A good general approach is that if the movement is focused – feeding, for example, then the elephant is relaxed. If the elephant is standing still with the trunk raised and curled with the tip pointing in a specific direction, the elephant has picked up on a particular scent and is working out what it is and what direction it is coming from. If the elephant is standing still with the trunk down and the tip twisting from side to side, this can mean that something has caught the elephant’s attention and it is deciding what to do next. A twisting trunk can be a sign of anxiety.
Bull elephants, particularly those in musth (see below), sometimes drape their trunks over their tusks. This is almost always an attempt at intimidation and should be interpreted as such – those new to elephant behaviour should take this as a sign to move out of the male’s way.
Feet and general body language
Elephants use their feet constantly to dig up roots or kick up dirt or dust, so an elephant kicking the ground repeatedly is no cause for concern. Elephants are constantly moving so any stillness (unless they are resting with sleeping youngsters) is a sign that something is amiss or that they are listening intently – either to other elephants or something else. Rocking from side to side can also be a sign of indecision or anxiety.
Musth bulls are deserving of their own section based on the fact that they can be more unpredictable and occasionally more aggressive while in this state. All mature bulls experience musth cycles where their testosterone levels skyrocket to around 60 times the normal levels. They secrete liquid from their temporal glands (see below) and that, combined with a constant urine drip that coats their legs, gives them a distinctive musky odour. Musth bulls hold their heads high with the ears above the level of the shoulders and walk with a self-assured swagger.
Temporal glands
Elephants have glands between their eyes and ears (the temporal region) that secrete an oily substance containing hormones and other substances. Often these secretions go into overdrive when the elephant is nervous, stressed or excited, although interpreting the reasons behind this can often be quite tricky.
Final word and disclaimer
Elephants are complex creatures, and it is impossible to apply any rules with absolute certainty. Discretion is always the better part of valour where elephants are concerned, and they should never be taken for granted – if you are uncomfortable with a situation, move away slowly and calmly. This guide is intended to assist beginners in reading an elephant, rather than encourage a sense of overconfidence. All wild animals should be treated with respect and elephants are no exception.
Our Photographer of the Year 2020 is now in full swing.
There are two galleries showcasing this week’s Weekly Selection. To see the other gallery click here: Gallery 1
Travel in Africa is about knowing when and where to go, and with whom. A few weeks too early/late or a few kilometres off course, and you could miss the greatest show on Earth. And wouldn’t that be a pity?
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Jens Cullman is a German nature 
Simon Espley is an African of the digital tribe, a chartered accountant and CEO of Africa Geographic. His travels in Africa are in search of wilderness, real people with interesting stories and elusive birds. He lives in Hoedspruit with his wife Lizz and two Jack Russells, and when not travelling or working, he will be on his mountain bike somewhere out there. His motto is ‘Live for now, have fun, be good, tread lightly and respect others. And embrace change.’.
